Deejesh Subramanian

Geography Culminating Activity

Geologic History















Theory of Plate Tectonics:
Continental drift- About 300 million years ago, all of Earths
land masses collided to form the supercontinent of Pangaea.
About 200 million years ago, it broke up and the continents
drifted to their current positions.
Most scientists did not accept this theory as powerful
enough to move continents.
Canadian J. Tuzo Wilson developed the theory of plate
tectonics in 1968:
- Earths outer shell is made up of about 20 plates, made
up of continental and oceanic crust
- They are floating on a layer of hot rock deep below
Earths surface
- Convection currents caused by unequal distribution of
heat within Earths core causes the plates to move
Alfred Wegeners Proofs for Continental Drift:
The continents of South America and Africa seem
to fit together.
There are fossils of the same plants and animals
on both continents, only possible if they were
once joined together.
The Appalachians in eastern North America and
the Caledonian mountains in the northern British
Isles are similar in age and structure, formed
when North America collided with Europe and
northern Africa.
Ice sheets covered parts of southern Africa,
India, Australia, and South America, confirming
that these continents were closer to the South
Pole.
Major Forces:
Mountain Building
Folding- the folding or bending of rocks to produce mountains Ex. Rocky
Mountains, Himalayas, Andes, Alps
Faulting- break or crack in Earths crust (earthquake)/the fault moves
vertically or horizontally Ex. B.C. coastline, Lake Ontario, Japan, San
Francisco, Italy
Volcanism- the release onto the Earths surface of magma, or hot molten
rock that originated in underground chambers. Once the magma settles,
it dries and hardens to create mountains and landmasses. Ex. Canada
(active volcanoes in Precambrian era), Vesuvius, Yellowstone
Erosion
Weathering- movement of land from folding and faulting leave rocks on
mountains fractured. Wind, rain, running water, temperature and
Geologic Eras:
Cenozoic- 66 mya to now
Mesozoic- 245 to 66 mya
Paleozoic- 570 to 245 mya
Precambrian- 4600 to 570 mya
Rocks:
Igneous Rock- type of rock formed
from the cooling of molten
rock(magma/lava)
Ex. Granite
Sedimentary Rock- type of rock usually
formed in layers from the compression
of sediments over millions of years
Ex. Limestone, sandstone









Landform Region Dominant Landform Major Cities Major Bodies of
Water
Use of Land
Canadian Shield
- N. Ontario
- Quebec
- many lakes, islands
- rocky outcrops
- swamps
Sudbury,
Thunder Bay,
Moosonee,
Winnipeg
Lake Winnipeg,
James Bay
mining, fishing,
camping, storehouse
of metallic minerals
Interior Plains (Lowland)
- Alberta
- Saskatchewan
- coral reefs
- plains, rolling hills
- deep, wide river valleys
- very dry land
Edmonton,
Regina,
Saskatoon
Peace River,
N. and S.
Saskatchewan
Rivers
mining, farming, oil
production,
fertilizer/potash
production
Great Lakes- St. Lawrence
Lowlands
- S. Ontario
- S. Quebec
- flat plains with glacial hills
and deep river valleys
- large lakes (Great Lakes)
- bedrock
- cliffs, escarpments
- basins gouged out by
glaciers
- islands

Toronto,
Ottawa,
Montreal
Great Lakes, St.
Lawrence River,
Niagara Falls/
River
- fishing, farming,
manufacturing,
tourism
- highly urbanized,
high population, high
economic output
Hudson Bay
- N. Ontario
Arctic Lowlands
- NWT/ Nunavut
- swampy forest
- flat, low area
- gently, rolling landscape
Churchill, Fort
Severn
Hudson Bay, Big
Trout Lake,
Churchill River
mining, ecotourism,
forestry, fishing
Appalachian Mountains
- Maritime Provinces
- once jagged peaks, now
rolling hills
Halifax,
St. Johns,
Bay of Fundy,
Gulf of St.
fishing, mining,
farming, boating,
Landform Regions

Climate













- long bays
- fertile river valleys
Fredericton,
Charlottetown
Lawrence, Saint
John River
potatoes
Innuitian Mountains
- NWT
- icy watchtowers
- barren (trees cannot
survive extremely cold
winter)
- ice and permanent snow
Pond Inlet,
Broughton
Island, Alert
Baffin Bay,
Lincoln Sea
hunting, ecotourism,
fishing, future oil
reserve
Western Cordillera
- BC
- Yukon
- Alberta
- range after range of
mountains separated by
plateaus and valleys
- narrow strip of flat
coastal land between the
Pacific
- Rockies and Coast Mt.

Vancouver,
Victoria,
Whitehorse,
Calgary
Fraser River,
Columbia River,
Mackenzie River
farming, mining,
hiking, camping,
forestry, tourism
Factors Affecting Climate
Latitude- At the equator, the Sun heats a small area and
hit it in a shorter, direct distance. As you move away, the
same energy spreads out over a larger area.
Ocean currents- The temperature of an ocean current
affects the temperature of air that passes over it, so
warm currents give surrounding areas a milder climate.
Meeting of warm and cold air produce damp/foggy
conditions.
Winds and air masses- Air mass created over oceans has
lots of moisture and air masses created over land are
dry. Maritime locations likely receive more precipitation
than continental locations. Low pressure cell is good
weather and high pressure cell is bad weather.
Elevation/Relief- As moist air rises up the windward
slope of a mountain, it expands and cools. The amount
of evaporation decreases and the rate of condensation
increases. As more water vapor condenses, they come
down as rain or snow. The vice versa occurs on the
leeward side and results in a rain shadow (drier climate).
Near Water-Large bodies of water have a moderating
effect on the surrounding areas and areas close to water
have milder temperatures. Water has a cooling effect in
the summer and a heating effect in the winter.
Climate Types:
Maritime Climate
- Small annual temperature range (below 25C)
- Annual precipitation greater than 1000 mm
- Develops in coastal locations near major water bodies
- Ex. Halifax, Toronto, Vancouver
Continental Climate
- Large annual temperature range (above 25C)
- Annual precipitation lower than 1000 mm
- Develops in inland locations far from oceans
- Ex. Regina, Edmonton

3 Types of Precipitation:
Relief (Orographic) - Relief occurs and a wet condition
on the windward side of a mountain and a rain
shadow on the leeward side is created.
Convectional- The suns rays warm the air that is
moist from ground and vegetation. It rises creating
updrafts. The air expands and cools to the dewpoint.
The cool air cannot hold moisture, so heavy
downpours occur. The air cools, creating downdrafts,
stopping the updrafts and storm.
Cyclonic- Air masses different in temperature or
moisture do not mix, so a front is established. The
warm air mass forms a wedge with the cold air mass.













Soil and Vegetation












Coniferous Trees Deciduous Trees
True Soil Components:
Minerals- The minerals in soil come from a parent material.
The parent material is usually rock but the minerals become
part of the soil when the rock is weathered in sand, silt, and
clay. Many of these minerals are nutrients vital to the
plants growth.
Bacteria and Organic Materials- When plants and animals
die, they are decomposed by bacteria in the soil. Nutrients
are released into the soil. It forms humus, which provides
nutrients and moisture for plants, as well as give soil its rich,
dark color.
Air- Plants need air around their roots, which is created by a
high humus level because the loose, decaying materials
allow for many air pockets, as well as worms, insects, and
other small animals.
Moisture- Water dissolves nutrients in the soil and is then
taken up by plant roots. Water is also necessary in the
physical and chemical processes that weather rock and
decay organic materials.
Calcified vs Leached Soil:
Leaching- In areas with lots of precipitation, there
is a continuous downward movement of water
into the soil. This removes vital nutrients and
carries them away. Leached soil has a poor, thin
topsoil layer. Ex. Ontario, Nova Scotia
Solutions: - Buy bags of topsoil. Black earth
- Plant plants that like wet soil
(Lettuce, tomatoes, celery)
Calcification- In dry climates, there is an upward
movement of water through the soil. As water
evaporates, more water is drawn up to replace it.
As the water evaporates, it leaves behind its
dissolved minerals. The result is a creation of a
thick topsoil layer that sometimes can be so large,
it is poisonous to plants. Ex. Alberta,
Saskatchewan
Solutions: - Loosen up the soil with garden
claw/hoe
- Plant plants that like dry soil
(Cactus, wheat, hay, barley)




Ecozones












- Long roots can extract nutrients from poor
soil
- Sticky sap prevents needles from freezing
- Waxy needles and thick bark prevent loss of
moisture in times of drought
- Needles can conduct photosynthesis on
warm days beyond the growing season
- Lose their leaves in fall as weight of snow on
them might break their branches
- Dormant in winter, but sap flows to their
buds and causes new leaves to grow in
spring
- Most need at least 5 months with average
temperatures above 5C
Ex. Pine, spruce, juniper, cedar, fir, balsam Ex. Fruit trees, oak, maple, ash, hickory, birch
Ecozones:
- An ecozone is a distinct ecological region determined on the basis
of physical, biological, and human factors.
- There are 15 ecozones in Canada.
- The largest is the Boreal Shield.
- The smallest is the Mixedwood Plains.
- The Mixedwood Plains has the highest population and GDP.
- The Boreal Shield does not have the highest GDP because it is not
as populated as the Mixedwood Plains and there are fewer
industries and businesses. Also, the Mixedwood Plains is closer to
the US border.
Our Regions:
- Landform Region: Great Lakes- St. Lawrence Lowlands
- Climate Region: Southeastern
- Soil Region: Wet-climate soils
- Natural Vegetation Region: Mixed Forest
- Ecozone: Mixedwood Plains