1.

Definitions of Artificial Intelligence

I. Artificial Intelligence is a branch of Science which deals with helping machines to find solutions to complex
problems in a more human-like fashion
1
.
This generally involves borrowing characteristics from human intelligence, and applying them as algorithms in
a computer friendly way.
II. Turing's test
2
: the begin of AI
We place something behind a curtain and it speaks with us. If we cant make difference between it and a human
being then it will be !I.
!I is knowledge gained through experiences.
III. Then how about newly born baby??
Intelligent thing is that it may know nothing but it can learn.
IV. "Artificial intelligence is the study of ideas to bring into being machines that respond to stimulation
consistent with traditional responses from humans, given the human capacity for contemplation, "udgment and
intention. #ach such machine should engage in critical appraisal and selection of differing opinions within itself.
$roduced by human skill and labor, these machines should conduct themselves in agreement with life, spirit and
sensitivity, though in reality, they have limitations.%
3

!ll pursuits of !I involve the construction of a machine, where a machine may be a robot, a computer, a
program or a system of machines whose essence these days is assumed to be rooted in digital computer
technology &though biological machines or combined biological and digital machines may be possible in the
future &'night and Sussman, ())*+. The construction of a machine re,uires hardwiring, which is the
knowledge, expertise or know-how that is incorporated a priori into the machine. While self-refinement within
the machine is possible such as modifying internal state, ad"usting parameters, updating data structures, or even
modifying its own control structure, hardwiring concerns the construction of the initial machine itself. -achines
are hardwired to conduct one or more tasks.
5. Artificial intelligence is the study of ideas to bring into being machines that perform behavior or thinking
tasks ideally or like humans
4
.
So, Artificial Intelligence &!I+ is a term that encompasses many definitions. .owever, the most experts agree
that !I is concerned with two basic ideas/
It involves studying thought processes of humans &understanding what intelligence is+
It deals with representing these processes via machines &such as computer, robots etc.+
!I is the part of computer science concerned with designing intelligent computer systems, that is, computer
systems that exhibit the characteristics we associate with intelligence in human behavior - understanding
language, learning, reasoning and solving problems.
V.What do we mean by Intelligent beha!ior"?
(
0rom http://ai-depot.com/Intro.html
1
2omputing -achinery and Intelligence, !lan Turing &()34+
5
6atanya Sweeney&())1+, http://privacy.cs.cmu.edu/people/sweeney/aidef.html
7
8ussell, S. and 9orvig, $. Artificial intelligence: a modern approach. #nglewood 2liffs/ $rentice-.all, ())3.
1
Several abilities are considered as signs of intelligence/
6earning or understanding from experience
-aking sense out of ambiguous or contradictory message
8esponding ,uickly and successfully to a new situation
:sing reasoning in solving problems and directing conduct effectively
;ealing with perplexing situations
:nderstanding and inferring in ordinary rational ways
!pplying knowledge for manipulate the environment
Thinking and reasoning
8ecogni<ing the relative importance of different elements in a situation.
:ltimate goal of !I/ =uilding machine that mimic human intelligence.
VI. #ow could the Intelligence be tested?
Turing test is obviously an option. !ccording to the test, a computer can be considered smart only when a
human interviewer conversing with both an unseen human being and unseen computer cannot determine which
is which.
. !ranches of AI
9one has defined the exact numbers of branches of !I.
Some of the branches are follows
I. 6ogical !I
The program knows about the facts of the specific situation in which it must act and its goals are all
represented by sentences of some mathematical logical language. The program decides what to do by
inferring that certain actions are appropriate for achieving its goals &>ohn -c2arthy, ())? @ 2oncept of
6ogical !I+
II. Search
!I programs often examine large numbers of possibilities.
III. $attern 8ecognition
When a program makes observations of some kind, it is often programmed to compare what it sees with a
pattern.
IA. 8epresentation
0acts about a system or world are represented in some way, usually using languages of mathematical logic
&expert system+.
A. Inference &8easoning+
The strategy concerns the problem of how a reasonable conclusion &action+ should be made with respect to an
incoming situation.

AI. .euristic &opposite of analytic+

AII. Benetic programming
3. Areas of AI
!rtificial intelligence includes
games playing/ programming computers to play games such as chess and checkers
expert systems / programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations &for example, some
expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptomsC fault diagnosis in industrial
applications+
natural language / programming computers to understand natural human languages
neural networks / Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the types of physical
connections that occur in animal brains
robotics / programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory stimuli
0ew examples of application
-ilitary
Industry
.ospitals
=anks
Insurance 2ompanies
$. Artificial !erses %atural Intelligence
!I is more permanent &mDc donEt forget like human workers, and workers may switch the working place or
"obs+.
!I offers ease of duplication and dissemination. Transferring knowledge from human to human to
computer is not as easy as transfer of files or memory device of intelligent machines.
!I can be less expensive than natural intelligence
!I can be well documented.
!I can execute certain tasks much faster than a human can.
!I can perform certain tasks better than many or even most people.
.owever
!I is not as creative as .uman &9atural Intelligence+.
9atural intelligence enables people to benefit from and use sensory experience directly, whereas !I
systems must work with symbolic input and representations.
9I i.e. human reasoning uses a wide context of experiences.
3
Approaches in "ystem Analysis
! system can be defined as a set of elements standing in interrelations. There exist models, principle, and laws
that apply to generali<ed systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their
component elements, and the relations or forces between them. . In mathematics a system can be defined in
various ways. 0or an instance, we can choose a system of simultaneous differential e,uations for different
applications.
;efining a system by rules of conventional physics is called F0irst principle -odelingG. =ut every system will
have some amount of complexity &nonlinearity+ and it is difficult to define the system from the existing laws of
sciences. 6arger a system, more complexity the system will tend to have and modeling the system is an
extremely complex task. F;ata based -ethodsG on such circumstances can be a promising option.
In data based methods, only availability of large amount of processDsystem data is needed. There are
different ways in which this data can be transformed and formulated e.g. expert system, statistical
classifiers, neural network etc.
1. #$pert "ystem
It is difficult to define what an expert is. It is usually talked about degree or level of expertise. .uman expertise
typically includes a constellation of behavior that involves the following activities.
8ecogni<ing and formulating the problem
Solving the problems ,uickly and correctly
#xplaining the solution
6earning from experience
8estructuring knowledge
=reaking rules if necessary
;etermining relevance
;egrading gracefully &being aware of oneEs limitation+
To mimic a human expert, it is necessary to build a computer system that exhibits all these characteristics.
!n e&'ert system is a computer system which emulates the decision-making ability of a human expert. The
system consists of a model and associated procedure that exhibits, within a specific domain, a degree of
expertise in problem solving that is comparable to that of a human expert. It basically contains knowledge
derived from an expert in some narrow domain. This knowledge is used to help users &non expert+ of the system
to solve the problems. ! narrow domain is considered since it is ,uite difficult to encode enough knowledge
into a system so that it may solve a variety of problems.
#xpert system helps
to preserve knowledge
if expertise is scarce, expensive, or unavailable.
if under time and pressure constraints.
in training new employees.
to improve workersE productivity.
#xpert systems are used in a variety of areas, and are still the most popular developmental approach in the
artificial intelligence world.
4
So, the ob"ective of expert system is considered as transfer of expertise from an expert to a computer system and
then on to other humans &novice+. This process involves four activities/
'nowledge ac,uisition &from expert or other sources e.g. books, records etc.+
'nowledge representation &coding in the computer+
'nowledge inferencing, and
'nowledge transfer to user.
The components of the expert system are as shown in 0igure below.
0ig. Structure of an #xpert System
(nowledge base contains all the rules &if-then+
)atabase gives the context of the problem domain and is generally considered to be a set of useful facts. These
are the facts that satisfy the condition part of the action rules.
Inference engine controls overall execution of the rules. It searches through the knowledge base, attempting to
pattern match facts or knowledge present in memory to the antecedents of rules. If a rules antecedent is
satisfied, the rule is ready to fire. When a rule is ready to fire it means that since the antecedent is satisfied, the
conse,uent can be executed.
*achine +earning
#$pert "ystem
%nowledge !ase
(Set of rules&
Inference #ngine
&8ule Interpreter+
Data !ase
'Set of facts&
I
/
(

I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e
(Knowledge
acquisition)
)ser
#$pert
*
'nowledge ac,uisition is a ,uite labor intensive process. Two ma"or participants of the knowledge ac,uisition
process are the knowledge engineer who works to ac,uire the domain knowledge, and the expert who could be
too busy personnel or very expensive recordsDdocuments describing the problem situations. Therefore, manual
and even semiautomatic elicitation methods are both slow and expensive. Thus, it makes sense to develop
knowledge ac,uisition methods that will reduce or even eliminate the need for these two participants. These
methods are computer aided knowledge ac,uisitions, or automated knowledge ac,uisition. This is also called
machine learning.
,e'resenting -ncertainty
! rule or fact is usually assumed as whether it is true or false. .owever, human knowledge is often inexact.
Sometimes, we will be partly sure about the truth of a statement and still have to make educated guesses to
solve problems.
Some concepts or words are inherently inexact. 0or instance, how can we determine exactly whether someone is
tallH The concept tall has a built-in form of inexactness.
-oreover, we sometimes have to make decisions based on partial or incomplete data.
-eaning of uncertainty/ doubtful, dubious, ,uestionable, not sure, or problematic.
In knowledge-based &expert+ system, it is necessary to understand how to process uncertain knowledge. In
addition, there is a need for inexact inference methods in !I because there do exit many inexact pieces of data
and knowledge that must be combined.
In a numeric context, uncertainty can be viewed as a value with a known error margin. When the possible range
of value is symbolic rather than numeric, the uncertainty can be represented in terms of ,ualitative expressions
or by using fu<<y sets.! way of handling uncertainity in expert system is insertion of fu<<y logic. !n expert
system in association with fu<<y logic is called +u,,y #$pert "ystem.
1. ;ata -ining and 'nowledge ;iscovery
-or.ing with Data
Data
;ata are collection of facts, measurements and statistics.
Data Preprocessing
;ata preprocessing transforms the raw data into a format that will be more easily and effectively
processed for the purpose of the user. ! case is a neural network modeling. There are a number of
different tools and methods used for preprocessing.
Sampling/ It selects a representative subset from a large population of data.
ransformation/ It manipulates raw data to transform to most convenient form. 2ertain transformation
of data may lead to the discovery of structures &defined model form+ that were not at all obvious on the
original data. 2ommon data transformations include taking s,uare roots, reciprocals, logarithms, and
raising variables to positive integral powers.
Denoising/ It removes &or minimi<e+ noise from data.
!ormali"ation: It organi<es data for more efficient access. In creating a database, normali<ation is the
process of organi<ing it into tables in such a way that the results of using the database are always
unambiguous and as intended. Two simple normali<ation options areC either scale the inputs to the
range I4 (J, or translate them to their mean values and rescale to unit variance.
/
#eature e$traction/ It pulls out specified data that is significant in some particular context e.g. feature
selection, principle component analysis &$2!+. 0eature selection simply selects important set of data
from the data matrix. $2! is useful tool capable of compressing data and reducing its dimensionality
so that essential information is retained and easier to analy<e than the original huge data set. !rtificial
9eural 9etwork &Self Krgani<ing -ap+ can be also a tool of feature extraction.
Data% &nformation and Knowledge
;ata, information and knowledge can be viewed as assets of an organi<ation.
;ata are collection of facts, measurements and statistics
Information is organi<ed or processed data that are timely and accurate i.e. inferences from original
data.
'nowledge is information that is contextual, relevant, and actionable.
.aving knowledge implies that it can be exercised to solve a problem whereas having information does not
carry the same connotation. !n ability to act to a given context is an integral part of being 'nowledgeable. 0or
example, two people in the same context having same information may not have the same ability to use the
information to the same degree of success.
'nowledge provides higher level of meaning than data or information.
'nowledge ;iscovery in ;atabases &';;+ involves processes at several stages as/
selecting the target data,
preprocessing the data, transforming them if necessary,
performing ;!T! -I9I9B to extract patterns and relationships, and then
interpreting and assessing the discovered structures.
;ata -ining is the analysis of observational data sets &often large sets+ to find unsuspected relationships and to
summari<e the data in novel ways that are both understandable and useful to the data owner. ;ata -ining,
&process of seeking model or patterns relationships+ within the data set, involves number of steps
;etermine the nature and structure of the representation &model or pattern+.
2hoosing score function to decide how well the relationship or model fits the data
2hoosing an algorithm process to optimi<e score function &search methods+
;eciding what data mining principles are re,uired to implement the algorithms efficiently &data
management strateg'+.
The relationships and summaries derived through a ;!T! -I9I9B exercise are often referred to as models or
patterns. #xamples are linear e,uations, rules, clusters, graphs, tree structures, and recurrent patterns in times
series.
The output of data mining is expected as
The relationship determined should be 9KA#6.
The relationship should be understandable.
!ature of data
;ata -L a set of measurements
Two different measurements
Muantitative measurement e.g. persons, age etc.
2ategorical measurement e.g. sex, educational degree etc.
0
Kbservational data &may not be experimental+ -L historical data or data that have already been collected
for some purpose other than data mining analysis.
$roblem faced due to large data sets
.ousekeeping issues/ how to store and access the data
.ow to determine the representative ness of the data &sampling, does the sample represent the data in
generalH+
.ow to analy<e data in reasonable period of time
.ow to decide whether an apparent relationship is merely a chance occurrence not reflecting any
underline realities.
'pes of structure
The structure of representing knowledge could be a -odel or $attern. ! model is built as an abstract
representation of a real world. -odel is a global summery of data. The model can be
6inear
Muadratic or other non linear structures.
$attern structure &clustering+ represents only a part of total data structure. $attern represents departures from
general run of data.
Score function
Several score functions are widely used. ! well known sore function is s,uared error function

n
i
i ' i '
(
1
++ & + & &

;istance measures
! widely used measure is #uclidean distance defined as
1 D (
(
1
++ & + & & + , &

=

=
p
(
( ( )
* $ i $ * i d p ( n i ( (
here p N number of measurements, n N number of variables
!nother distance measure could be -etric measure, defined with the following properties
$(/ and * i * i d , 4 + , & = * i if * i d = = 4 + , &
$1/ * i i * d * i d , + , & + , & =
$5/ ( and * i * ( d ( i d * i d , + , & + , & + , & +
Search methods
-inimi<e or maximi<e score function changing model parameters or model structures as well
Strategies of data management
Krgani<e data set
;efine the data hierarchy etc.
"ummari,ing data
*ean
-ean simply summari<es a collection of values &data set+.

=
i
n i $ D + &
1
The sample mean has the property that it is the value that is FcentralE in the sense that it minimi<es the sum of
s,uared differences between it and the data values. Thus, if there are n data values, the mean is the value such
that the sum of n copies of it e,uals the sum of the data values. -ean is the measure of location. !nother such
measure is the median &a value with e,ual number of values below and above it+. The most repeated value is
+ode.
.tandard )e!iation
The dispersion or variability of data is measured with standard deviation or variance.
,ariance is the sum of s,uare of the difference between the mean and individual data values.

=
i
n i $ D + + & &
1 1

The s,uare root of the variance is standard de-iation.

=
i
n i $ D + + & &
1

ool displa'ing single data set or uni-ariate data (unidirectional): e.g. .istogram
ools displa'ing relationship in between two -ariables (bi/dimensional data) e.g. scatter plot% a locus (cur-e)%
contour lines etc.
ools displa'ing multi-ariate (higher dimensional data set)% e.g. Principal 0omponent Anal'sis
/rinci'al 0om'onent Analysis 1/0A2 3 /artial +east .4uare 1/+.2
$2! and $6S comprises the concept of factor analysis. 0actor analysis techni,ues are used
to reduce the number of variables, and
to detect structure in the relationships between variables &i.e. to classify variables+
The purpose of $2! is to reduce the original variables into fewer composite variables, called principal
components. In $2!, the ob"ective is to account for the maximum portion of the variance present in the original
set of variables with a minimum number of composite variables called principal components.
$2!s are useful tools capable of compressing data and reducing its dimensionality so that essential information
is retained and easier to analy<e than the original huge data set. The theory behind $2! is that the covariance
matrix of the process variables is decomposed orthogonally along directions that explain the maximum variation
of data. $2! is used only for a single data matrix, $6S models the relationship between two blocks of data
while compressing them simultaneously. The ma"or limitation of $2!-based monitoring is that $2! models are
time invariant, while most real processes are time-variant. So it is important for a $2! to be updated
recursively.
P0A Algorithm
Step (/ Bet some data
Step 1/ Subtract the mean/ Bet mean-substracted data set &;ata!d"ust+.
Step 5/ 2alculate the covariance matrix
Step 7/ 2alculate the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the covariance -atrix
Step 3/ 2hoose components and form a feature vector
0eatureAector N Ieig(,eig1,O..eig9J
Step 3/ ;eriving the new data set
0inal;ata N 8aw0eatureAector x 8aw;ata!d"ust
2
#ach eigenvector represents a principle component. $2( &$rinciple 2omponent (+, is defined as the eigenvector
with the highest corresponding eigenvalue. The individual eigenvalues are numerically related to the variance
they capture via $2s - the higher the value, the more variance they have captured.
Partial 1east Squares (P1S) regression is based on linear transition from a large number of original descriptors
to a new variable space based on small number of orthogonal factors &latent variables+. In other words, factors
are mutually independent &orthogonal+ linear combinations of original descriptors. :nlike some similar
approaches &e.g. principal component regression $28
*
+, latent variables are chosen in such a way as to provide
maximum correlation with dependent variableC thus, $6S model contains the smallest necessary number of
factors &.oskuldsson, ()PP+
This concept is illustrated by 0ig. ( representing a hypothetical data set with two independent variables $2 and
$3 and one dependent variable '. It can be easily seen that original variables $2 and $3 here are strongly
correlated. 0rom them, we change to two orthogonal factors &latent variables+ t2 and t3 that are linear
combinations of original descriptors. !s a result, a single-factor model can be obtained that relates activity ' to
the first latent variable t2.
=asic algorithm of $6S method I-artens Q 9aes, ()P)J for the step of building (-th factor/
Where, % @ number of compounds &samples+,
* @ number of descriptors &variables+
56%7*8 - descriptor matrix
y6%8 @ activity vector,
W6*8 @ auxiliary weight vector
t6%8 @ factor coefficient vector
'6*8 @ loading vector,
4 @ scalar coefficient of relationship between factor and activity
!ll vectors are columns, entities without index %&(42+% are for the current &(-th+ factor.
3atent varia4les are the linear com4inations of original descriptors 'with coefficients represented 4y
loading vector p&.
3
To perform a principal component analysis of the X matrix and then use the principal
components of X as regressors on Y.The orthogonality of the principal components
eliminates the multicolinearity problem. Here, nothing guarantees that the principal
components, which explain X are relevant for Y. By contrast, P! regression "nds
components from X that are also relevant for Y. !peci"cally, P! regression searches for
a set of components #called latent vectors$ that performs a simultaneous decomposition
of X and Y with the constraint that these components explain as much as possible of the
covariance between X and Y. This step generali%es P&'. (t is followed by a regression
step where the decomposition of X is used to predict Y.
15


#ig. 2 ransformation of original descriptors to latent -ariables (a) and construction of acti-it' model
containing one P1S factor (b).
-artens .., 9aes T. -ultivariate 2alibration. 2hichester etc./ Wiley, ()P).
.Rskuldsson !. $6S regression methods. >. 2hemometrics., ()PP, 1&5+ 1((-11
11