You are on page 1of 179

COVER

A S H O R T C O U R S E B O O K
T H E T E X T B O O K OF
DI GI TA L PH OT OGR A P H Y
D E N N I S P. C U R T I N
H T T P : / / WWW. P H OT O CO U R S E . C O M
This eText introduces you to the entire field of digital pho-
tography from buying a camera to hanging your photos in
a gallery or posting them on a Web site. Its an exciting
time to be learning about photography!
Fall 2003 Academic Year Edition
AA30470C
COPYRIGHT
ISBN: 1-928873-43-X
HAVE YOUR OWN IMAGES PUBLISHED
There are many photos or series of photos in this eText that illustrate
concepts of photography such as exposure, focus, depth of field and so on.
If you think you have a photo or series of photos that does a better job of
illustrating the concept, or that explain it as well but with more visual
interest or impact, send us low-resolution versions at
photos@photocourses.com. Include the page number of the photo youd
like to replace. If one of your images is selected for inclusion, you will be
paid between $50100 US.
SHORT COURSES PUBLISHING PROGRAM
S
hort Courses, the parent site of PhotoCourse.com, is the leading
publisher of digital photography books, textbooks, and guides to
specific cameras. At the time this book was published, the titles in the
box to the left were available from the Short Courses bookstore at http://
www.shortcourses.com/bookstore/book.htm. Those in boldface are available
in both print and full-color eBook (PDF) versions. However, the list of
cameras weve written about is rapidly expanding so be sure to visit the store
to see if there is a book on your camera. If you find any errors in this book,
would like to make suggestions for improvements, or just want to let me
know what you thinkI welcome your feedback.
CONTACT/FEEDBACK INFORMATION
ShortCourses.com
16 Preston Beach Road
Marblehead, Massachusetts 01945
E-mail: denny@shortcourses.com
Web site: http://www.shortcourses.com
COPYRIGHT NOTICE
Copyright 2004 by Dennis P. Curtin. All rights reserved. Printed in the
United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States
Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or
distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval
system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
WEB SITES
To learn more about digital photography visit our two Web sites:
http://www.photocourse.com
http://www.shortcourses.com
SHORT COURSE
BOOKS
Canon Cameras
EOS Digital Rebel
EOS 10D G5 G3
EOS D60 EOS
D30 G2 G1
S300 S110 S100
S20 A5/A50 Zoom
Nikon Cameras
D100 4500
5700 5000 995
990 950 880
Olympus Cameras
C-5050 C-4040
C-700 Ultra Zoom
E-20 E-10 C-2100
Ultra Zoom C-3040
Zoom C-3030 Zoom
C-2500L C-2040
Zoom C-2020 Zoom
C-2000 Zoom
Sony Cameras
DSC-F717 DSC-
F707
Textbooks & General
Digital Desktop
Studio Photography
Managing Digital
Pictures with
Windows XP and
Beyond Choosing
and Using a Digital
Camera Using Your
Digital Camera The
Digital Photographers
Ultimate Software
Collection
ABOUT THIS ETEXT AND PHOTOCOURSE.COM
ABOUT THIS ETEXT AND PHOTOCOURSE.COM
T
his eText, and the supplements available on the companion Web site
www.photocourse.com, provide an introduction to all aspects of the
emerging world of digital photography. Starting with the camera and
image capture, youll go on to learn about storing, transferring, editing,
printing, displaying, and sharing digital images. As you follow the path
through the book youll learn much about hardware, software, and proce-
dures.
To keep costs down the text is currently distributed only in a fully searchable,
full-color Adobe PDF eText format that can be displayed on any computer
using Adobes free Acrobat reader.
This eText is the core of a package, and covers all of the essentials you need
to know to get started in digital photography. To keep the book shorter and
more timely, many interesting topics have been published as separate
eSupplements. Digital photography is so new, and its applications so vast and
evolving so rapidly, that no book can do it justice, nor should it try. Different
teachers and students have different needs and interests. A Web designer
might not care as much about print applications, and a business user might
not care about home entertainment networks. For this reason, special topics
are continually being written and published to accompany the text. Those to
be published at the same time as the core text include the followingall of
which are free to adopters of the text.
E-Mailing Digital Photos
Slide Shows on the TV, Computer, DVD Player, and Web
Photo Albums in print and On the Screen
Home Entertainment Networks
Going Mobile with Portable Image Storage & Viewing Devices, Personal
Digital Assistants (PDAs), and Camera Phones
Digital Frames
eBooksPDF Files
Creating a Photo Web Site
Web Logs, Photo Logs, & JournalsBlogging
Peer-to-peer File Sharing
Tripods and tripod heads
Panoramic Photography
Stereo (3D) Photography
Searching the Internet with Google
All supplements and other learning aides developed to support this text are
available at the Photo Course site at http://www.photocourse.com. Be sure to
visit that site for an up-to-date listing of whats available. For additional
information on digital photography, visit our sister site at http://
www.shortcourses.com.
HELP
To use this text
legally, you must be
using it in a class at
an accredited
school and that
school must have a
valid license
agreement.. If you
know or suspect
this book is being
used without a
license agreement,
please e-mail me by
clicking here

abuse@photocourse.com

PREFACE
PREFACE
N
ot long ago the course title Digital Photography implied a course
on Photoshop. As digital cameras have become increasingly popular,
the introductory course has also gone digital so you are now
introduced to photography using a digital camera. As this new era of digital
photography matures, it wont be long before the digital in digital
photography is no longer needed. It will be assumed, because that is the
way almost all photography will be done. One of the primary reasons for this
rapid movement from film to digital imaging is that photos are embedded in
a world that has gone digital. To take full advantage of the digital world in
which we live, photographs also need to be digital. For awhile, capturing
images on film and then scanning them into a digital format was a solution.
However, this process is expensive and time consuming. Digital cameras
remove those impediments and capture images that are already in a
universally recognizable digital format that makes them easy to display and
share. You can insert digital photographs into word processing documents or
PowerPoint presentations, print them on almost any material, send them by
e-mail, integrate them into slide shows to be played on the TV, post them on
a Web site where anyone in the world can see themeven have them laser-
etched into glass or granite. A digital camera, a computer, and a high-speed
Internet connection make each of us a member of an ever-expanding
network or community of photographers and viewers.
Just as digital images make it easy to integrate photos into many of the other
things we do, digital technology makes it easy to add cameras to other
devices. One of the current trends is to embed these cameras into cell
phones, personal digital assistants, and other devices. With just a push of a
few buttons, you can snap a picture and immediately e-mail it or post it on a
Web site. It wont be long before there are digital cameras everywhere, all the
time. What impact this will have on our photography remains to be seen, but
if history is any indicator, people will soon be discovering practical, creative,
and even artistic ways to use these new tools.
Changes in technology always open new opportunities and present
approaches that change the way images look and are used. For example, the
introduction of the 35mm Leica in the 1930s made it easier to capture fast-
moving action. Images became more spontaneous and fluid, a far cry from
the more formally posed images required by much larger and more awkward
cameras. Smaller cameras allowed photographers to discretely capture life
on the street and people in motion, without modifying the flow of action by
his or her simple presence. With cameras being built into more and more cell
phones and portable digital assistants, an even larger impact is possible.
Although its both the immediacy and flexibility of digital photography that
has made it so popular, there is one aspect that is rarely mentioned. This is
the new freedom it gives you to explore creative photography. In the 1870s
when William Henry Jackson was carrying 20 x 24 glass plate negatives
around the West on a mule, you can bet he hesitated before he took a
photograph. We may not be carrying window-sized glass plates, but you and
I also hesitate before taking a picture. Were always doing a mental
calculation is it worth it? Subconsciously were running down a checklist of
costs, times, effort, and so on. During that decisive moment, the image is
often lost or we fail to try new things. We lose the opportunity for creative
growth and choose to stay with the familiar that has delivered for us in the
past. Surprisingly, Jackson had one big advantage weve lost over the last
PHOTOGRAPHY
ON-LINE
The contents of this
text are constantly
updated, enhanced,
and expanded on-
line. To learn more
about digital
photography, visit
our PhotoCourse
Web site at www.
photocourse.com.
TRY THIS WITH
FILM!
In the summer
of 2003, the
Associated Press
reported that a 15-
year-old boy had
foiled an abduction
by using his cell
phone camera to
take photos of the
man and his cars
license number.
The man was
arrested the next
day.
A man stranded
on an ice floe
during a solo trek
to the North Pole
took a digital photo
of the 1,000 foot
runway hed dug by
hand and e-mailed
it to air rescue
showing them that
a landing was
possible.
century. If an image didnt turn out, or if he was out of glass plates, he could
just scrape the emulsion off a previously exposed negative, recoat the plate,
and try again. Digital photography not only eliminates that nagging is it
worth it? question, it also returns us to that era of endlessly reusable film
(and we dont need a mule to carry it). Hand the camera to the kids, take
weird and unusual angles, shoot without looking through the viewfinder, and
ignore all previously held conceptions about how to take photographs. You
may be surprised at the photos you get if you exploit this new era of
uninhibited shooting.
Digital cameras are only a few years old, and we are only at the dawn of this
new era. Where it will lead no one really knows, but its exciting to play a part
in this dramatically changing world. As you get into the field, you will be
awash in technical jargon. Most of it can be safely ignored. To show how some
things never change, here is what Jacob Deschin, the photographic editor of
the New York Times, wrote in 1952 about the earlier era when the Leica
revolutionized photography:
When 35mm was in full flower in this countryin the miniatures golden
Thirtiesphotographers in the new medium became experts overnight, full
of tall talk about small grain and big enlargements. They had to, in self
defence, for in those early days of the miniature it seemed important to be
technically hep, at least in conversation. Never mind the pictures! In spite of
much hokum, much good came to the surface, survived the babel and
exerted an influence that has since benefitted all photography.
PREFACE
Signs offering film
developing are rapidly
changing to signs
offering to make prints
from your digital files.
From today, painting
is dead! exclaimed
painter Paul Delaroche
when he saw the first
daguerreotype in 1839.
He was wrong, but can
we revise the sentence
to From today, or
someday not too far
off, film is dead!
A mule carries William
Henry Jackson's
photographic outfit.
Courtesy of the Library
of Congress.
The Leica changed the
way photographs were
captured.
The virtue of the
camera is not the
power it has to
transform the
photographer
into an artist, but
the impulse it
gives him to keep
on lookingand
looking.
Brooks Atkinson
Once Around the
Sun
CONTENTS
Cover...i
Short Courses Publishing Program...ii
About this eText and PhotoCourse.com...iii
Preface...iv
Contents...vi
CHAPTER 1
DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS...2
Digital PhotographyThe Past and the Future...3
Types of Digital Cameras...5
Choosing a Digital Camera...7
Jump StartTaking Photos with Auto Mode...8
Using Buttons and Menus...9
Good Things to Know...11
Composing Images...12
Capturing Images...14
What is a Digital Photograph?...15
The Image Sensor...17
Digital Color...19
Selecting an Image Size...23
Selecting an Image Quality ...27
CHAPTER 2
IMAGES FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT...30
Storing Images In the Camera...31
Transferring Images to the Computer
Hardware...33
How Photos Are Stored in your Camera and
Computer...35
DCF and Exif Standards...37
Transferring Images to the Computer
Procedures...40
Organizing Your Photo Files...42
Storing ImagesHard Drives...43
Storing ImagesCD Drives and Discs...45
Storing ImagesDVD Drives and Discs...46
Storing ImagesCD/DVD Burning Software...48
Storing ImagesLabeling CD and DVD Discs...49
Image and Asset Management...50
Choosing Image Management Tools...53
CHAPTER 3
CONTROLLING EXPOSURE...54
Understanding Exposure...55
Choosing Exposure Modes...56
Using Scene Specific Exposure Modes...57
Using Shutter-Priority Mode...58
Using Aperture-Priority Mode...60
Using Manual Mode...62
How Your Exposure System Works...63
Types of Metering...65
How Exposure Affects Your Images...66
When Automatic Exposure Works Well...67
When to Override Automatic Exposure...68
How to Override Automatic Exposure...72
Using Histograms...75
CHAPTER 4
CONTROLLING SHARPNESS...77
Eliminating Camera Movement...78
Sensitivity and Noise Reduction...80
Sharpness Isnt Everything...81
How to Photograph Motion Sharply...82
Focus...84
Depth of Field...85
Focus Techniques...86
Controlling Depth of Field...88
Increasing Depth of Field...90
Decreasing Depth of Field...91
Conveying the Feeling of Motion...92
CHAPTER 5
CAPTURING LIGHT & COLOR...93
Where Does Color Come From?...94
White Balance...95
Color Balance and Time of Day...98
Sunsets and Sunrises...99
Weather...101
Photographing at Night...103
The Direction of Light...106
The Quality of Light...109
CHAPTER 6
USING LENSES...110
Digital Camera Lenses...111
Zoom Lenses...114
Normal Focal Lengths...115
Short Focal Lengths...116
Long Focal Lengths...118
Portraits with a Long Focal Length...119
Perspective in a Photograph...120
Macro Lenses and Macro Mode...121
Lens Converters...124
Tilt-Shift Lenses...125
Lens Accessories...126
CHAPTER 7
ON-CAMERA FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY...127
Autoflash...128
Red-eye Reduction...129
Fill Flash...130
Flash Off...131
Slow Sync Flash...132
Controlling Flash Exposures...134
Flash and Distance...136
Using an External Flash...138
External Flash Accessories...139
CONTENTS
VII
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 8
STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY...140
Using Continuous Lights...141
Using Strobes...143
Connecting the Camera and Lights...144
Understanding Hard and Soft Light...145
Using Fill Cards and Reflectors...147
Using Diffusers...149
Other Lighting Controls...151
Putting it All TogetherExposure and White
Balance...152
Choosing a Background...154
Positioning the Camera...156
Positioning LightsIntroduction...159
The Main Light...160
The Fill Light...161
The Background Light...162
The Rim Light...163
Thinking About Your Photograph...164
CHAPTER 9
EDITING DIGITAL IMAGES...166
Developing A Process...167
Photo-Editing Software...168
File Formats in Digital Photography...170
Pixels and Image Sizes...174
Displaying Images...176
Printing Images...179
Understanding Pixels per Inch...181
Color Depth and File Size...182
Color Models and Modes...184
Color Management...188
Using Channels...192
Using Layers...193
Selection Tools and Techniques...197
Sharpening Images...200
Resizing Images...202
Cropping Images...203
Rotating Images...204
Adjusting Brightness and Contrast...205
Using Levels...207
Using Curves...209
Adjusting Color Balance...212
Adjusting Color Hue, Saturation, and
Lightness...213
Painting and Drawing...214
Adding Text...215
Using Filters and Plug-ins...216
Other Prodecures...219
CHAPTER 10
PRINTING DIGITAL IMAGES...221
Archival Issues...222
How Color Photographs are Printed...223
Professional PrintsOn-Line...228
Professional PrintsLocally...230
Do-it-yourself Desktop Prints...231
Laying Out Single Photos for Printing...232
Printing Multiple Images on the Same
Sheet...234
Desktop PublishingCombining Pictures and
Text...235
Printing Paper...236
Inkjet Inks...240
Portfolio and Storage Boxes...241
Printed and Bound Photo Albums...242
Matting & Mounting Prints...244
Framing & Hanging Prints...245
Photos on T-Shirts and Other
Fabrics...246
Printing Large Prints and Posters...247
APPENDIX
GLOSSARY...256
2
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
Chapter 1
Digital Images and Digital Cameras
D
igital images are formed from tiny dots of red, green and blue color.
The dots, usually many millions per image, blend into the smooth
continuous tones were so familiar with from film. These images are
captured directly with digital cameras, or by scanning a transparency, nega-
tive, or print. The end result is an image in a universal format that can be
easily manipulated, distributed, and used. This digital format for images, and
the development of the Internet in particular, have opened exciting new
vistas for photography which well explore in this text. To begin, we first look
at digital cameras and digital images. This chapter lays the foundation for
your understanding of digital imaging.
CONTENTS
Digital Photography
The Past and the Future
Types of Digital
Cameras Choosing a
Digital Camera J ump
StartTaking Photos in
Auto Mode Good
Things to Know
Composing Images
Capturing Images
What Is A Digital
Photograph? The
Image Sensor Digital
Color Selecting an
Image Size Selecting
an Image Quality
AA30470C
3 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHYTHE PAST AND THE FUTURE
It was only a few short years ago, around 1995, when digital photography
appeared on the scene for most of us. In that year, Apples QuickTake 100 and
Kodaks DC40 both broke the $1000 barrier for digital cameras. These
filmless cameras captured very small images, but they were immediate hits.
Small businesses, realtors, insurance agents, and other early adopters
snapped them up. They were so popular that the early models were soon
followed by a steady stream of digital cameras from Casio, Sony, Olympus
and others. The race was on and the stream of new cameras not only contin-
ues, it accelerates. Things have advanced so far that the same money that
would have bought one of those early cameras will now buy one that captures
images 20 times larger and has many more features such as video, sound,
and professional style controls.
These cameras werent developed in isolation. Professional cameras, based
on film cameras but with image sensors added to capture digital images,
were growing in popularity with professionals. However, their high prices,
often $20,000 or more, made them available only to an elite few. Kodak had
also already introduced the Photo CD process where they inexpensively
scanned slides and negatives into a digital format. The process caught on
with professionals, but not with amateurs as Kodak had hoped. Meanwhile,
publishing, advertising, medicine, and many other fields were going digital.
Digital images slipped easily into this trend because they could be instantly
displayed, e-mailed, and inserted into documents. It was professionals who
led the change from film to digital, but it wasnt long before many more of us
were headed in the same direction. Film is no longer just a mature industry,
its dying. Given the scale of this change, how did it all come to pass?
If there were ever two inventors who havent gotten the public credit they
deserve, its George Smith and Willard Boyle who invented the charge-
coupled device (CCD) at Bell Labs. At the time they were attempting to create
a new kind of semiconductor memory for computers. A secondary consider-
ation was the need to develop solid-state cameras for use in video telephone
service. In the space of an hour on October 17, 1969, they sketched out the
The small image is
typical of photos
captured by the first
digital cameras. The
larger one more recent
models.
The Canon EOS DCS 3
digital camera was
introduced in July 1995
and captured images
containing 1.3 million
pixels. It cost about
$17,000.
The Canon PowerShot
600 digital camera was
introduced in July 1996
and captured images
containing 500
thousand pixels. It was
priced just over $1000.
Willard Boyle (left) and
George Smith (right).
Courtesy of Lucent
Technologies.
DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHYTHE PAST AND THE FUTURE
4
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
CCDs basic structure, defined its principles of operation, and outlined
applications including imaging as well as memory.
By 1970, the Bell Labs researchers had incorporated the CCD into the worlds
first solid-state video camera. In 1975, they demonstrated the first CCD
camera with image quality sharp enough for broadcast television. CCDs then
quickly went on to revolutionize the fax, scanner, copier, bar code, and
medical photography fields.
One of the more exciting, and demanding applications has been in as-
tronomy. Since 1983, when telescopes were first outfitted with solid-state
cameras, CCDs have enabled astronomers to study objects thousands of times
fainter than what the most sensitive photographic plates can capture, and to
capture in seconds images that would have taken hours before. Today all
optical observatories, including the Hubble Space Telescope, rely on digital
information systems built around mosaics of ultrasensitive CCD chips.
Researchers in other fields have put CCDs to work in applications as diverse
as observing chemical reactions in the lab and studying the feeble light
emitted by hot water gushing out of vents in the ocean floor. CCD cameras
also are used in satellite observation of the earth for environmental monitor-
ing, surveying, and surveillance.
With digital cameras now embedded in phones, personal digital assistants,
toys, and other devices, there is no telling where we are heading. All we can
say for sure is that things will continue to change rapidly and it will be
exciting to follow and take part in this photographic revolution.
Digital photography
started in astronomy
and still serves that
field well. Here is an
amazing photo of gas
pillars in the Eagle
Nebula. The tallest pillar
(left) is about 4 light-
years long from base to
tip. Forming inside are
embryonic stars. Credit:
Jeff Hester and Paul
Scowen (Arizona State
University), and NASA
(http://hubblesite.org).
With cameras now
being added to cell
phones, you can click
photos and send them
to a friend or post them
on a Web site.
CREDIT
The material in this
section about
Willard Boyle and
George Smith is
adapted from
material written by
Patrick Regan of
Bell Labs Media
Relations.
5 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
TYPES OF DIGITAL CAMERAS
Digital cameras come in all shapes and sizes and no one yet knows what a
digital camera should look like. 35mm cameras have taken familiar forms
because form follows function and they require room for the film and light
path as well as prisms and such. Digital cameras are freed of many of these
limitations so they can take new forms. During these early days, some compa-
nies make their cameras look like familiar 35mm cameras while others veer
off in new directions.
Regardless of how digital cameras look, the market for them is roughly
divided into categories with blurry lines separating cameras based mainly by
image size, features, and of course, price.
POINT AND SHOOT CAMERAS
For the past few decades, serious photographers have mainly been using
traditional 35mm SLR cameras. But these large and heavy cameras are
inconvenient to say the least, so most serious photographers have always
stuck a point and shoot camera in their shirt pocket. The photos from these
small cameras may not be quite as good (and that is debatable), but they go
anywhere, and pictures that would otherwise be missed are captured. These
cameras are fully automatic and usually dont provide you with every possible
creative controlthats why they are called point and shoot. Point and
shoot cameras have earned their stripes and are welcome additions to even
the most professional photographers camera collection.
Digital point and shoot
cameras are fully
automatic and usually
small and easy to carry.
Courtesy of Sony (top
and bottom) and Canon
(right).
A digital camera is
embedded in a
disposable capsule that
is swallowed by the
patient. As the capsule
passes through the GI
tract, it transmits video
signals which are stored
in the receiving unit.
These signals also
enable the system to
trace the physical
course of the capsules
progress. Courtesy of
Given Imaging.
TYPES OF DIGITAL CAMERAS
6
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
Digital backs are
designed to be used
with traditional large
format cameras in place
of film. Courtesy of
BetterLight.
ADVANCED AMATEUR CAMERAS
Positioned just above the point and shoot cameras is a family of cameras with
larger image sizes and more advanced features. These cameras appeal to
serious photographers who like to have more creative control of their
cameras settings and make larger prints. Because their features appeal to
both experienced amateurs and professionals, they are sometimes called
prosumer cameras. With these cameras you have as much, or more, creative
control as you do with 35mm SLR cameras.
Advanced amateur and
professional cameras
are often designed to
work with traditional
35mm SLR lenses and
other accessories.
Courtesy of Canon.
PROFESSIONAL CAMERAS
At the highest end of the spectrum are the professional digital cameras
including digital versions of professional 35mm SLR film cameras. One huge
advantage these cameras have is that they accept most of the accessories such
as lenses and flash units designed for the film versions. They also work much
the same way as the film version, so if you are familiar with that version there
is less to learn.
Large format cameras used by most studio and a few nature photographers
have also gone digital. In most cases you can switch between digital and film
just by switching the cameras back. A digital back can replace the film
magazine on a medium format camera and slide into the back of a 4 x 5 or
larger camera just like a film holder. These digital backs come in two basic
forms: linear and area arrays.
Linear array backs scan the image much like a scanner scans a page. The
image gets built up one line at a time. The time it takes to scan an image
makes these backs suitable only for static subjects under continuous illumi-
nation. Scan backs usually use three strips of CCDs (called a trilinear array)
so it can capture a full color image in one scan.
Area arrays are like the CCDs in consumer digital cameras and capture full
color images instantaneously. A few use three separate image sensors, each
with its own colored filter.
High-end amateur
cameras have both
automatic and manual
exposure modes plus
many other features.
Courtesy of Canon.
7 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
CHOOSING A DIGITAL CAMERA
Generally, you can get good results from any camera, provided it has the
features you need. Although not all of these are essential, the following features
(which are discussed in detail later in this eText) are things to consider.
Image size or resolution is often overrated. Generally the larger the image a
camera can capture, the sharper it will be when enlarged. However, most images
are reproduced in print at between 200300 pixels per inch so even less
expensive cameras will give good 4 x 6 inch prints. Images on the Web are
normally displayed at less than 100 pixels per inch, so you can get good results
with images that are quite small.
Image quality (page 00) is determined by the amount of compression and
the file format used. Normally, cameras capture JPEG images in a variety of
compressions. A few cameras also let you shoot in higher quality, uncompressed
formats such as TIFF or RAW.
Storage media (page 00) varies widely and the kind you use doesnt matter
a great deal, with one exception. If you have more than one digital camera, or
other digital device that uses storage media, its nice to have them use the
same kind so you dont need to buy more then one kind of media.
Lenses can make a huge difference. If the camera has a built-in zoom lens,
its zoom range is important as is its maximum aperture (page 00). Larger,
and more expensive SLR cameras often have interchangeable lenses. The lens
also determines how close you can get to a subject, or how far away.
Auto focusing (page 00) doesnt always work the way you like, so manual
focus is a nice feature to have.
All cameras have autoexposure, but aperture- and shutter-priority modes
(page 00) are nice to have. Exposure compensation (page 00) lets you lighten
or darken images when automatic exposure doesnt work the way you want.
Histograms (page 00) let you analyze your results with more precision.
Macro mode (page 00) lets you get closer to small subjects or capture fine
details on larger ones.
Hot shoes let you mount a more powerful and flexible external flash on the
camera. There are also other ways to connect a flash or strobes (page 00).
AC adapters let you keep the camera on all of the time without it going into
sleep mode or running down the batteries. These are ideal when using the
camera to give a slide show.
The monitor lets you review your images as soon as you shoot them. The
best monitors swivel and tilt so you can shoot with the camera held above
your head or close to the ground.
Video out connections lets you connect your camera to a TV set so you can
see larger versions of the images as you shoot them (page 00).
A self-timer or a remote control (page 00) lets you trigger the shutter
without shaking the camera and blurring the images.
Video modes let you capture short video clips that you can play back on the
computer or integrate into slide shows.
Some viewfinders have a diopter adjustment. If you normally wear glasses
you can adjust this setting so you dont need them when looking through the
viewfinder.
Casio makes cameras
no larger than a credit
card and not much
thicker. Courtesy of
Casio.
As you might expect,
Sony explores new
directions with some of
their digital cameras.
Courtesy of Sony
Cameras are now being
built into personal
digital assistants.
Courtesy of Palm.
CHOOSING A DIGITAL CAMERA
Swiveling and tilting
monitor.
8
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
JUMP STARTTAKING PHOTOS WITH AUTO MODE
All digital cameras have an automatic mode that sets focus and exposure for
you. With the camera set to this mode, all you have to do is frame the image
and push the shutter button. Youll find that this mode is great in the vast
majority of situations because it lets you focus on the subject and not on the
camera. Here are some things to expect with almost all digital cameras.
Getting ready. Turn the camera on and set it to auto mode. To conserve
your batteries, turn off the monitor and compose your image through the
optical viewfinder. If the camera has a lens cap, be sure to remove it.
Holding the camera. To take pictures, hold the camera in your right
hand while supporting the lens with your left. Be sure not to block the flash,
autofocus port, or lens.
Framing the image. The viewfinder shows you the scene you are going to
capturealthough most show only about 95% of the scene. If your camera
has a zoom lens, you can zoom it in and out by pressing a button or lever or
by turning a ring on the lens. Zooming out widens your angle of view and
zooming in enlarges subjects. If the image in the viewfinder is fuzzy, see if the
camera has a diopter adjustment dial you can use to adjust it.
Autofocus. Compose the image in the viewfinder making sure the subject
that you want sharpest is in the focus area in the center of the viewfinder.
Some cameras have more than one autofocus point indicated in the view-
finder or on the monitor and will focus on the closest part of the scene
covered by one of the points. This lets you easily focus on a subject that isnt
in the exact center of the viewfinder.
Autoexposure. Autoexposure measures light reflecting from various
parts of the scene and uses these readings to set the best possible exposure.
This happens at the same time focus is lockedwhen you press the shutter
button halfway down.
Autoflash. If the light is too dim, the autoexposure system will usually fire
the cameras built-in flash to illuminate the scene. If the flash is going to fire,
it pops up or a flash lamp glows when you press the shutter button halfway
down. If the flash lamp blinks when you press the shutter button halfway
down, the flash is charging. Release the shutter button for a few seconds and
try again.
Automatic white balance. Because the color cast in a photograph is
affected by the color of the light illuminating the scene, the camera automati-
cally adjusts color balance to make white objects in the scene look white in
the photo.
Taking the picture. The shutter button has two stages. When you press it
halfway down, the camera locks focus and exposure and the camera beeps or
an indicator lights up when this happens. (If the indicator blinks, it means
the camera is having trouble focusing.) After focus and exposure are locked,
press the shutter button all the way down to take the picture. When you do
so, the camera may beep. As you take photos, they are first stored in the
cameras internal memory called a buffer. When the buffer is full youll
have to wait until one or more of the images has been transferred to the
memory card before taking any more pictures.
Quit. When finished taking pictures, turn the camera off to conserve
battery power.
Many digital cameras
have a mode dial you
turn to select various
exposure modes
including automatic.
Some digital cameras
have more than one
focus point and light the
one thats being used
when you press the
shutter button halfway
down. When focus
locks, an indicator light
is often displayed.
YOUR DECISIVE
MOMENT
When taking a
picture dont jab
the shutter button!
Press it gently
halfway down and
pause there until
the camera locks
focus and expo-
sure. Only then do
you press it gently
the rest of the way
down to take the
picture.
9 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
USING BUTTONS AND MENUS
To operate a digital camera you use buttons and menus. When reading about
digital photography youll often encounter the term mode. This basically
means the same as a setting. Many cameras have a small control panel that
displays the current camera settings and how many pictures remain. You
should make it a practice to check this control panel whenever you start
shooting. If you dont you may find youve been using the wrong settings.
A common playback
mode icon.
BUTTONS
Buttons work in one of two ways depending on the camera. With some, you
press the button one or more times to switch modes. On others you hold a
button down while you turn a dial. Buttons are frequently marked with icons
so you know their function.
MENUS
Menus are displayed on the monitor, usually when you press a menu button.
The menu thats displayed depends on what mode the camera is in.
In shooting or record mode you usually make settings that affect the
images you capture. Youve seen how you can use the auto exposure mode.
Thats one of the most commonly used shooting modes. There are other
exposure modes, and recording modes that capture movies, panoramas, and
series of images.
In playback mode you can scroll through the images you have captured.
You can usually display an image full-screen or display a series of smaller
thumbnails. If you find images you dont want, you can delete them.
Control panels and
many cameras tell you
what the current
settings are.
Many cameras have at
least a few buttons that
you use to select
various settings.
USING BUTTONS AND MENUS
10
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
When playing back images, or shooting them, you can usually connect your
camera to a TV using a supplied cable. When playing the inmages back, you
can give slide shows this way.
This might be a good point to introduce some good news. If you ever delete
files or format a memory card by mistake, you can recover them. The first
step is to stop taking pictures because new ones can overwrite the old and
make them impossible to recover. Next, get a program that recovers the files.
These include PhotoRescue, Digital Image Recovery, Image Recall, and Easy
Recovery.
RESETTING COMMANDS
Many settings are remembered even when you turn the camera off and back
on. This can really screw up photos if you dont remember to reset the com-
mand.
Menus normally have
commands that you can
select by pressing
buttons or turniong a
dial on the camera.
11 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
GOOD THINGS TO KNOW
When you first start taking photos, it sometimes seems that there is too much
to learn all at once. Here are some things you may want to know right off.
The first time you use a digital camera, or if the batteries have been re-
moved or dead for an extended period, you should enter the date and time.
Having the correct date and time automatically added to each image file as
you take photos will help you organize and identify your images later.
Most digital cameras use rechargeable nickel-metal hydride or lithium
batteries and come with a charger.
If you cant turn on the camera, the batteries are dead or have been re-
moved. If your batteries drain quickly, stop using the monitor to take and
review pictures. If its cold, keep the batteries or camera under your coat.
If the camera seem to be turned off, it may just have entered sleep mode. If
you dont use any controls for a specified time, the camera enters this mode
to reduce battery drain. To wake it up, press the shutter button halfway down,
or turn the camera off and back on. After an hour or so of inactivity, some
cameras shut off completely. You can often change the time it takes before the
camera enters sleep mode.
When you turn the camera on, look for a battery shaped icon that indicates
when the batteries are fully charged, getting low, or run down empty and
should be replaced immediately. Also look to see if there are any error
messages and check how many pictures will still fit on the memory card.
If an image is being stored when you turn the camera off, the image will be
completely stored before the camera powers down.
Dont open the battery or memory card access covers while an image is
being saved. Doing so can not only damage the image being saved, it can also
damage the card.
Some cameras will briefly display the image you just took as it is being
saved. Usually you can turn this review feature on or off.
You can usually adjust the brightness of the monitor. Make it brighter in
bright light and dimmer in dim light.
Many cameras have a socket so you can attach it to a tripod.
Most digital cameras can be connected to a TV set so you can share your
photos with others. You dont have to show the images you just took. You can
copy images from the computer back to the flash card to give edited shows.
If you cant take a picture, it may be because the memory card is full. To
free up room for new pictures, move the image files to a computer and erase
the memory card, delete some you dont need, or switch to a smaller image
size.
If your pictures are not at all the way you expect, it may be because the
camera remembered a change you made in the settings and continues to use
those changed settings. Some cameras remember changes even when you
turn a camera off and back on.
Its hard to evaluate exposure, color, and focus on these small monitors,
but they are a basic guide. Always confirm your results on the computer
screen.
Most cameras store
images on a removable
memory card that slides
into a slot on the
camera.
Most cameras have an
LCD panel that displays
settings and an LCD
monitor that displays
images and menus.
Icons on the cameras
control panel or monitor
indicate the status of
the batteries. The icons,
many of which look like
these, show when the
battery is fully charged,
getting low, and empty.
GOOD THINGS TO KNOW
12
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
COMPOSING IMAGES
To help you compose images, digital cameras usually have both a monitor
and viewfinder. The primary roles of these two features are quite different,
although there is some overlap.
MONITORS
Monitors are small LCD color displays built right into the camera. Their size
is specified in inches, and the measurement, like those of TV sets, is based on
the diagonal measurement. These screens range between 1.5 and 3 inches and
serve a number of useful functions:
On many, but not all cameras, they allow you to compose the image on the
screen before you take it.
They let you review an image you have taken so you know its the way you
want it. No more surprises as so often happens when you use a film camera
and pick up your traditional prints.
They let you scroll through the images you have already taken. If you need
room for another image, you can find one you dont like as much and delete
it. Many cameras also display thumbnails of a group of images so you can
quickly locate the image youre looking for. Most also let you enlarge the
image on the monitor to zoom in on details in your photo.
They let you select images for printing when you bypass the computer.
The image displayed on the monitor is taken directly from the image sensor,
so it is a true TTL (thru-the-lens) view. Although you can use it to compose
photos as you take them, this normally doesnt work well for a number of
reasons.
These displays drain batteries quickly so its best to keep them turned off
and use the viewfinder for taking pictures.
The image on the monitor can be difficult to read in bright sunlight.
The movements of the scene on the monitor as you move the camera to
frame the image are distracting to many users.
You may have to hold the camera at arms length, an awkward position that
tends to introduce blur into your images through camera shake.
Although the monitor should be turned off when taking pictures to conserve
power, there are a few situations in which it becomes indispensable.
When using a camera that isnt an SLR for close-ups, the monitor is a great
way to compose and focus the image since it shows the scene exactly the way
it will be in the image youll capture.
When photographing over a crowd, at ground level, or around a corner, you
can compose the image without holding the camera up to your eye.
VIEWFINDERS
Viewfinders are ideal for following fast action as it unfoldswaiting for the
decisive moment. One of their advantages is that they dont draw battery
power so your batteries last much longer. But thats not all. The best optical
viewfinders, known as real-image viewfinders are coupled to the zoom lens
and show the same area covered by the image sensor. There are two kinds of
Monitors show you what
the view looks like
through the lens.
The best monitors are
those that swivel and
tilt to any angle.
With a swiveling
monitor, you can shoot
up at things close to the
ground such as this
salamander.
A common monitor
icon.
13 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
viewfinder displays, optical and electronic and they either show the scene
through the lens (SLR) or through a separate viewfinder window.
Optical viewfinders on SLR cameras show the scene through the lens (TTL)
just as 35mm SLRs do. A mirror bounces light coming through the lens into a
prism that directs it out of the viewfinder. When you take a picture, the
mirror swings up to let light hit the shutter and image sensor. These are true
what you see is what you get viewfinders because you see exactly what the
lens sees.
Optical viewfinders on point-and-shoot cameras show the scene through a
separate window that is slightly offset from the view seen by the lens. The
offset view isnt a problem except in close-up photography where parallax
causes you to see a view that is slightly offset from the one the lens sees so a
subject centered in the viewfinder wont be centered in the image.
Electronic or digital viewfinders use a small LCD monitor built into the
viewfinder that shows you the same image being seen by the image sensor.
Because these displays are electronic, menus can be superimposed over the
scene so you can change settings without lowering the camera from your eye.
This is especially useful on bright days when a monitor is hard to read
because of glare. Its also advantageous for people who need reading classes
because the menu can be read without glasses.
Electronic viewfinders
are small flat-panel
displays inside the
viewfinder. Courtesy of
Zight.
Because an optical
viewfinder is offset from
the lens, what you see
through the viewfinder
(top) is different from
the image you actually
capture (bottom).
COMPOSING IMAGES
In this cutaway view of
the Canon Digital Rebel
you can see the mirror
that bounces light up
into a prism for the
viewfinder. The mirror
swings up out of the
way when you take a
picture. Courtesy of
Canon.
Many film photo-
graphers feel so
strongly that you should
compose images in the
viewfinder that they file
their negatice carriers
to show a black border,
proving its a full frame
image.
14
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
CAPTURING IMAGES
To take pictures, hold the right side of the camera with your right hand while
supporting the lens or camera body with your left. Be sure not to block the
flash, autofocus port, or lens. The shutter button has two stages. When you
press it halfway down, the camera sets focus and exposure. When you press it
all the way down, you take the picture. To anticipate action shots so you can
react more quickly, hold the button halfway down while focused on the scene.
When you then press the button the rest of the way, the camera shoots
immediately because focus and exposure have already been calculated. This
speeds up your reaction time a lot, but it also drains your batteries faster. You
can also press the shutter button all the way down in one action, but there
will be a delay before the photo is taken.
Henri Cartier-Bresson is famous for his photographs that capture that
decisive moment when normally unrelated actions intersect in a single
instant that makes an arresting photograph. His eye-hand coordination was
unrivaled, and he was able to get the results he did because he was always
ready. There was never any fumbling with controls or lost opportunities.
Most digital cameras have an automatic exposure system that frees you from
the worry about many controls. However, these cameras have other problems
that make decisive moments hard to capture. There are two delays built into
digital cameras that affect your ability to respond to fast action when taking
pictures.
The first is a very brief delay between pressing the shutter button and
actually capturing the image. This delay, called the refresh rate, occurs
because the camera clears the image sensor, sets white balance to correct for
color, sets the exposure, and focuses the image. Finally it fires the flash (if its
needed) and takes the picture.
The second delay, the recycle time, occurs when the captured image is
processed and stored. This delay can range from a few seconds to half a
minute.
Both of these delays affect how quickly a series of photos can be taken one
after another, called the frame rate, shot-to-shot rate, or click to click rate. If
the delays are too long, you may miss a picture.
At one time, when you took a photo, you couldnt take another one until the
image was stored on the cameras storage deviceusually a flash card. This
takes a few moments so to speed things up, buffers have been added to
cameras. A buffer is nothing but very fast memory, much like that in your
computer or game machine. With one of these cameras, you can take another
picture before the first one is saved to the storage device. In fact, you can keep
pressing down the shutter button to take one picture after another until the
buffer becomes filled. At that point you have to wait until at least one image is
saved to the storage device and its space in the buffer becomes available for
another picture. Many cameras have a continuous mode that also uses the
buffer. With the camera set to this mode, when you hold the shutter button
all the way down the camera continues taking photos one after another until
the buffer is full. How quickly each photo is captured is called the frame rate.
Many consumer cameras can capture between 2 and 3 pictures per second
and professional models can go much higher than that.
The icon on top
indicates single-shot
mode and the icon on
the bottom indicates
continuous mode.
Continuous mode stores
a number of images in
the buffer so you can
capture fast action in a
series of images.
15 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
WHAT IS A DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPH?
This book is about digital photography. Understanding the end product, the
digital photograph, is a good place to begin understanding the entire digital
photography process. It is all about dots.
Photographs have always been made up of minute dots whether silver crystals
in the film or halftone dots on a printed page. Digital cameras and scanners
have just taken this dot-like quality to a new level by capturing an images
dots electronically and then using computer power to organize, edit, enhance,
store, and distribute them.
Digital photographs are made up of hundreds of thousands or millions of tiny
red, green, and blue dots forming what are called picture elementsor just
pixels. Like the impressionists who painted wonderful scenes with small dabs
of paint, your computer and printer can use these tiny pixels to display or
print photographs. To do so, the computer divides the screen into a grid of
pixels, each with a red green and blue dot. It then uses the values stored in
the digital photograph to specify the brightness and color of each pixel in this
grida form of painting by number. Prints are made in a similar way, but
using a different set of colors. Controlling, or addressing a grid of individual
pixels in this way is called bit-mapping and digital images are sometimes
called bit mapped images.
This reproduction of the
famous painting The
Spirit of 76" is done in
jelly beans. Think of
each jelly bean as a
pixel and its easy to
see how dots or pixels
can form images. Jelly
Bean Spirit of 76
courtesy of Herman
Goelitz Candy
Company, Inc. Makers
of Jelly Belly jelly
beans.
WHAT IS A DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPH?
16
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
Dots making up a
newspaper photo.
Dots on the monitor
making up a photo.
Each dot in the image is
made up of three
smaller dots in the
colors red, green, and
blue.
Dots in a digital image.
TIP
To see these dots
for yourself, use a
magnifying glass to
examine your
computers monitor
and a color photo
in a magazine,
book, or newspa-
per.
17 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
THE IMAGE SENSOR
Digital cameras are very much like 35mm film cameras. Both contain a lens,
an aperture, and a shutter. The lens brings light from the scene into focus
inside the camera so it can expose an image. The aperture is a hole that can
be made smaller or larger to control the amount of light that enters the
camera. The shutter is a device that can be opened or closed to control the
length of time the light is allowed to enter.
The big difference between traditional film cameras and digital cameras is
how they capture the image. Instead of film, digital cameras use a solid-state
device called an image sensor. In most, but not all, digital cameras the image
sensor is a charge-coupled device (CCD). On the surface of this fingernail-
sized silicon chip is a grid containing hundreds of thousands or millions of
photosensitive diodes called photosites, photodetectors, photoelements, or
pixels. Each photosite captures a single pixel in the photograph to be. Image
sensors vary widely in size, ranging from fingernail size to full-frameas
large as a frame of film.
An image sensor sits
against a background
enlargement of its
square photosites, each
capable of capturing
one pixel in the final
image. Courtesy of IBM.
Until recently, CCDs were the only image sensors used in digital cameras.
They have been well developed through their use in astronomical telescopes,
scanners, and video camcorders. However, some cameras now use CMOS
image sensors. Both CCD and CMOS image sensors capture light on a grid of
small photosites on their surfaces. Its how they process the image and how
they are manufactured where they differ from one another.
THE IMAGE SENSOR
18
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
CCD IMAGE SENSORS
A charge-coupled device (CCD) gets its name from the way the charges on its
pixels are read after an exposure. As soon as the exposure is complete, the
charges on the first row are transferred to a place on the sensor called the
read out register. From there, the signals are fed to an amplifier and then on
to an analog-to-digital converter. Once the row has been read, its charges on
the readout register row are deleted, the next row enters, and all of the rows
above march down one row. The charges on each row are coupled to those
on the row above so when one moves down, the next moves down to fill its
old space. In this way, each row can be readone row at a time.
The CCD shifts one
whole row at a time into
the readout register.
The readout register
then shifts one pixel at
a time to the output
amplifier.
Last row read
First row read
To Output Amplifier
Foveons 16.8 million
pixel image sensor,
manufactured using
CMOS process
technology.
CMOS IMAGE SENSORS
Image sensors are manufactured in factories called wafer foundries or fabs
where the tiny circuits and devices are etched onto silicon chips. The biggest
problem with CCDs is that they are created in foundries using specialized and
expensive processes that can only be used to make other CCDs. Meanwhile,
more and larger foundries across the street are using a different process
called Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) to make billions
of chips for computer processors and memory used in your notebook or
desktop computer. CMOS is by far the most common and most efficient chip-
making process in the world. The latest CMOS processors, such as the
Pentium 4, contain an amazing 42 million active elements. Using this same
process and the same equipment to manufacturer CMOS image sensors cuts
costs dramatically because the fixed costs of the plant are spread over a much
larger number of devices. As a result of these economies of scale, the cost of
fabricating a CMOS wafer is less than fabricating a similar wafer using a
specialized CCD process. Costs are lowered even farther because CMOS image
sensors can have processing circuits created on the same chip at the time it is
made. When CCDs are used, these processing circuits must be on separate
chips.
Early versions of CMOS image sensors were plagued with noise problems,
and used mainly in low-cost cameras. However, great advances have been
made and CMOS image sensors are now used in some of the finest profes-
sional cameras.
19 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
DIGITAL COLOR
When you press the shutter button of a digital camera, a metering cell
measures the light coming through the lens and sets the aperture and shutter
speed for the correct exposure. When the shutter opens briefly, each pixel on
the image sensor records the brightness of the light that falls on it by accumu-
lating an electrical charge. The more light that hits a pixel, the higher the
charge it records. Pixels capturing light from highlights in the scene will have
high charges. Those capturing light from shadows will have low charges.
When the shutter closes to end the exposure, the charge from each pixel is
measured and converted into a digital number. This series of numbers can
then be used to reconstruct the image by setting the color and brightness of
matching pixels on the screen or printed page.
It may be surprising, but pixels on an image sensor can only capture bright-
ness, not color. They record only the gray scalea series of 256 increasingly
darker tones ranging from pure white to pure black. How the camera creates
a color image from the brightness recorded by each pixel is an interesting
story.
The gray scale contains
a range of tones from
pure white to pure
black.
When photography was first invented, it could only record black and white
images. The search for color was a long and arduous process, and a lot of
hand coloring went on in the interim (causing one photographer to comment
so you have to know how to paint after all!). One major breakthrough was
James Clerk Maxwells 1860 discovery that color photographs could be
created using black and white film and red, blue, and green filters. He had the
photographer Thomas Sutton photograph a tartan ribbon three times, each
time with a different color filter over the lens. The three black and white
images were then projected onto a screen with three different projectors, each
equipped with the same color filter used to take the image being projected.
When brought into alignment, the three superimposed images formed a full
color photograph. Over a century later, image sensors work much the same
way.
Colors in a photographic image are usually based on the three primary colors
red, green, and blue (RGB). This is called the additive color system because
when the three colors are combined or added in equal quantities, they form
white. This RGB system is used whenever light is projected to form colors as
it is on the display monitor (or in your eye).
RGB uses additive
colors. When all three
are mixed in equal
amounts they form
white. When red and
green overlap they form
yellow, and so on.
DIGITAL COLOR
20
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
These two photos of the
town I live in, were
taken around 1900
before color film was
widely available.
Published as lantern
slides, you can see
what a difference hand
coloring makes.
21 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
TIP: CHECKING YOUR SYSTEM
You may have to set your system to full-color, it doesnt happen automati-
cally. To see if your Windows system supports True Color, display
Windows Start menu, click Settings, and then click Control Panel.
Double-click the Display command to open the Display properties dialog
box. Click the Settings tab on the dialog box and check the Colors
setting.
Since daylight is made up of red, green, and blue light; placing red, green, and
blue filters over individual pixels on the image sensor can create color images
just as they did for Maxwell in 1860. Through a process called interpolation,
the camera computes the full color of each pixel using the color it captured
directly through its filter, and the other two colors captured by the pixels
around it through their differently colored filters. (Im bright red and the
green and blue pixels around me are also bright so that must mean Im really
a white pixel.) This step is computer intensive since comparisons with as
many as eight neighboring pixels are required to perform this process prop-
erly.
When you view a natural scene, or a well done color photograph, you are able
to distinguish millions of colors. Digital images can approximate this color
realism, but whether they do so on your system depends on its capabilities
and its settings. The number of colors in an image is referred to its color
depth, pixel-depth, or bit depth. Older PCs are stuck with displays that show
only 16 or 256 colors, however, all newer systems can display whats called
24-bit True Color. Its called True Color because these systems display 16
million colors, about the number the human eye can distinguish.
Why does it take 24 bits to get 16 million colors? Its simple arithmetic. To
calculate how many different colors can be displayed, raise the number 2 to
the power of the number of bits used to display them. For example, 8-bits
gives you 256 colors because 2
8
=256 and 24 bits gives you 16 million because
2
24
is almost 17 million.
Some digital cameras (and scanners) can capture images using 48 bits. The
number of possible colors for these images is astronomical281 trillion.
These extra colors are not used in JPEG images because that format doesnt
support 48 bit color. However, there are image formats such as RAW and
TIFF which youll learn about later that can preserve all of these colorsnot
so much to display or print them, but to give really fine gradations when
editing and adjusting the images into their final form.
Heres a table to show you some other possibilities.
Here the full-color of
the center red pixel is
about to be interpolated
from the colors
recorded by the eight
surrounding pixels.
Each pixel on an image
sensor has red, green,
and blue filters
intermingled across the
photosites in patterns
designed to yield
sharper images and
truer colors. The
patterns vary from
company to company
but the most popular is
the Bayer mosaic
pattern shown here.
There are twice as
many green filters as
the other colors
because the human eye
is more sensitive to
green and therefore
green color accuracy is
more important.
NAME BITS FORMULA NUMBER
PER PIXEL OF COLORS
Black and white 1 2
1
2
Windows display 4 2
4
16
Gray scale 8 2
8
256
256 color 8 2
8
256
High color 16 2
16
65 thousand
True color 24 2
24
16 million
DIGITAL COLOR
22
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
A Foveon X3 image
sensors has three
layers of photodetectors
to take advantage of
the fact that red, green
and blue light penetrate
silicon to different
depths. Courtesy of
Foveon
(www.foveon.com)
Unlike traditional image sensors that record just one color per pixel Foveons
X3 can capture red, green and blue light at each and every pixel. The X3
features three layers of photodetectors embedded in silicon that take advan-
tage of the fact that red, green and blue light penetrate silicon to different
depthsforming a full-color image sensor.
A CCD is like a three-
decker sandwich. The
bottom layer contains
the photosites. Above
them is a layer of
colored filters that
determines which color
each site records.
Finally, the top layer
contains microlenses
that gather light.
Courtesy of Fujifilm.
23 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
SELECTING AN IMAGE SIZE
When shooting photos, the image size you use to capture it has a big effect on
how large it can be displayed on the screen or printed. Generally, the best
approach is to shoot at the largest available size. You can always make an
image smaller in a photo-editing program, but you can never make it larger
and retain the original quality.
The relative size of a digital image is determined by the device used to display
it. However, the absolute size of the image is determined by the number of
pixels used to create it (sometimes referred to as resolution or image size).
More pixels in an image add detail and sharpen edges.
The size of a digital image is specified in one of two waysby its dimensions
in pixels or by the total number of pixels it contains. For example, the same
image can be said to have 3008 2000 pixels (where is pronounced by
as in 3008 by 2000), or to contain 6.016 million pixels (3008 multiplied by
2000). Since the term megapixel is used to indicate 1 million pixels, an
image with 6 million pixels can also be referred to as a 6 megapixel image.
The number of pixels in a digital image is important because if you enlarge an
image enough, it begins to loose sharpness and eventually the pixels begin to
showan effect called pixelization. This is not unlike traditional silver-based
prints where grain begins to show when prints are enlarged past a certain
point. The larger the image is to begin withthe more pixels that it contains
the larger it can be displayed or printed before pixelization occurs. However,
with even inexpensive cameras capturing 2 and 3 megapixel images, most
images will never bump up against this limit.
One advantage of larger images is seen when editing. Changes to such aspects
as color balance, hue, saturation, contrast, and brightness are more effective
on larger images because there is more image data to work form. After
making these adjustments, you can reduce the file to the needed size.
Image sizes are
expressed as
dimensions in pixels
(3008 2000) or by
the total number of
pixels (6,016,000).
TIP
Images sizes are
discussed in detail
in Chapter 9
Photo Editing.
TIP
Enlarging digital
images is usually
avoided because
the results are not
that good. How-
ever, there are now
programs available
that do a very good
job at this single
task. One of the
leaders in this area
is pxl SmartScale
from Extensis.
SELECTING AN IMAGE SIZE
24
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
As you might expect, all other things being equal, costs rise with a cameras
image size. Although larger image sizes can give you sharper and better
enlargements, they can also create problems. For example, more pixels
means larger image files. Not only are larger files harder to store, they take
longer to transfer, process, and edit and are often far too large to e-mail or
post on a Web site. Smaller image sizes such as 640 x 480 are perfect for Web
publishing, e-mail attachments, small prints, or as illustrations in your own
documents and presentations. For these uses, higher resolutions just increase
file sizes without significantly improving the images.
Here are some rules of thumb about what image sizes you need for certain
outputs.
On the Web, images are displayed on screens that have resolutions of 1280
x 1024, 1152 x 864, 1024 x 768, 800 x 600, or 640 x 480. A few years ago, a
1024 x 768 monitor was unusual so most people in the industry settled on
assuming that the lowest common denominator for screen sizes was 640 x
480 or, at best 800 x 600. For this reason, images should be of similar or
smaller sizesno more than 800 pixels wide (on eBays Picture Services the
maximum allowable size is 800 pixels wide). This ensures that images will
display correctly on the vast majority of computers. If an image is too large,
users will not be able to see it all at once and will be forced to scroll around it.
If too small, details will be lost. Size also affects the speed with which images
travel over the Web. Smaller (and more compressed) images travel faster so
people see them more quickly.
For laser and inkjet printers you need between 200300 pixels or dots per
inch. If your camera can capture images that are 2400 pixels wide, you can
expect good results when printed at 8 to 12 inches.
When images are printed on a printing press, as they might be for a catalog,
the pixels in the image are printed as dots on the page. Photographic prints
that are to be printed on a press are first "screened." To do this, a clear glass
plate with scribed grid lines is laid on the photograph and then a picture is
taken of the photograph through the screen. The scribed lines on the glass
plate break the image up into dots called a halftone screen. The negative is
One advantage of a
large image size is that
it gives you the
freedom to crop the
image and still have it
be a usable size.
When a digital image is
displayed at the correct
size for the number of
pixels it contains (left),
it looks like a normal
photograph. When
enlarged too much
(right), its square pixels
begin to show.
25 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Here are the relative
sizes of two images
sized to be printed or
displayed at 4 x 5
inches. The larger
image (1500 x 1200
pixels) will print at 300
dots per inch. The
smaller one (360 x 288)
will be displayed on the
screen at 72 dpi.
Although greatly
different in the number
of pixels they contain,
the different output
devices will render
them the same size.
SELECTING AN IMAGE SIZE
then used to create a printing plate used on the press. Today this process is
usually done digitally, but it has the same result. The fineness of the screen
used determines the quality of the printed image. Most photographs are
screened with somewhere between 85 lines per inch (lpi) in newspapers to
200 lpi in high quality art books. For the best results, your images need to
have 1.5 times as many pixels per inch as the screen's lpi (confirm with your
printer). For example, if the printer is using a 150 lpi screen, your image must
have at least 225 pixels per inch. This means to print a 4-inch wide image in a
catalog, you need to have an image width of at least 900 pixels.
The number of pixels in
an image, sometimes
referred to as its
resolution, determines
the size of the image
when its displayed on
the screen or how large
a print can be made
that is still sharp.
26
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
THE COLLISION OF TWO WORLDS
The term resolution was introduced in the computer world as a way to
describe screen displays. In the early days, a screen would have a CGA or
VGA resolution. Later, other names were introduced to describe even
higher resolutions. The terms were used to describe the number of pixels
on the screen. For example, the VGA screen had 640 pixels across the
screen and 480 down (640 x 480). No one was concerned about the use of
the term resolution at the time it was introduced. Its only when photog-
raphy became digital that another group of people entered the scene with a
totally different use of the term. To photographers, or anyone in optics,
resolution describes the ability of a camera system to resolve pairs of fine
lines such as those found on a test chart. Its an indicator of sharpness, not
image size
Test charts have pairs
of lines at various
spacings
If an image is too large
for a screen (top-right),
the viewer will have to
scroll around it to see
it. When sized correctly
(bottom-left) they can
see the entire image.
27 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
SELECTING AN IMAGE QUALITY
When capturing images, there are a number of choices you can make about
compression ratios and file formats. Your choices determine image quality
and the size of the files you create.
FILE COMPRESSION
Image files are huge compared to many other types of computer files. For
example, a low-resolution 640 x 480 image has 307,200 pixels. Since each
pixel requires 24 bits (3 bytes) to store color information, a single image takes
up about a megabyte of storage space. As the resolution increases, so does the
file size. At a resolution of 1600 x 1200, each 24-bit picture takes up over 5.7
megabytes. To make image files smaller and more manageable, digital
cameras use a process called compression. Compressing images not only let's
you save more images on a camera's storage device, it also allows you to
download, display, edit, and transmit them more quickly.
During compression, data that is duplicated or that has no value is eliminated
or saved in a shorter form, greatly reducing a files size. For example, if large
areas of the sky are the same shade of blue, only the value for one pixel needs
to be saved along with the locations of the other pixels with the same color.
When the image is then edited or displayed, the compression process is
reversed. There are two forms of compressionlossless and lossyand digital
cameras use both forms.
Lossless compression. When an image compressed with lossless
compression is uncompressed, its image quality matches the original source
nothing is lost. Although lossless compression sounds ideal, it doesnt provide
much compression and files remain quite large. For this reason, lossless
compression is used mainly where detail is extremely important, as it is when
planning to make large prints or use high-quality printing. Lossless compres-
sion is offered by some digital cameras in the form of TIFF and RAW file
formats (page 17).
Lossy compression. Because lossless compression isnt practical in
many cases, all popular digital cameras offer a lossy compression (rhymes
with bossy). This process degrades images to some degree and the more
they're compressed, the more degraded they become. In many situations,
such as posting images on the Web or making small to medium sized prints,
the image degradation isn't obvious. However, if you enlarge an image
enough, it will show. The most common lossy file format is JPEG.
FILE FORMATS
You have a number of choices when it comes to file formats. All digital
cameras store still images in the JPEG format, but some also let you select
TIFF or CCD RAW. A forth format, GIF, has limited uses. Lets look at all four
formats.
JPEG, named after the Joint Photographic Experts Group and pronounced
"jay-peg," is by far the most popular format for photographic images. In fact,
most cameras save their images in this format unless you specify otherwise.
A JPEG image is stored using lossy compression and you can vary the amount
of compressionperhaps to reduce files to 1/4, 1/8, or 1/16 their original size.
This allows you to choose between lower compression and higher image
The almost universally
recognized icon for
image quality.
SELECTING AN IMAGE QUALITY
28
CHAPTER 1. DIGITAL IMAGES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
quality or greater compression and poorer quality. Most cameras give you
two or three choices equivalent to good, better, best although the names vary.
JPEG compression is performed on blocks of pixels eight on a side. You can
see these blocks when you use the highest levels of compression and then
greatly enlarge the image.
TIFF (Tag Image File Format) has been widely accepted as an image
format. Because of its popularity in digital photography, the format has been
revised to TIFF/EP (Tag Image File FormatElectronic Photography). TIFF/
EP may be stored by the camera in uncompressed form, or using JPEG
compression. TIFF/EP image files are often stored in a read-only fashion to
prevent accidental loss of important information contained within the file.
This is why you sometimes cant delete them once they are on your computer
without first turning off the files read-only attribute.
CCD RAW format stores the data directly from the image sensor without
first processing it. This data contains everything captured by the camera. In
addition to the digitized raw sensor data, the RAW format also records color
and other information that is applied during processing to enhance color
accuracy and other aspects of image quality. Instead of being processed in the
camera, where computing power and work space is limited (imagine Scarlett
OHara trying to change into a Civil War era ball gown in a small closet), the
raw data is processed into a final image on a powerful desktop computer. The
increased computing power and space to work in can make a significant
difference in the results. You dont get the artifacts (image flaws) that some-
times appear in JPEG images. In addition, you can save the original raw data
and process it with other software, or in different ways. This is unlike a JPEG
image where data are permanently changed or deleted during processing in
the camera and can never be recovered.
In addition to image quality, RAW files have other advantages. Their files are
approximately 60% smaller than uncompressed TIFF files with the same
number of pixels, and the time you have to wait between shots is shorter since
processing time in the camera is shorter.
CHOOSING A FORMAT
If your camera lets you choose a file format and compression ratio you should
always choose those that give you the highest quality. If you decide later that
you can use a smaller image or greater compression, you can do so to a copy
of the image using a photo-editing program. If you shoot the image at a lower
quality setting, you can never really improve it much or get a large, sharp
print if you want one. The only problem with this approach has to do with file
sizes. The highest quality images can be 15 or more megabytes in size. These
are almost impossible to send to anyone by e-mail and are slow to open, edit,
and save on even a powerful desktop computer. In addition, when you shoot
images of this quality you often have to wait a long time between shots
because the camera is tied up processing the last image you took. Most
photographers use a compromise and shoot in the highest quality JPEG
format. Even these image files can be 25 megabytes in size on the latest
cameras.
When you open an image to work on it, you should first save it so you are
working on a copy and preserving the original image unchanged. Save it in a
loss-free format such as TIFF. Even better, your photo-editing program may
have its own native format that preserves information that no other format
will. Use this format while editing. If you want a specific format for the
29 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
finished image, save a copy of it in that format as the final step. In particular,
don't repeatedly close, open, and resave JPEG original images. Every time
you open one of these files, and then save it again, the image is compressed.
As you go through a series of saves and reopens, the image becomes more and
more degradedan image quality death spiral. (An image is compressed only
once during a single session, no matter how many times you save it, so save it
frequently to avoid losing your edits.) Also, when you save an image as a
JPEG, the image on the screen won't show the effects of compression unless
you close the file and then open the saved version.
Many digital photos end up on the Web or attached to e-mail, so they are
viewed on the screen. For these purposes, small, heavily compressed JPEG
files that are easy to view or send over the Internet are favored. For the
highest quality printed images, TIFF or RAW formats should be used. RAW is
especially useful when accurate color rendition is essential.
The top photo is a TIFF
image that hasnt been
compressed. The
bottom image is a JPEG
image that has been
repeatedly compressed.
SELECTING AN IMAGE QUALITY
30
CHAPTER 2. IMAGE FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
D
igital photography brings together two separate standsphotography
and computing. Knowing one without the other leads to nothing but
problems. Its often the computing side that people need help with.
The good news is that what you need to know is very basic and limited. It
essentially deals with just image files and the folders they are stored in.
Images that you capture are initially stored by the camera as files on some
form of memory device. When you are finished shooting, or when the storage
device becomes filled you move the image files to a more permanent form of
storageusually the computers hard drive. How you organize your files and
folders on the computer makes a huge difference in how easy it is to find your
images at a later date when you want to edit, print, or distribute them. As
your collection grows, youll want to manage it more carefully and may want
to move some or all of your images to a more permanent form of archival
storage such as a CD or DVD.
In this chapter well first look at the storage devices used in most cameras,
then discuss how you transfer the images to your computer in an organized
way. Finally we discuss how you index, view, and manage your collection of
images so you can find the one youre looking for in the shortest possible
time.
Chapter 2
Images Files and File Management
CONTENTS
Storing Images in the
Camera Transferring
Images to the Com-
puterHardware How
Photos are Stored in
Your Camera and
Computer DCF and
Exif Standards
Transferring Images to
the Computer
Procedures Organiz-
ing Your Photo Files
Storing ImagesHard
Drives Storing
ImagesCD Drives and
Discs Storing
ImagesDVD Drives
and Discs Storing
ImagesCD/DVD
Burning Software
Storing Images
Labeling CD and DVD
Discs Image and
Asset Management
Choosing Image
Management Tools
AA30470C
31 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
STORING IMAGES IN THE CAMERA
With traditional cameras, the film is used both to capture and store the
image. With digital cameras, separate devices perform these two functions.
The image is captured by the image sensor, then stored in the camera as a file
on one of the many storage devices now available.
Older or less expensive cameras have built-in fixed storage that cant be
removed or increased. This gives you a fixed, and usually low number of
photos you can take before having to erase them to make room for new ones.
To give you more flexibility, newer and more expensive cameras use some
form of removable storage. You can carry extra cards with you and change
them as needed.
The most common storage device is the flash memory card which uses solid
state chips similar to the memory chips used inside your computer. However,
these chips dont loose images when the power is turned off so your photo-
graphs are retained indefinitely. Flash memory cards consume little power,
take up little space, and are very rugged. All are quite small, most ranging
from the size of a postage stamp up to the size of a matchbook.
There is an old set up line for a joke that begins I have good news and bad
news. The good news is that we have these flash memory cards at all. The
bad news is that they come in a variety of formats that are not interchange-
able. Once you have a sizable investment in memory cards, you are locked
into using only those cameras that support your format.
PC or PCMCIA cards are rarely used in cameras today but their slots live
on in many notebook computers and other devices. Using an adapter, you can
plug other cards into these large slots.
CompactFlash was developed by SanDisk Corp and is about the size of a
matchbook. There are two versions Type I and Type II with Type II being
thicker. Cameras that support Type II cards also accept Type I.
SmartMedia, developed by Toshiba, is used by a number of leading
camera companies. Its major advantage is its simplicity; it is nothing more
than a flash chip on a card. It contains no controllers or supporting circuitry,
which reduces the size of the card as well as its manufacturing costs. The
problem with this approach is that the necessary controller functions must
reside in the camera and therefore compatibility with newer or older versions
of the cards isnt guaranteed. For example, some cameras support only 3.3
volt SmartMedia, some only 5 volt versions, and some support both types.
The 5 volt version does not fit into cameras designed for 3.3 volt versions.
Memory Stick, developed by Sony and used mainly in its own products,
is shaped something like a stick of gum.
Secure Digital (SD) Memory Card, a nonproprietary design jointly
developed by Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd. (Panasonic), SanDisk
and Toshiba, is used in a few cameras.
The xD-Picture Card developed jointly by Fuji and Olympus is the
smallest of the memory cards and used in very small cameras.
Hard disks, in the form of the Microdrive introduced by IBM and now owned
by Hitachi, offer large storage capacity at a lower cost than flash memory.
One of these drives can be plugged into a Type II CompactFlash slot on a
digital camera or flash card reader.
Flash memory cards
come in a variety of
shapes and sizes.
Courtesy of SanDisk.
Most cameras store
images on a removable
memory card that slides
into a slot on the
camera.
CompactFlash card.
Courtesy of Lexar
Media.
SmartMedia courtesy of
Lexar Media.
STORING IMAGES IN THE CAMERA
32
CHAPTER 2. IMAGE FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
The Hitachi Microdrive
fits a CF-II slot and is a
marvel of engineering.
.
Optical Discs such as CD-R are widely used to archive captured images and
some cameras have used them as removable storage devices right in the
camera. The CD-R discs are smaller than the standard CDs you are probably
familiar with, but play in all standard CD drives. These CDs store a lot of
image files very inexpensively, but they are slow and since the drive is large,
any camera that contains one must be also.
Digital camera storage devices are designed to act just like the other disks and
drives on your computer. You are probably already aware that storage media
can take many forms. Youve seen floppy disks, hard disks, CD discs, and
DVD discs. Digital camera memory devices are just like these other storage
media and the drives that read and write them. The camera or card reader
acts like the drive and the storage device acts like the disk. Its easier to see
this on cameras that use floppy or CD discs, or imagine it on those that use
hard disks, but its also true of flash cards using solid-state memory chips.
Because a digital camera storage device acts just like a computer disk, it has
to be formatted before you can use it. This is usually a onetime activity and
some cards, including those supplied with your camera, come with this
already done. However, even then, you may have to reformat a storage device
at some point if it develops problems. Just be aware that formatting a storage
device for your camera deletes all of the files on it, just as it does on your
computer. To prevent you from formatting it accidentally, some cards can be
write-protected. For example, to write-protect a SmartMedia card you place a
sticker over the round write-protect area on the face of the card. On a
MemoryStick, you slide a switch. When protected, you cant save new images
to the card, move or delete images, or format the card. The images are totally
protected, but you can view and copy them.
Formatting a cameras card, or any disk for that matter, divides the card into
sections that can be located by the operating system when saving and opening
files. Its analogous to dividing an empty pasture into streets and lots and
then assigning a street address to every lot so mail can be delivered at a later
time. Formatting also creates a special section on the card called a File
Allocation Table (FAT) that acts as an index so the operating system knows
where each part of each file is located, its name, size, and so on. Many digital
cameras use an older version of FAT called FAT16 (normally called just FAT)
and Windows XP uses a newer FAT32 when used to format cards larger than
32 megabytes (older versions of Windows use FAT16). However, most digital
cameras are not able to recognize or function correctly with storage devices
that are formatted with the FAT32 allocation table. For this reason, either
format cards in the camera or be sure to select FAT if you format them from
Windows.
SD Card courtesy of
Panasonic.
Memory Stick from
Sony.
Sony has been one of
the leaders in cameras
using optical storage in
the CD Mavica line.
Courtesy of Sony.
Cards are easy to
misplace and the
smaller they are, the
easier they are to lose.
If you dont find a way
to store them safely,
youre sure to run some
through the washing
machine forgotten in a
shirt or pants pocket.
One way to keep them
safe is to use an
inexpensive storage
case.
33 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
TRANSFERRING IMAGES TO THE COMPUTERHARDWARE
Once you have taken photographs, they lie dormant on your camera's storage
device until you transfer them to a computer or other device.
When you transfer files between devices, you are uploading and downloading
them. These somewhat vague terms simply refer to the direction of transfer
from the viewpoint of one of the devices. Uploading means you are sending a
file to another device. For example, if you publish images on a Web site, its
usually referred to as uploading them. Downloading means you are receiving
a file from another device. Transferring images from your camera to your
computer is usually referred to as downloading them, or occasionally as
acquiring them.
You normally download image files to a computer that then acts as their
storage device while you edit, distribute, or display them.
DEVICES
There are a number of devices you can use to transfer images from your
camera to your computer.
Cables. Most cameras now come with a cable that you use to connect the
camera to the computer.
Slots and card readers. Some computers, especially notebooks, are
equipped with built-in slots into which you can plug storage devices you've
removed from the camera. If your system lacks slots, you can add them in the
form of a card reader that connects to the computer with a cable. Many card
readers have slots for just one type of card such as CompactFlash, but some
models have slots for a variety of card types.
When a storage device doesnt fit a slot you use an adapter. You just plug your
storage device into the adapter, then plug the adapter into the slot. The PC
Card slot, being the largest slot for removable media has become a slot
standard of sorts although CompactFlash slots are sometimes used.
Docking stations. Because many early digital cameras did not have
removable storage devices, the docking station was introduced. These devices
have a small base that holds the camera and a cable that connects the base to
the computer. When ready to download files, you just put the camera in the
docking station. These devices have gone out of fashion (except as charging
base stations) since almost all digital cameras have some form of removable
storage devices. They may see another day when wireless downloads become
more common.
CONNECTIONS
When you connect your camera or card reader to the computer, the chances
are you are plugging a cable into a USB or FireWire port. Both come in older
and newer versionsUSB 1.1 and 2.0 and FireWire 400 and 800. USB 2.0
and FireWire 800 are newer and faster. All new PC systems come with a
number of USB 2.0 ports. The faster FireWire ports are built into Apple
computers and are optional on PCs. One reason to favor a card reader over a
camera connection is that as transfer speeds are improved you can always
buy a new card reader. To improve the transfer speed of the camera, youd
have to buy a newer model.
The PC Card (PCMCIA)
slot has become almost
universally accepted. To
use other memory
devices in a PC Card
slot, you use an
adapter. Courtesy of
SanDisk.
The Universal Reader
reads SmartMedia,
CompactFlash,
MemoryStick, and SD
cards. Courtesy of
OnSpec Electronics.
PRINTERS
Some home
printers, and kiosks
at photo stores,
have slots that
accept cards
directly from you
camera. This lets
you print images
without a com-
puter.
TRANSFERRING IMAGES TO THE COMPUTERHARDWARE
34
CHAPTER 2. IMAGE FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
USB cables come in a variety of configurations. The end that plugs into the
computer is always the same, but the end that connects to the camera varies
from model to model. USB plugs and receptacles are colored coded inside
the connector to guide you when plugging them in.
Type Plug Receptacle
Std-A white black
Std-B black black
Mini-A white white
Mini-B black black
Mini-AB gray gray
INSTALLATION
Before you can use a digital camera or card reader with a computer, you have
to install it. (If your computer has a slot, it is already installed.) There is
nothing at all standard about this installation process so its best to refer to
the manual that comes with your camera or card reader. When you first plug
one of these devices into a USB port, Windows installs a program called a
driver so programs can recognize the device. In some cases this happens
automatically, in other cases a step-by-step wizard guides you through the
process, in a few cases, you have to open a program to add a new hardware
device.
Depending on the camera or card reader you are installing, you may be asked
to insert a disc at some point in the process, or you may have to click a Have
Disk button. This disk contains the drivers the system needs. If you dont
have the needed driver, or the latest version of the driver, you may find it on
the Web site of the company that made the camera or card reader. They
almost always post new drivers as soon as they become available. If you
upgrade your operating system, for example from Windows ME to Windows
XP, you may also need to go to the Web site for newer drivers. Without them,
some devices may no longer work correctly, or they may not take advantage
of new features in the operating system.
WARNING
USB hubs can
introduce problems
when connecting
digital cameras or
card readers. If you
experience any
problems, plug
your camera or
card reader directly
into the computer.
A USB plug (bottom)
and receptacle (top).
The USB 2 logo.
The FireWire logo.
Here are the relative
transfer speeds of USB
and FireWire. Mbps
stands for Megabits per
second.
35 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
HOW PHOTOS ARE STORED IN YOUR CAMERA AND COMPUTER
When you take pictures, they are stored as files on your cameras storage
device following rules spelled out in a variety of standards adopted by camera
companies. These standards assure that files and storage devices can be
moved among cameras and other digital imaging hardware and software. To
work with your image files it helps to understand how drives, folders, and
files relate to one another. When someone takes up digital photography
without having mastered these few simple concepts, they are immediately
lost.
DRIVES
Almost all computers have more than one drive. To tell them apart, they are
assigned letters and names, and icons are used to identify their type. For
example, the increasingly rare drive into which you can insert a floppy disk is
drive A and B. The hard drive the computer looks to for the operating system
when you turn it on is drive C. Additional drives vary from computer to
computer but often include CD or DVD drives, each with its own identifying
letter. When you attach your camera or a card reader to the computer, it too
becomes a drive and is assigned a drive letter. On many systems its recog-
nized automatically, but on others, especially older systems, you have to
install drivers that let the computer know its there.
FOLDERS
Folders are used to organize files on a drive. Imagine working in a photo
stock agency where youre told to find a photo of Yosemite only to discover
that all of the photos the agency ever acquired are stored in unorganized shoe
boxes. You have to pick through everything to gather together what you want.
Contrast this with an agency that uses file cabinets to store their images. A
well-organized file cabinet uses labeled hanging folders to group related
images together. For example, there might be a hanging folder labeled
California National Parks. If a further breakdown is needed, labeled manila
folders are inserted into any of the hanging foldersbasically, folders within
folders. There might be one labelled Yosemite. With everything labelled and
organized, its easy to locate and pull out the images you need. The same is
true of drives on a computer system. The drive is equivalent to the empty file
cabinet. It has plenty of storage space but no organization. The organization
you need to find things on the cameras memory device is created by the
camera, but on your computer, you have to create it yourself.
When you use operating system tools such as Windows Explorer or My
Computer to look at a storage device in the camera or card reader, you will
find it is listed like the other drives on your system, but its named Remov-
able Disk. (You can right-click a drive and then click Rename to change its
name.) The memory card contains one or more folders. The one we care
about is automatically created by the camera and named DCIM (for Digital
Camera IMages). If you delete it, the camera will recreate it. The purpose of
this folder, called the image root directory, is to keep together all of the
images you capture with the camera. If you use the same card with other
devices, there may also be other folders on the same card holding MP3 music
or other files.
As you take pictures, your camera automatically creates and names
subfolders under the DCIM folder to hold them (like placing manila folders in
TIP
You will often
encounter the
terms directory
and folder. When
computers were
used primarily by
professionals, the
term directory was
introduced. As
computers became
more widespread,
the more user-
friendly folder was
substituted. Both
terms mean exactly
the same thing.
TIP
How digital image
files are named and
stored on a storage
device are spelled
out in the DCF and
Exif standards
discussed on page
00.
HOW PHOTOS ARE STORED IN YOUR CAMERA AND COMPUTER
36
CHAPTER 2. IMAGE FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
a hanging folder). The first three characters in a folders name, called the
directory number, are numbers between 100 and 999. The next five charac-
ters are known as free characters and can be any uppercase alphanumeric
characters chosen by the camera manufacturer. When a new folder is created,
it is given a number one digit higher than the previous directory.
FILENAMES
When an image is saved, the camera assigns it a filename so you can identify
it later. Filenames have two parts, an 8-character filename and a 3-character
extension. Think of them as first and last names. The name is unique to each
file, and the extension, separated from the name by a period, identifies the
files format (page 00). For example, a JPG extension means its a JPEG
image file, and TIF means its a TIFF image file.
Extensions play another important role. An extension can be associated with
a program on your system so if you double-click a file, the associated program
opens. Also, when you use an application program to open files, it often lists
only those files with extensions that it can open. (You can list other file types
but is usually requires an additional step or two.) If you change the extension,
your system may no longer know what to do with the file.
The first four characters in an image files name, called free characters, can
only be uppercase letters AZ. The last four characters form a number
between 0001 and 9999 and are called the file number. Canon uses the first
four free characters IMG_ followed by the file number, Nikon uses DSCN,
and Sony uses DSC0. Once transferred to your computer, you can rename
images with longer and more descriptive names.
TREES
One way to illustrate the organization of folders on a drive is to display them
as a tree. In this view, all folders branch off from the drivesomething like an
organization chart. If any of these folders contain subfolders, those
subfolders are shown as a second branch from the first. When using a tree,
you can expand and collapse the entire tree or any branch. This allows you to
alternate between a summary of the computers contents, and details of each
drive or folder.
PATHS
With files stored in folders on a disk, you specify a path to get to them. For
example, if a file named IMG_4692.JPG is in a subfolder named 146CANON
thats in a folder named DCIM on drive H, the path to that file is
H:\DCIM\146CANON\IMG_4692.JPG. The key elements of a paththe
drive, folder, subfolder, and filenameare separated by backslashes (\). You
might be more familiar with paths from your Web browser that uses a similar
approach. For example, the URL...
http://www.shortcourses.com/index.htm
... is a path to a specific page on the Web. Normally you dont type in paths,
you click drives or folders to open them. However, many programs display
paths on the screen as a navigational aide.
A tree displayed by
Windows Explorer
indicates drives and
folders with icons and
labels. The - and +
signs indicate if a drive
or folder is expanded
(-) to show subfolders,
or collapsed (+) to hide
them.
Here is the path to the
file IMG_4692.JPG in
subfolder 146CANON
thats in the DCIM
folder DCIM on drive H.
The drive, folder,
subfolder, and filename
are separated by
backslashes.
Image files have an 8-
character name
followed by a period
and a 3-character
extension.
37 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
FileName: IMG_1000.J PG
FileDateTime: 1000290106
FileSize: 123084
CameraMake: Canon
CameraModel: Canon DIGITAL
IXUS
DateTime: 2000:02:15 09:17:56
Height: 480
Width: 640
IsColor: 1
FlashUsed: 0
FocalLength: 8.0mm
35mmFocalLength: 53mm
RawFocalLength: 7.96875
ExposureTime: 0.033 s (1/30)
RawExposureTime:
0.033333335071802
ApertureFNumber: f/ 3.5
RawApertureFNumber: 3.5
FocusDistance: 0.46m
RawFocusDistance:
0.45899999141693
CCDWidth: 5.2323999404907
Orientation: 1
ExifVersion: 0210
Thumbnail
Typical EXIF
information
The Exif 2.2 logo.
The header is an area
of the file separated
from the image data.
DCF AND EXIF STANDARDS
Initially, each camera manufacturer or group of manufacturers took liberties
with how images were stored in cameras. As a result it was not always pos-
sible to view images captured on one camera on another, or send them to a
printer directly from the storage device. Since everyone benefits from com-
patibility, new standards are constantly being introduced or revised to
expand the range of compatibility among cameras, memory devices, printers,
and other imaging devices. We still have a ways to go.
The current standard, Design Rule for Camera File system (DCF), is based on
JPEG images and other preexisting standards such as Exif (Exchangeable
Image File), ExifR98 which specifies rules for files not specified in the Exif
standard, and CIFF (Camera Image File Format) that specifies rules for
recording, reading, and handling image and related files. Images captured
and stored under the rules of this DCF standard can be read by any other
camera or other hardware that also supports the standard.
EXIF
The Exif (Exchangeable Image File) format published by JEITA (Japan
Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association), establishes
rules for a common format for image files. It specifies image and audio file
formats, recommends how folders and files are named, and provides guide-
lines for how color is managed. ExifR98 is an extension of Exif that extends
its compatibility so images captured on one camera can be viewed on another,
or output directly to a printer. It defines the range of Exif applications, and
sets out detailed rules for recording and playing image files not specified in
the Exif format.
The Exif file format builds on the JPEG file format by specifying how infor-
mation about an image is stored in the same file. This information, including
a thumbnail image, describes the camera settings at the time the picture was
taken, and even the images location if the camera supports an attached GPS
unit. This stored information travels along with the image and can be used by
other hardware and software programs when displaying or printing the
image. Most digital cameras record this information as tags (formally called
metadata) in a JPEG file in an area called the header. Newer operating
systems and application programs can display this information and even
allow you to search for images based on it. Starting with Exif 2.2, information
such as contrast, saturation, sharpness, gain control, captured scene type and
digital zoom ratio used to capture the image are also saved in the header. This
information can be used by some printers to give you better results. Basically,
any camera control set to auto at the time the image was taken is free to be
manipulated by the printer or other device. Those set to one of the cameras
manual choices is considered to be a deliberate choice and not manipulated.
Exif information can sometimes be lost if you open and then save a file in
another file format. (Or even lost when using the cameras own rotate, crop,
or other commands that write to the disk.) However, newer cameras and
application programs such as Photoshop preserve this important informa-
tion.
DCF AND EXIF STANDARDS
38
CHAPTER 2. IMAGE FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
CIFF
CIFF (Camera Image File Format) Version 1.0 specifies rules for directory
and file structures so that a variety of files can be stored and managed
efficiently on removable storage devices.
DCF
DCF (Design Rule for Camera File system) defines the entire file system of
digital cameras including the naming and organization of folders, file naming
methods, characters allowed in file names, and file formats.
DCF was needed because the Exif standard specifies requirements as manda-
tory, recommended, or optional. This wiggle room left open the possibility of
incompatible systems based on the same standard. For example, Exif makes
thumbnail recording optional, and provides no rigid standard for their format
if they are created. The directory and file naming standards are given in the
form of examples, not rules. The DCF standard closes these and other loop-
holes in the Exif standard to improve playback compatibility.
Although you may never need to know these terms, here are some definitions
from the DCF standard that you may run across in manuals, articles, or
books.
DCF basic file is an image file stored in a DCF folder and having a DCF
filename, the extension JPG, and a DCF data structure based on the Exif
standard. The compression ratio is not specified.
DCF basic main image is the primary image included in a DCF basic file.
DCF basic thumbnail is a small version of the main image included in the
DCF basic file. The thumbnail image is 160 horizontal pixels by 120 vertical
pixelsa size big enough to be recognizable but small enough to be stored
easily.
DCF extended image file is an image file in a DCF folder but having an
extension and data structure different from a DCF basic file. Typical ex-
Windows XPs file dialog
box has a Summary tab
(top) where you can
enter information about
an image including
keywords. Clicking the
Advanced >> button
displays Exif tags for
the image (bottom).
ExifReader is a program
that displays the Exif
information stored in a
JPEG image file.
39 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Photoshop 7 introduced
a way to browse
thumbnails and view
Exif tag information.
amples are TIFF, RAW, and WAV files. DCF does not specify rules for these
kinds of files.
DCF thumbnail file is an optional compressed file storing a thumbnail
image of a DCF extended image file. It is stored separately from the image file
and has the extension .THM and the same file number as the image it repre-
sents. For example, a file named ABCD2222.TIF may be accompanied by a
thumbnail image named ABCD2222.THM. Together these two files form a
DCF object. Although many cameras cannot record or read TIFF images, a
DCF thumbnail file accompanying the TIFF image can be read because it has
the same format as that used for a DCF basic thumbnail.
DCF object is a group of related files, called object components, that are
recorded under DCF rules. DCF defines three kinds of object components:
DCF basic files, DCF extended image files, and DCF thumbnail files. However
other files such as audio files can be object components. For two or more
object components to be combined into an object they must have the same
file number although either free characters or extensions can vary so the full
names are not identical. An image file ABCD1000.JPG and a sound file
ABCD1000.WAV are both object components but are joined into an object
because they both have the file number 1000. Actually, all files in a DCF
directory with DCF names are DCF object components, even if there is no
other object component with the same number. If you protect, delete, move,
or copy an object component, all related components in the object are also
protected, delete, moved, or copied. The objects components are treated as a
single unit.
DCF AND EXIF STANDARDS
40
CHAPTER 2. IMAGE FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
TRANSFERRING IMAGES TO THE COMPUTERPROCEDURES
When using Windows to copy or move image files from a storage device to a
computer you use the same techniques you use with any other kind of file.
Basically you select the files you want to copy or move and then drag and
drop them. Windows has a number of techniques you can use to make this
fast and easy, but even some experienced users havent discovered them.
SELECTING FILES AND FOLDERS
The first step is to select the files or folders you want to process using Win-
dows Explorer. When doing so, you may want to display the files as thumb-
nails so you can see what image each file contains. Many of these procedures
work in combination with each other.
To select a single file or folder, click it.
To select multiple nonconsecutive files or folders, click the first file then
hold down Ctrl when you click each of the others. The same technique will
unselect previously selected images.
To select a series of consecutive files or folders, click the first image in the
series and hold down Shift when you click the last.
To select more than one set of consecutive files or folders, click the first
image in the first set and hold down Shift when you click the last image in
that set. Now, hold down Ctrl to select the first image in the second set, and
Ctrl and Shift while you click the last image in that set.
To select all files and folders, click the Edit menu to pull it down and click
Select All.
To select all but a few files or folders, select the few you dont want to
select, then pull down the Edit menu and click Invert Selection.
DRAGGING AND DROPPING
After selecting files or folders, you can drag and drop them onto another
drive or folder. Windows Explorer, the best tool for dragging and dropping,
has two windows:
On the left is a tree displaying drives and folders.
On the right are details or thumbnails of the files in the folder selected on
the tree.
The basic procedure is to drag selected files or folders from the pane on the
right and drop them on a drive or folder on the tree. They will be copied or
moved into the drive or folder you drop them on. When dragging them into
position, ghost images of the files are displayed, and the folder they will be
copied or moved to is highlighted. Here are some things to know when
dragging and dropping:
If you point to a closed drive or folder on the treeone with a plus sign
(+)and pause for a moment, the folder will open to display its contents.
If you drag against the top or bottom border of the tree, it will scroll.
If you drag and drop files while holding down the left mouse button, they
Two sets of consecutive
files selected.
COPYING VS.
MOVING FILES
If you move files
from the cameras
storage device, they
are first copied to
the computer and
then deleted from
the storage device.
If you copy files,
they are not
deleted from the
storage device. You
either have to do
that using your
computer or one of
the cameras
commands that
deletes all images.
41 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
When you hold down
the right mouse button
when you drag files or
folders, this menu pops
up when you drop
them.
When you drag files or
folders to a folder on
the tree they appear as
ghost images. The
folder they will be
copied or moved to is
highlighted.
are moved if you drop them on a folder on the same storage device, and
copied if you drop them on a folder on another storage device. When you drag
them to another device, the pointer displays a plus sign (+) to indicate they
will be copied.
To choose whether files are moved or copied, drag and drop them while
holding down the right mouse button. When you then drop them, a pop-up
menu lets you choose whether they are to be copied or moved.
If the mouse pointer displays a circle with a slash through it, you are
pointing at a place where you cant drop.
Almost all digital cameras come with software that will transfer your images
for you. This software can be safely ignored if you know how to use your
operating systems tools. There are a number of reasons you should do so:
Operating system tools are on every computer of the same type, anywhere
in the world.
Operating system tools have been more thoroughly tested and proven than
programs distributed in much smaller quantities by the camera companies.
If you change cameras, what you have learned about operating system tools
stay useful. What you have learned about camera company software might as
well be forgotten.
Camera company software sometimes has a mind of its own and renames
and stores files in a manner you may not choose were you given the choice.
Operating system tools let you use your own file management methods.
HAVOC
When you connect
a camera to a
computer or insert
a card into a card
reader, a number of
programs on your
system may
compete to transfer
the files for you.
Every software
company wants
you to use their
software so each
and every one of
them looks for this
moment to get an
upper hand.
TRANSFERRING IMAGES TO THE COMPUTERPROCEDURES
42
CHAPTER 2. IMAGE FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
ORGANIZING YOUR PHOTO FILES
When you move your images from your camera to your computer and then
on to a CD or DVD discs, you need to do so in an organized way so they are
easy to find. It doesn't take long to be overrun with images; and all of them
with meaningless names to boot. Luckily, with some planning, and the right
tools and knowledge, you can work with thousands of images without
getting lost.
Before transferring images from your camera to your computer, you should
develop a system that lets you quickly find them later. Folders are the heart
of any image management system. The best way to organize your images on
your computer is to create a folder for images and then subfolders that
meaningfully identify the images they contain. The thing to keep in mind is
that your system is not about storing images, but about finding them. Ask
yourself, where youd be most likely to look for pictures of interest a year
from now, long after youve forgotten where you stored them.
There are a variety of ways to organize and name folders, depending on what
kind of photos you take or how you use them.
A chronological organization uses folders named with dates in the format
yyyy-mm-dd. For example, a folder named 20040210 would contain
photos taken or downloaded on February 10, 2004. When using dates, be
sure to add zeros to single digit months and days or the folders wont sort
into a perfect chronological order. You can use hyphens and underscores
between elements, but should avoid using spaces.
A subject organization uses folders named with subjects, events, projects,
or experiences. For example, a folder named Christmas 2002 would contain
images of that day. Emilys Birthday 2002 would contain images of the
birthday party.
These two approaches arent mutually exclusive. For example, if you orga-
nize images chronologically, you can add a comment after the date that
indicates the subject or project. Alternatively, you can create a chronological
system, and then copy the best images to separate subject or project folders.
The chronological folders act as an archive of original images, and the
subject or project folders become the versions you edit, print, or distribute.
This system has the advantage that you never actually edit your original
photos. Just be consistent or youll wonder a year from now if the project
folder contains copies or originals.
Once you have developed a system that works for you, you need to decide
what folders and files should be copied or moved to CDs or other long term
storage devices (page 00). In our example, you would always transfer the
original chronological folders, but only transfer the subject or project folders
if you want to preserve the collection of related images, save editing changes,
or distribute the images to others.
The tools you use to create folders, and view, transfer, and manage images
include those that come with your computer as part of the Windows operat-
ing system, thumbnail browsers, and at the top of the heap, image or asset
management programs that store thumbnails and descriptions in a database
so you can even locate images that are stored on CDs in a drawer. Well
explore these tools in the pages that follow.
Here is a tree from my
system. Because I use
so many cameras, I
create a folder for each
and then subfolders
listing the dates I
downloaded images. If
a folders images are
predominantly of a
single subject, I add a
short description.
TIP
Shorthand ways of
ordering and
separating days,
months, and years
vary from country
to country. How-
ever, sorting on the
computer works
best when dates are
in the format yyyy-
mm-dd.
43 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
STORING IMAGESHARD DRIVES
Hard drives have now become so inexpensive, and their storage capacity so
great, you can have an almost endless supply of hard disk space on which to
store your images. There are both internal and external models from which
to choose. The external models plug into USB 2 or Firewire ports and are
almost as fast at the hard drive built into your system. The best thing about
them is that if you have more than one system, upgrade to a new computer,
or visit a clients office, you can just plug your drive into the other computer.
On the newest systems you dont even have to install software drivers to
have it recognized. On older systems you may have to.
External hard drives are
great because you can
move them between
machines. LaCie makes
some high capacity
hard drives that are
very portable and
connect to USB 2 or
Firewire ports. Courtesy
of LaCie.
STORING IMAGESHARD DRIVES
Maxtor makes a line of
inexpensive high-
capacity hard disk
drives that are ideal for
digital photographers.
Courtesy of Maxtor
(http://
www.maxtor.com).
Currently, affordable drives have capacities up to 250 Gigabytesenough
room to hold more than 125 thousand 6 megapixel images at 2 Megabytes
each. If these were film images at 50-cents a picture, youve have a small box
of images worth over $60-thousand dollars!! The next step up is the Terabyte
drive and each terabyte holds 1,000 times more than a Gigabyte. One of these
drives will hold 500 thousand 2 Megabyte images. When you can eventually
get a 250 Terabyte drive, youll be able to store 125 million 6 megapixel
images. One way to think of this amazing capacity is by how long it would
take you to fill a drive. If you shot 100 photos a day, you could shoot for over
3 years before filling a 250 Gigabyte drive. Shooting at the same rate it would
take over 3,000 years to fill a 250 Terabyte drive. And forget backing these
drives up to CDs or DVDs. It would take 53 DVD or 357 CD discs to back up a
drive like this. Even tape backups have fallen far behind.
Portable digital image storage and viewing devices are advancing rapidly and
thats good because they meet a real need. When out photographing, if your
storage device becomes filled with images, you need a place to temporarily
store the images until you can transfer them to your main system. One device
used for this task is the notebook computer. Not only do many people already
have one of these, but their large screens and ability to run any software lets
you have a mobile version that duplicates your permanent setup. However, a
notebook computer isnt always the ideal temporary device because of its
An external drives AC,
USB, and Firewire
connectors. Courtesy of
LaCie.
44
CHAPTER 2. IMAGE FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
weight, short battery life, and long start-up time. Hence the introduction of
the portable hard drive or CD burners.
FlashTrax from
SmartDisk is one of the
new multimedia
storage/viewer devices.
(http://
www.smartdisk.com).
MAKING COM-
PARISONS
One tried and true
way to select
storage devices is
by comparing the
cost per megabyte
of various devices.
To calculate this
number, divide the
price of the device
by its storage
capacity in mega-
bytes. For example,
at the time this
book was written a
1 gigabyte
Microdrive was
selling for $359
and a 1 gigabyte
CompactFlash card
for $900. The two
costs per megabyte
were 0.36 vs 0.90.
Key chain flash drives,
also known as flash
drives or USB drives,
plug into the computers
USB port and act just
like a hard drive. These
devices are used to
move files from one
device to another. Their
storage capacity is
increasing rapidly.
Courtesy of SanDisk
To use one of these devices you insert your memory card into a slot, often
using an adapter, and transfer your images. You can then erase your cameras
storage device to make room for new images and resume shooting. When you
get back to your permanent setup, you copy or move the images from the
intermediate storage device to the system you use for editing, printing, and
distributing them. The speed with which you can make this transfer depends
on the connections supported by the device. Most support USB 2 and some
support FireWire. (If the device burns CDs, you can read them in your
systems CD drive just like any other CD.)
The latest trend is to incorporate image storage into multipurpose devices.
Many of these devices let you view your stored images on the device itself or
on a connected TVand even pan, rotate, and zoom the images. Some also let
you print directly to a printer without using a computer. The trend is to go
even farther and combine digital photos, digital videos, and MP3 music in the
same device. With a device such as this youre able to create slide shows with
special transitions, pans, and accompanying music and play them back
anywhere.
One way to eliminate or reduce the need for intermediate storage is to use a
higher-capacity storage device in the camera. For example, some devices now
store many gigabytes of data, enough to store hundreds of large photos.
45 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
STORING IMAGESCD DRIVES AND DISCS
CDs were the first inexpensive mass storage discs to follow the now rapidly
expiring 3 1/4-inch floppy and as a result they have been heavily used to
store, distribute, and display digital images. You can move images to them for
archival storage, copy images to them to send to friends or family, or even
create slide shows that can be played back on a computer or DVD equipped
TV set.
Smaller hard drives are never large enough to permanently store all of the
images an active digital photographer takes over the years. At some point, the
images have to be moved to a less expensive and more permanent storage
media, usually a CD or DVD (page 00) disc. If you dont have a drive that can
record or burn CDs, youll find that many photo stores can transfer your
images to a CD so you can erase them from the cameras memory card and
keep on shooting. In some cases, photo kiosks have CD drives as part of the
system. These resources can be especially helpful when traveling.
CDs, like DVDs, are optical storage devices, and the discs on which you store
images, are economical. To store your images on a CD, you need a CD-RW
drive (RW stands for ReWritable), the appropriate recordable discs, and CD
recording software. Since the data is recorded on the disc with a laser that
heats the surface, the process or recording or writing is often called burning
the disc. Writing, recording, and burning all mean the same thing.
CD discs, similar to the audio CDs so popular in the music recording industry,
store up to 700 megabytes of data. Depending on how they are burned, they
can store data readable on a computer, MP3 music files readable on many
audio devices, and even image files and low-resolution video that can be
played back on a late model DVD players. There are two kinds of CDs:
CD-Recordable (CD-R) discs can be written to once. These disks have a
thin layer of gold with a layer of green dye below. To record data, the laser
forms bumps in the dye layer. When played back, the computer reads a bump
as 1 and the absence of a bump as 0. The fact that you can only write to these
discs once isnt really a drawback. Many photographers want archival copies
of images and the fact that these discs cant be modified once created is
actually a benefit.
CD-ReWritable (CD-RW) discs can be recorded, erased, and reused, just
like a hard disk. These discs (and DVD-ReWritable discs) record data by
using a laser to change a material from a well-structured crystalline state to a
less-ordered amorphic state, a process called phase change. When a bit is in a
crystalline state it reflects more light than a bit in an amorphic state. The
drive can read these differences in brightness.
Since many of a CDs characteristics are fixed by specifications that make
them compatible with the millions of drives already in place, performance is
boosted by spinning them faster in the drive. The faster they spin, the faster
you can locate and open images. The spin rate is designated by the 2x, 4x, 6x,
and 8x designations each drive carries. For example, a 32x drive spins 32
times faster than the original 1x drives that transferred data at about 150
kilobytes per second. Generally, drives are slower at recording than they are
at playback. In specs and on boxes, youll often see a speed ratings for each
taskplayback, writing CD-R discs, and writing CD-RW discs.
CD drive. Courtesy of
LaCie
ARCHIVAL?
CD (and DVD)
discs are relatively
new forms of
storage. How long
they will last before
data is lost isnt yet
known with any
certainty. Most
tests use acceler-
ated aging that may
or may not accu-
rately reflect the
future. The consen-
sus seems to be
that they will last a
few decades if
manufactured and
stored properly.
Given the uncer-
tainty, the best
thing you can do is
buy only name
brands and store
them in acid-free
envelopes in a cool
dark place such as
a drawer or album.
STORING IMAGESCD DRIVES AND DISCS
46
CHAPTER 2. IMAGE FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
STORING IMAGESDVD DRIVES AND DISCS
The CD started it's journey as a way to distribute high-quality music and
evolved into a major storage medium for computer programs and data. The
newer DVD started its journey as a way to distribute high-quality movies, but
its now being widely adopted by computer users. (When a DVD device is
attached to the TV it's called a player, or a recorder if it has a built-in hard
drive. When attached to a computer it's called a drive.) The widening use of
DVD even required a name change. DVD started out as an acronym for
"Digital Video Disc" but when the standard was broadened to include com-
puters the acronym was claimed to stand for "Digital Versatile Disc."
More and more computers come with DVD drives that can playback DVDs
and even record on them. It's the recording part (often called writing or
burning) that's important for digital photographers, and it may be time to
give a DVD drive some consideration. There are two reasons to go DVD:
CDs can store, at most, 700 Megabytes of data. In an era of 4 Gigabyte
storage devices that fit into a digital camera, and the 15 megabyte RAW or
TIFF image files created by some cameras, 700 Megabytes of storage is
looking small indeed. DVDs currently store 4.7 Gigabytes, more that 7 times
the capacity of a CD. As two-sided discs become more common, the capacity
will climb to 9.4 Gigabytes. A new technology based on the development of a
blue laser will eventually push these limits to 30 Gigabytes and beyond. As a
place to store your images, DVDs have a great future.
DVDs that you burn yourself can also be played back on your TV set using
some late model DVD players. You can easily put slide shows together and
bore friends and family just like your father and grandfather did with their
slide projectors. But who says technology hasn't impacted our lives for the
better? It's made it possible for you to bore a lot more people than your father
ever dreamed of reaching. You can burn multiple DVDs and send them hither
and yon so they can be viewed anywhere in the world.
One good thing about moving to a DVD drive is that you don't loose compat-
ibility with the world of CDs. Almost every DVD drive will also read from and
record to CD-R and CD-RW discs.
COMPATIBILITY ISSUES
Although the reasons for getting a DVD drive are persuasive, buying one can
be confusing. There are too many ways to go wrong. The big problem we face
is summed up in the word "compatibility" defined by the dictionary as
existing or living together in harmony." There are two basic formats compet-
ing for your money and they are not compatible. Discs created on one drive
can't be read on the other unless your device supports both formats. The two
competing formats are known as the + (plus) and - (dash) formats and each is
supported by its own group of companies.
The plus (+) group, called the DVD+RW Alliance (www.dvdrw.com),
supports DVD+R (for discs you can write to once) and DVD+RW (for discs
you can erase and use over and over again.
The dash (-) group, called the DVD Forum (www.dvdforum.org), supports
DVD-R (for discs you can write to once) and DVD-RW (for discs you can
erase and use over and over again.
Sony Electronics makes
Dual RW DVD drives
that supports all of the
popular formats
including DVD-R/-RW,
DVD+R/+RW, and also
CD-R/CD-RW.
ITS NOT ALL
ABOUT PHOTOS
The new DVD
Audio standard
supports a much
higher quality
audio than CDs.
While CDs can
record frequencies
up to 20 Khz, DVD
Audio can record
up to 96Khz. The
CDs dynamic
range of up to 96dB
is topped by the
DVD Audios
144dB range.
47 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
When buying a new computer, the type of DVD drive you can add depends on
the company you are buying from. For example, while Dell and Hewlett-
Packard use plus (+) drives, Gateway, IBM, and Apple offer dash (-) drives.
Even when you can choose either format, the one you choose depends on
what you plan to do with it:
If storing images for your own use, it doesnt matter which format you use.
If your main interest is in distributing DVD disks to others as a way to
exchange files some hesitation is in order. If their DVD drives format is
different from yours, they won't be able to access your images. Most commer-
cial duplicators have standardized on the dash format.
An emerging problem is downstream from the computer. Its now easy to
burn slide shows onto DVD discs and play them on the TV. The problem is
that not all DVD players support discs burned on both plus (+) and dash (-)
drives. If anyone sends you a show to share with you, you have a 50/50
chance it will play on your system. Read the detailed specs very careful to be
sure the DVD player you buy supports at least the DVD format your DVD
drive burns.
When buying DVD discs, be sure they match your drive. For example, if you
have a plus (+) drive, buy only plus (+) discs. Youll find that there are
standard discs and much more expensive authoring discs. The authoring
discs are used when you are creating a master discs that will then be mass
produced. DVD-R and DVD+R discs tend to be more compatible with DVD
players attached to the TV than the rewritable formats.
OTHER DVD ISSUES
Speed is indicated in specs with numbers such as 1x, 2x, 4x and so on.
Generally there is a separate rating for recording (writing) and reading each
format including DVD-R/-RW or DVD+R/+RW, CD-R, and CD-RW. One
thing you can count on is that these speeds increase over time. For CDs, 1x
means you can record 150 kilobytes per second, but for DVDs 1x means 1.3
megabytes per second. This base rate of a DVD is about 9 times faster than a
CD so it's hard to compare the speed of the two without doing a little math. A
DVD that can record at 4x is about as fast as a CD that can record at 36x.
DVD drives come in both external and internal models. External drives
should connect to your computer using a fast Firewire or USB 2 connection.
If your computer doesn't have one of these ports, you can add them by
installing an inexpensive card from a company such as Adaptec
(www.adaptec.com) or Belkin (www.belkin.com).
Software you need to record DVD discs should come with the drive.
Because there are two major video broadcast standards in use around the
world (PAL and NTSC), dont count on your DVD slide show being playable in
another country.
CHOOSING A
DVD PLAYER
Here are some
questions to ask
about any player
you are consider-
ing:
Will it play DVDs
burned on your
own DVD player? If
you exchange discs
with others will it
also play those
discs?
Will it display
images stored on
CDs or DVDs? If so
does it do just
JPEGs or will it
also do the other
formats captured
by your camera?
Does it have a
slot for memory
cards so it can
display images
youve just take?
Does it have a
hard drive to store
images and shows?
STORING IMAGESDVD DRIVES AND DISCS
48
CHAPTER 2. IMAGE FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
STORING IMAGESCD/DVD BURNING SOFTWARE
To copy files to a CD or DVD, you need recordingsometimes called
authoring or burningsoftware. This software is readily available.
Almost all drives come with software, often a somewhat limited version of a
more powerful stand-alone program or suite of programs that you have to pay
for. The trend has been for these programs to add more and more features so
you can edit, organize, and create video, slide, and audio shows.
Many digital photography programs, such as those used to create slide
shows, photo albums, or manage your images have integrated the ability to
burn discs.
With the latest Windows and Mac operating systems you can burn a CD or
DVD directly from the operating system.
The features of these programs vary, but many include the ability to burn a
variety of files including music MP3s, photos, and videos. Some include
backup software to manage backing up your system. You can also use some to
create slide shows and videos to share with others. Depending on how you
burn discs, they can be played on the computer, some CD players, and even
late model DVD players connected to the TV (page 00).
When burning CDs or DVDs never move the images. Always use the copy
command. If something goes wrong when you are moving images, the files
already moved may not be recoverable. After successfully copying your
photos, you can delete them from your computer. (Be sure to check that you
can view and open the images on the CD/DVD before you do so.)
There are two ways to burn discsincrementally (multisession) or all at once.
Incremental (called track-at-once or multisession) recording lets you save,
copy, move, or even drag and drop files to a CD/DVD disc. In effect the CD/
DVD acts just like other drives on your system. When you eject a disc that
cant be rewritten (an R disk), the disk is closed and you have to specify some
options such as what computers it should be readable on. Usually the best
choice is to make it readable on any drive because you never know what youll
be doing a year from now. Another way to add data incrementally is called
packet writing but is not the same as multisession and is less frequently
supported.
All at once recording called Disc-at-Once recording burns the files to the
CD/DVD and then closes it so no further files can be added. Disc-at-Once
recording requires a blank disc, and cannot be used for multisession. As you
select files to be copied, the program indicates how much is being transferred
and how much space is left on the disk for new files. If you exceed the capac-
ity of a single disk, some programs can span disks and prompt you to insert
a new disc when the current disc is full.
When you want to make copies of your shows, youll find that many burning
programs also have a disk-to-disk duplicating command that you use when
you want a copy of an existing disk, even if your system has only one drive.
When your quantities get high enough, you need a disc duplicator to create
copies from the master disc. There are desktop units you can purchase (they
arent inexpensive) or you can use an outside service. These units recognize
the type of disk you are asking it to copy (audio, data, etc) and makes an exact
duplicate.
CDs and DVDs are a lot
less expensive when
you buy them on
spindles. You then use
envelopes to store them
in drawers.
Roxio is representative
of the trend to combine
a lot of separate utilities
into a loosely integrated
program. The top figure
shows the Windows
menu after the program
has been installed. The
bottom figure shows the
main menu that lets
you access the
components.
49 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
There are lots of
programs that help you
designed and print disc
labels. Courtesy of
ezlabel.com.
The Epson Stylus Photo
900 prints directly onto
the surface of inkjet
printable CD-R and
DVD-R media, thus
eliminating the
expense,
inconvenience, and risk
of using adhesive
labels. When ready to
print, you place the
inkjet printable CD or
DVD in a tray that
protects it as the tray
passes through the
printer's straight-
through paper path.
STORING IMAGESLABELING CD AND DVD DISCS
When you burn a disc, your software lets you add a short title that will be
displayed by your computer when you access the disc in a drive on your
system. The name will also be used by image management software (page 00)
to keep track of your images. If you dont specify a name, the software will
automatically generate one using the current date and time.
Once the disc is burned, you need to physically label it. Generally, the infor-
mation should be on the disc itself, not on an envelope or insert. Its too easy
for these to get separated from the disc. One way to label a disc is with a
permanent marker pen that writes on the non-recording side of the disc with
ink that wont rub off with use. For longevity reasons, the best choice is a pen
such as the Dixon RediSharp Plus! that uses water-based inks. Some of these
marker pens, such as the Sharpie use solvent-based inks. You can identify one
from its solvent odor. Solvents can attack the protective covering of the disc,
even when you write just on the label side. Over a long period of time, possi-
bly measured in decades, this can affect the data.
For a more professional look, you can buy press-on CD labels and print labels
on them. Once printed, you then stick them onto the surface of the CD or
DVD. One major problem is alignment because once the label sticks, it's
stuck. Unlike life, there are no second chances. Many labels come with an
alignment gadget that helps center and align the label. Various mechanisms
then press the label onto the CD. When using these labels, apply them after
recording the disc. If you apply one first and its slightly out of alignment, it
may affect the recording process.
Most CD burning programs include software you use to lay out and print
labels and even jewel case inserts. There are also kits available. The software
usually has a number of backgrounds from which to choose (or lets you use
your own photos as backgrounds), and text boxes into which you type your
text. You don't have to be technically proficient to get a good design.
Should you ever decide to ramp up your CD distribution efforts, the next step
is a CD label printer. There are even robots available that will insert one disc
after another into the printer. These printers print on special disks that have
one side prepared to accept ink. Inkjet printable discs are produced by several
major companies including Imation, Maxell, Memorex, Mitsui, TDK and
Verbatim and can be purchased from office supply and on-line retailers. A
few photo printers have experimented with adding the ability to print labels
directly onto printable disks. If the market supports this feature, it will
become more common.
If you ever do large quantities of a single disk, you may want to have them
professionally duplicated and the labels silk-screened. You can also give your
own discs a professional and personal appearance. Just have a supply of
blank discs silk screened with professional graphics, leaving a space to write
in specific information such as the discs's name or title.
Lumocolor pens from
Staedtler are
permanent markers
designed to write on the
shiny surface of DVDs
and CDs. Courtesy of
Staedtler (http://
www.staedtler.com).
STORING IMAGESCLABELING CD AND DVD DISCS
50
CHAPTER 2. IMAGE FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
IMAGE AND ASSET MANAGEMENT
If youve set up your folders systematically, its not hard to locate images
taken on a certain date or during a certain period. However, you need to see
the actual images to choose the specific ones that interest you. Thumbnails
are small versions of your images and when displayed as a contact sheet, they
let you quickly locate the images you are looking for. Viewing thumbnails is
so important this feature has been integrated into operating systems and
almost every digital camera and photography program.
THUMBNAIL VIEWERS
The days of the stand-alone thumbnail viewer are over, or at least numbered
except in small devices such as cameras, PDAs and cell phones. The ideal
thumbnail viewer lets you quickly scan a large grouping of photos and quickly
enlarge any so you can better evaluate the images. Some programs have a
slider bar that zooms the image larger and smaller. Others have a preview
type of command that enlarges an image to fill the screen. Windows XP has a
Filmstrip command that runs the small thumbnails along the bottom of the
screen and above this filmstrip it displays an enlarged version of the currently
selected thumbnail. As with all programs, features get added over time. Many
thumbnail programs also let you transfer images, look at selected images as a
slide show, rotate images, perform minor editing, and generate indexes in
HTML format.
The distinguishing feature of a thumbnail viewer is that it doesnt perma-
nently store information about an image or its thumbnail. Each time you
open a folder, the thumbnails must be generated from large image files all
over again. This can take some time, especially when there are a lot of images
or the computer is an older model. Permanently storing information and
thumbnails is left to a more advanced kind of program called an image or
asset manager that uses a database.
DATABASE MANAGERS
Some image management programs not only let you view thumbnail images
and information about the images, they permanently store this information
in a database. What is a database? In one respect its just a collection of plain
old facts. You interact with databases every day without even knowing it. For
example, when you use a Web site such as Google to search for the phrase
digital cameras, you are searching Googles database for Web pages in
which that phrase appears. In a database, data (facts) are stored in a very
structured way using tables with rows and columns much like a spreadsheet.
In a digital image database there is one row or record for each image or other
file being cataloged. Each record contains a number of columns or fields that
contain specific facts about the image. Typical fields might be the date the
picture was taken, the camera used to take it, the size of the image in pixels,
and the name of the file. The record for each image has the same fields, and
this is what makes the database so powerful. You can sort the table based on
the contents of any field. For example, you can sort it by the date pictures
were taken, by their size, or format. You can also search the database by
specifying what field to search in and what fact to find. Any images that
contain the specified facts in the specified fields are listed. Databases also let
you view the information in different ways. You can have it display just
Windows XP has a
filmstrip view that lets
you look at thumbnails,
with the currently
selected one enlarged.
Exif info displayed from
a ThumbsPlus database
(http://
www.cerious.com.
51 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
TIP
When you burn a
CD, you can add a
title to the disc.
This title is impor-
tant because it
identifies the disk
when you look at it
with Windows
Explorer or an
image manage-
ment program. If
you double-click
the thumbnail of
an image that isnt
currently on the
system, you are
prompted to insert
the disc. Its much
nicer to be
prompted to insert
Florida Trip Disc
1, then to insert
disc 020412_0849.
If you dont add
your own title to a
CD when burning
it, a number will be
assigned based on
the current date
and time. For
example, the
number
020412_0849
indicates the disc
was burned on
May 2, 2002 at
8:49 AM.
Many of these programs also index and catalog other files such as movies,
sounds, and the like. For this reason, these programs are called by the more
generic name asset managerseach file on your system from a Quark
document to a digital image being an asset.
Database-backed asset managers are used to manage small and large collec-
tions of images. They have all of the features found in operating system tools
and thumbnail browsers, but excel in three ways.
Since it takes time for the computer to extract a thumbnail image from an
image file, you often have to wait a long time to see whats in a folder. With
other viewers, you experience this delay each time you return to the same
folder. With a database, copies of the thumbnails are extracted from the full-
size images and stored separately in the database so the next time you look at
the folder, they instantly pop up on the screen.
System tools and thumbnail browsers can only display thumbnails and
other information of an image that is still on the system. With an asset
management program, you can view thumbnails of still images or first frames
of movies once they have been added to the database, whether they are still
on the system or not. This is because you are actually viewing thumbnails and
Exif tags that are copied from the image and stored in the database. Each
thumbnail is linked to its full-size image or points to it. If you open the asset
manager and double-click a thumbnail of an image thats still on the system,
the image opens full-size. If you double-click an image that is on a CD/DVD
in a drawer, the program tells you to insert the CD/DVD on which its stored.
Once you have a collection of removable disks, this really speeds things up.
Imagine looking through 20 or more CD/DVDs for an image, with a viewer
generating thumbnails each time you change discs! It's boring and time
consuming.
Some image management programs let you assign pictures anywhere on
your system to logical categories or virtual albums. The same image can
appear any number of such categories even though there is only one full-size
copy of the image on the system. When you assign an image to a category, the
program just copies its thumbnail and adds a link to the full-size image. For
example, an image of a summer meadow may appear in both a wildflower
and ecosystem category.
You can have one database for all of your disks, or create smaller databases
for each disk and store them on the disk along with the images. The only real
problem with one of these programs is that a database containing thumbnails
and other information about all of your images grows larger and larger over
the passing months.
A database contains
records on rows and
fields in columns.
thumbnails; or thumbnails, filenames, and image sizes. Another view might
be just the Exif tag information (page 00) so you can see what shutter speeds
or lens focal lengths were used for each image.
IMAGE AND ASSET MANAGEMENT
52
CHAPTER 2. IMAGE FILES AND FILE MANAGEMENT
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
The new kid on the
block that everyone is
talking about is iMatch
from Photools (http://
www.photools.com/)
IPTC
When you use a database to store images, you can add information to each
image such as key words, copyright notice, caption, and the like. The more
information you have, the easier it will be to find the image later and the
more you know about it. The problem is that when you send the image to
someone else, that information is not sent along because it's not part of the
image file as Exif tags are. To solve this problem, the International Press
Telecommunications Council (IPTC) defines a format for exchanging such
information in news content including photographs. Programs that
support this standard let you add, edit, and view this information thats
attached to the file just as Exif tags are.
ThumbsPlus is the
standard in low cost
image management
programs. Its published
by Cerious software
(http://
www.cerious.com)
53 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
CHOOSING IMAGE MANAGEMENT TOOLS
When choosing your image management tools, you need a checklist to help
you find the program that offers the features you want. It pays to be careful
in your selection because many of these programs are powerful and complex.
If youre going to spend time learning one, it should be the one you hope to
live with for awhile.
There is a belief among software publishers that more is better. As a result,
programs get stuffed with more and more features and programs become
bloated and hard to learn. When choosing image management tools, you may
not want or need everything, so often less is more. Keep this in mind when
looking for tools to use. In fact, you may look for a combination of tools. One
or more fast and lean programs for specific tasks, and another Swiss-army
type program that has a feature for every need.
One thing to keep in mind is that it requires a big investment in time and
learning to generate a database of your images. Its not one of those areas
where you want to try a lot of different software. Read lots of reviews before
you make your decision.
When selecting your tools, here are some of the widely available features you
might want to consider.
CHOOSING IMAGE MANAGEMENT TOOLS
BASIC FEATURES
Supports the file types you work
with
Displays thumbnails
Displays Exif and IPTC tags
Rotates thumbnails
Displays slide shows
Zooms and pans images
Sorts and searches for images
Creates contact sheets
SEARCH FEATURES
Searches or edits Exif tags
Searches or edits IPTC tags
Locates duplicate files
Uses a database to store thumb-
nails and other information
EDITING FEATURES
Resizes images
Converts image file formats
Removes red-eye
Performs batch conversions or
other processes
Crops images
Adjusts color and contrast
Preserves Exif tags and other
metadata
Sharpens images
DISTRIBUTION FEATURES
Creates HTML index page using
thumbnails
Includes FTP support to upload
images to the Web
Sends images as e-mails
Posts images to photo printing/
sharing sites
Makes selected photo wallpaper
on your Windows screen
Creates CDs with viewing or slide
show software
Adds slide show transitions and
special effects
Creates albums
54
CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
A
utomatic exposure control is one of the most useful features of almost
all digital cameras. Its great to have the camera automatically deal
with the exposure while you concentrate on the image. This is
especially helpful when photographing action scenes where there isnt time to
evaluate the situation and then set the controls manually.
You shouldnt, however, always leave the exposure to the automatic system.
At times the lighting can fool any automatic exposure system into producing
an underexposed (too dark) or overexposed (too light) image. Although you
can make adjustments to a poorly exposed image in a photo-editing program,
youve lost image information in the shadows or highlights that cant be
recovered. You will find it better in some situations to override the automatic
exposure system at the time you take the picture.
Situations in which you might want to override automatic exposure often
involve interesting or unusual lighting situations. For example, you need to
take control when you photograph into the sun, record a colorful sunset,
show the brilliance of a snow-covered landscape, or convey the dark moodi-
ness of a forest. In this chapter youll learn how.
Chapter 3
Controlling Exposure
CONTENTS
Understanding
Exposure The Shutter,
Light, and Motion The
Aperture, Light, and
Depth of Field
Choosing Exposure
Modes Using
Automatic Mode How
Your Exposure System
Works How Exposure
Affects Your Images
When Automatic
Exposure Works Well
When to Override
Automatic Exposure
How to Override
Automatic Exposure
Placing a Value
Using Histograms
AA30470C
55 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
UNDERSTANDING EXPOSURE
The most creative controls you have with any camera are the shutter speed
and aperture settings. Both affect the exposure, the total amount of light
reaching the image sensor, and so control how light or dark a picture is. The
shutter speed controls the length of time the image sensor is exposed to light
and the aperture controls the brightness of that light. You, or the cameras
autoexposure system, can pair a fast shutter speed (to let in light for a short
time) with a large aperture (to let in bright light) or a slow shutter speed (long
time) with a small aperture (dim light). One way to think of shutter speeds
and apertures is as faucets. You can fill (expose) a bucket with a small faucet
opening (aperture) over a long time (shutter speed), or a large faucet opening
in a shorter period. No matter which combination you choose, the bucket can
be filled the same amount.
When you let in just the right amount of light, the exposure is perfect. In most
cases, the cameras autoexposure system gets perfect or almost perfect
exposures. In other cases, you need to change the shutter speed or aperture to
lighten or darken the image. Both the shutter speed and aperture can be
changed in fixed amounts called stops. Some cameras even let you change
the exposure in even finer increments of 1/2 or 1/3 stops. In either case,
increasing the exposure lightens the picture and decreasing it darkens the
picture.
UNDERSTANDING EXPOSURE
Each change of 1 stop lets in half or twice the light of the next setting. If you
make the shutter speed 1 stop slower (letting in 1 stop more light), and an
aperture 1 full stop smaller (letting in 1 stop less light), the exposure doesnt
change. Speaking of exposure only, it doesnt make any difference which
combination of shutter speed and aperture you use used. But in other ways, it
does make a difference, and it is just this difference that gives you some
creative opportunities. Whether you know it or not, youre always balancing
camera or subject movement against depth of field because a change in one
causes a change in the other. In this chapter well explore how you control
exposures and the trade-offs you have to make.
The middle image
above was shot at the
suggested exposure.
The shots on either side
were exposed one or
two stops under and
over the suggested
reading to lighten or
darken the image.
One way to think of
exposure is like a
seesaw. As one child
rises a given distance
on the seesaw, the
other falls by the same
amount. Their average
distance from the
ground is always the
same. With your
camera set to
autoexposure, as you
change the aperture or
shutter speed to let in
more or less light, the
other setting changes in
the opposite direction to
keep the exposure
constant.
56
CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
CHOOSING EXPOSURE MODES
Many digital cameras offer various levels of control. When set to Auto mode,
the camera sets the shutter speed and aperture to produce the best possible
exposure. However, there are other exposure modes that are widely used in
photography. All modes give equally good results in the vast majority of
photographic situations. However, when you photograph in specific situa-
tions, these alternate exposure modes have certain advantages. Which mode
you choose depends on what you want to accomplish. Lets take a look at the
exposure modes you can expect to find. Keep in mind that the names of these
modes vary somewhat from camera to camera.
Auto mode sets both the aperture and shutter speed for you so you can
shoot without paying attention to settings and concentrate on composition
and action.
Programmed AE mode also sets the shutter speed and aperture just like
auto mode, but also gives you access to more settings then you can access in
Auto mode. Some cameras have a feature in Program AE mode that lets you
cycle through a series of aperture/shutter speed combinations that offer
identical exposures. By choosing the right combination you can choose to
emphasize depth of field or motion capture.
Scene Specific modes are also fully automatic, but each is designed for a
specific photographic situation such as portraits, landscapes, night scenes,
panoramas, and movies.
Shutter-priority mode lets you choose the shutter speed, and the
camera automatically sets the aperture. You select this mode when the
portrayal of motion is most important. It lets you set your shutter speed fast
enough to freeze the action or slow enough to blur it.
Aperture-priority mode lets you select the aperture (lens opening) and
the camera automatically sets the shutter speed. You select this mode when-
ever depth of field is most important. To be sure everything is sharp, as in a
landscape, select a small aperture. To throw the background out of focus so a
main subject such as a portrait stands out, select a large aperture.
Manual exposure mode lets you choose both the shutter speed and
aperture so you can get just the setting you want. You select this mode when
the other modes cant give you the results you want.
TIP
In some lighting,
your pictures can
be too light or too
dark in any expo-
sure mode. To
darken or lighten
them, use exposure
compensation
(page 00).
Many cameras have a
mode dial that you use
to select exposure
modes.
For many scenes such
as this Real Life Church
and Beach Club, auto
exposure mode is ideal.
57 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
USING SCENE SPECIFIC EXPOSURE MODES
Many cameras have a number of exposure modes designed for use in specific
situations. All of these modes work just like Full Auto, but draw on a library
of settings designed for specific situations. For example, in Portrait mode the
camera will select settings for a shallow depth of field so the background is
softer. In Landscape mode, it will do the opposite and select a small aperture
to give you as much depth of field as possible. (For more on the concepts of
depth of field, see Chapter 3.)
Portrait sets the camera for minimum depth of field so a portrait will have
a soft, and less distracting, background. To maximize the effect, zoom in on
the subject, use a long lens so the subject fills most of the viewfinder, and
make sure there is as much distance as possible between the main subject and
the background.
Landscape sets the camera for maximum depth of field so everything is
sharp from foreground to background. Since a slow shutter speed may be
used in this mode, you may need to support the camera . This mode works
best with a short focal length (wide-angle) lens and the built-in flash doesnt
fire in this mode.
Close-up is used to capture flowers and other small objects but on SLR
cameras isnt a substitute for a macro lens . This mode works best when
subjects are at the lens minimum focusing distance.
Sports mode is ideal for action sports and other fast-moving subjects. On
all cameras the shutter sped is set as fast as possible to freeze action. On some
cameras, the autofocus mode is set to keep a moving subject in focus and the
continuous mode is used so you can take pictures one after another as long as
you hold down the shutter button. For best results use a long focal length
lens.
Night Portrait is designed for photographing people or other nearby
subjects at twilight, night, or dawn. The flash illuminates foreground subjects
and the shutter speed is set slow enough to lighten the background. Since a
slow shutter speed may be used, you may need to support the camera. When
taking a picture, be sure to hold the camera still until the shutter closes; dont
move it just because the flash fires. Also, if people are in the foreground, ask
them to freeze until a few seconds after the flash has fired. In daylight, this
mode operates just like Full Auto.
Flash Off disables the built-in flash or any external flash when you don't
want it to fire. This mode is useful in places such as concerts and museums
where flash is prohibited.
Scene specific exposure
modes are often
indicated with icons.
USING SCENE SPECIFIC EXPOSURE MODES
58
CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
USING SHUTTER-PRIORITY MODE
The shutter keeps light out of the camera except during an exposure, when it
opens to let light strike the image sensor. The length of time the shutter is open
affects both the exposure of the image and how motion is portrayed in it.
Shutters in digital cameras are mechanical, electronic, or a combination of
these two. A mechanical shutter opens and closes to let light strike the sensor
for a specified time. An electronic shutter turns the sensor on and leaves it on
for the specified time, then turns it off.
In these pictures, the
shutter was left open
longer for the image on
the right than for the
one on the left while the
aperture was
unchanged. Its this
longer exposure time
that has made the
image lighter.
THE SHUTTER AND EXPOSURE
Slower shutter speeds let more light strike the image sensor making an image
lighter. Faster shutter speeds let less strike it and make the image darker. The
reason you dont see the change in your images is because when you change
the shutter speed in this mode, the camera changes the aperture to keep the
exposure constant.
THE SHUTTER AND MOTION
In addition to controlling exposure (the amount of light that reaches the
image sensor), the shutter speed is the most important control you have over
how motion is captured in a photograph. Understanding shutter speeds is
vital if you want to anticipate if a moving subject will appear in your image
sharp or blurred. The longer the shutter is open, the more a moving subject
will be blurred in the picture Also, the longer its open the more likely you are
to cause blur by moving the camera slightly.
THE WAY IT WAS: EARLY SHUTTER DESIGNS
The shutter, used to control the amount of time that light exposes the
image sensor, has changed considerably over the years. The earliest
cameras, using materials that might take minutes to be properly exposed,
came with a lens cap that the photographer removed to begin the exposure
and then replaced to end it. As film became more sensitive to light and
exposure times became shorter, faster shutters were needed. One kind
used a swinging plate while another design used a guillotine-like blade.
As the blade moved past the lens opening, a hole in the blade allowed
light to reach the film.
TIP
At shutter speed
settings below 1/15
second, check to
see if your camera
has noise reduction
(page 00). If so,
turn it on.
59 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
A fast shutter speed
(left) opens and closes
the shutter so quickly a
moving subject doesnt
move very far during
the exposure, a slow
speed (right) can allow
moving objects to move
sufficiently to blur their
image on the image
sensor.
UNDERSTANDING SHUTTER SPEED SETTINGS
Although digital cameras can select any fraction of a second for an exposure,
there are a series of settings that have traditionally been used when you set it
yourself (which you cant do on many digital cameras). These shutter speed
settings are arranged in a sequence so that each setting lets in half as much
light as the next slowest setting and twice as much as the next fastest. The
traditional shutter speeds (listed from the fastest to the slowest speeds)
include 1/1000, 1/500, 1/250, 1/125, 1/60, 1/30, 1/15, 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, and 1
second. Although speeds faster than 1 second are fractions of a second most
cameras display them without the numerator. For example, 1/2 second is
displayed as 2. Many high-end digital cameras have added two stops between
each of the traditional ones. This allows you to adjust exposure in one-third
stop increments for finer exposure control.
Katie turned a little just
as the shutter opened
causing unwanted blur
in the image.
Here a fast shutter
speed freezes a crane
as it lands on its nest.
Faster shutter speed let
in less light and
decrease the exposure
making the image
darker but reducing
blur.
USING SHUTTER-PRIORITY MODE
60
CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
USING APERTURE-PRIORITY MODE
The aperture diaphragm, often a ring of overlapping leaves within the camera
lens, adjusts the size of the opening in the lens through which light passes to
the image sensor. As it changes size, the aperture affects both the exposure of
the image and the depth of field in which everything is sharp.
APERTURE AND EXPOSURE
The aperture can be opened up to let in more light or closed (stopped down)
to let in less. Like the shutter speed, the aperture is used to control exposure.
The larger the aperture opening, the more light reaches the image sensor in a
given period of time. The more light, the lighter the image. The reason you
dont see the change in your images is because when you change the aperture
in this mode, the camera changes the shutter speed to keep the exposure
constant.
A shallow depth of field
can make part of an
image stand out sharply
against a softer
background. This
emphasizes the
sharpest part of the
image.
THE WAY IT WAS: EARLY APERTURES
A variety of designs in the past century and a half have enabled photogra-
phers to change the size of the lens opening. A form of the iris diaphragm,
still used in many of todays cameras, was used as early as the 1820s by
Joseph Nicephore Niepce, one of the inventors of photography. Water-
house stops, used in the 1850s were a series of blackened metal plates with
holes of different sizes cut in them. To change apertures the photographer
chose the appropriate plate and slid it into a slot in the lens barrel. With
wheel stops, different size apertures were cut into a revolving plate. The
photographer changed the size of the aperture by rotating the plate to align
the desired opening with the lens.
APERTURE AND DEPTH-OF-FIELD
Like shutter speed, aperture also affects the sharpness of your picture, but in
a different way. Changing the aperture changes the depth of field, the depth
in a scene from foreground to background that will be sharp in a photograph.
The smaller the aperture you use, the greater the area of a scene that will be
sharp. For some picturesfor example, a landscapeyou may want a smaller
aperture for maximum depth of field so that everything from near foreground
to distant background is sharp. But perhaps in a portrait you will want a
larger aperture to decrease the depth of field so that your subjects face is
sharp but the background is soft and out of focus.
61 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
UNDERSTANDING APERTURE SETTINGS
Aperture settings are called f-stops and indicate the size of the aperture
opening inside the lens. Each f-stop lets in half as much light as the next
larger opening and twice as much light as the next smaller opening. From the
largest possible opening to increasingly smaller ones, the f-stops have tradi-
tionally been f/1, f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, f/32, f/45. No
lens has the full range of settings; for example, the standard lens on a digital
camera will range from about f/2 to about f/16. Notice that as the f-stop
number gets larger (f/8 to f/11, for example), the aperture size gets smaller.
This may be easier to remember if you think of the f-number as a fraction: 1/
11 is less than 1/8, just as the size of the f/11 lens opening is smaller that the
size of the f/8 opening. On many digital cameras, there are one or two
settings between the traditional stops so you can change the aperture in fine
increments of 1/2 or 1/3 stops.
How wide you can open the aperture depends on the lens maximum aper-
tureits widest opening. The term fast lens usually applies to lenses that
can be opened to a wide maximum aperture for the focal length. For example,
a lens with a maximum aperture of f/1.8 opens wider, and is faster, than a
lens with a maximum aperture of f/2.6. Faster lenses are better when photo-
graphing in dim light or photographing fast moving subjects. With zoom
lenses the maximum aperture changes as you zoom the lens. It will be larger
when zoomed out to a wide angle, and smaller when zoomed in to enlarge a
subject.
Not all digital cameras have adjustable apertures, and of those that do the
choices are often quite limited. On cameras with interchangeable lenses, the
aperture is in the lens, not in the camera body.
Great depth of field
keeps everything sharp
from the foreground to
the background.
USING APERTURE-PRIORITY MODE
Smaller apertures let in
less light and decrease
the exposure making
the image darker but
increasing depth of
field.
62
CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
USING MANUAL MODE
When you want total and absolute control over exposures, you can switch to
manual exposure mode. In this mode, you manually select both the shutter
speed and aperture setting. Since automatic exposure combined with expo-
sure compensation is so easy to use, most photographers only resort to
manual mode in those rare situations where other modes cant give them the
results they want.
On many cameras an exposure scale or some other indicator shows you how
much you are under (-) or over (+) exposed. If the -2 or +2 are flashing it
means you are off by more than two stops.
The exposure scale.
AN ANALOGY
One way to think of
shutter speeds and
apertures is as
faucets. You can fill
(expose) a bucket
with a small faucet
opening (aperture)
over a long time
(shutter speed), or
a large faucet open-
ing in a shorter
period. No matter
which combination
you choose, the
bucket can be filled
the same amount.
Manual mode is often
used when doing
studio-like shots where
you know the right
exposure for the main
subject but want to try
variations on the
background.
63 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
HOW YOUR EXPOSURE SYSTEM WORKS
All exposure systems built into digital cameras operate on the same general
principles. A light-sensitive photocell regulates the amount of electricity
flowing in the metering system. As the intensity of the light reflected from the
subject changes, the amount of electricity flowing through the photocells
circuits changes and is used by the autoexposure system to calculate and set
the shutter speed and/or aperture.
Your cameras meter measures light reflecting from the part of the scene
shown in the viewfinder or on the monitor. The coverage of the meter (the
amount of the scene that it includes in its reading) changes just as your
viewfinder image changes, when you change your distance relative to the
scene or when you zoom the lens. Suppose you move close or zoom in and see
in your viewfinder only a detail in the scene, one that is darker or lighter than
other objects nearby: the suggested aperture and shutter speed settings will
be different than if you meter the overall scene from farther away.
METER AVERAGING AND MIDDLE GRAY
Your exposure meter doesnt see a scene the same way you see it. Its view is
much like yours would be if you were looking through a piece of frosted glass.
Your meter sees scenes
as if it were looking at
them through a piece of
frosted glass. It doesnt
see details, just
averages.
Every scene you photograph is something like a checker board (left), but even
more complex. Portions of it are pure black, pure white, and every possible
tone in between.
The exposure meter and exposure control system in an automatic camera
cant think. They do exactly what they are designed to do and they are de-
signed to do only one thing. Regardless of the scene, its subject matter, color,
brightness, or composition, the meter measures only brightness, or how light
or dark the scene is. The automatic exposure system then calculates and sets
the aperture and the shutter speed to render this level of brightness as
middle gray in the photograph. Most of the time this works very well
Where you see a black
and white checkerboard
(top), your camera sees
only an average gray
(bottom).
HOW YOUR EXPOSURE SYSTEM WORKS
64
CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
because most scenes have an overall brightness that averages out to middle
gray. But some scenes and situations dont average out to middle gray and
thats when autoexposure will lead you astray. Lets see why.
Many scenes contain a continuous spectrum of tones, ranging from pure
black at one end to pure white at the other. This continuous scale can be
thought of as dividing into a series of individual tones called a gray scale.
Each of the tones in this scale has received 1 stop more exposure than the
next darkest tone in the series, and one stop less exposure than the next
lightest tone. The tone in the middle is called middle gray. A subject uni-
formly of this tone reflects exactly 18% of the light falling on it.
The gray scale is a
series of steps having
different levels of
brightness.
When you photograph a subject with an overall tone of middle gray, your
cameras autoexposure system will set an exposure so that the subject will
appear in the final image as middle gray. This gives you an ideal exposure.
When you photograph subjects that have an overall tone lighter or darker
then middle gray they will also be middle gray in the final image and there-
fore look too light or dark. It may surprise you, but if you photograph a white
card, a gray card, and a black card, and each completely fills the viewfinder
frame when the exposure is calculated, each of the cards will be middle gray
in the captured image.
To make scenes that dont average out to middle gray appear in an image the
way they appear in real life, you have to use exposure compensation or some
other form of exposure control to lighten or darken the picture.
White, gray, and black
cards will all
photograph as gray
cards unless you use
some for of exposure
compensation.
65 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
TYPES OF METERING
All parts of a scene are usually not equally important when determining the
best exposure to use. In a landscape, for instance, the exposure of the fore-
ground is usually more important than the exposure of the sky. For this
reason some cameras offer more than one metering method. The choices
usually include two or more of the following:
Matrix metering divides the image area into a grid and compares the
measurements against a library of typical compositions to select the best
possible exposure for the scene.
Center-weighted meters the entire scene but assigns the most impor-
tance to the center quarter of the frame where the most important objects
usually are located.
Bottom-weighted meters the entire scene but assigns the most impor-
tance to the bottom of the frame so that a bright sky doesnt cause the fore-
ground to be underexposed.
Spot evaluates only the area within a small area in the middle of the
viewfinder. This allows you to meter just a specific part of the scene instead of
relying on an average reading. This mode is ideal when photographing a
subject against a bright or dark background.
Spot AF links spot metering to the same zone selected for focusing on
those cameras that offer a selection of focus zones (page 00).
Meter weighting can cause a few problems. For instance, a dark object located
off center against a very light background may not be exposed properly
because it is not located in the area the meter is emphasizing. Or, in some
cases, holding the camera vertically may give undue emphasis to one side of
the scene. These occasions are uncommon, but when they occur you can
ensure accurate exposure settings by metering the subject from close-up. The
camera settings can then be overridden if necessary to produce a well-
exposed photograph.
In many landscapes,
the most important part
of the scene is at the
bottom.
TYPES OF METERING
Canons Digital Rebel
has three metering
modesevaluative (a
form of matrix
metering), center-
weighted, and partial (a
form of spot metering).
These illustrations show
the area metered in
each mode.
66
CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
HOW EXPOSURE AFFECTS YOUR IMAGES
When you take a photograph, the exposure isnt uniformly distributed over
the sensors surfaceunless you are photographing a subject that is abso-
lutely uniform in tone. Highlights (brighter areas) in the scene reflect the
most light, and the areas of the sensor onto which they are focused are
exposed a great deal. Darker areas, such as shadows, reflect much less light,
so the areas of the sensor onto which they are focused receive much less
exposure. The perfect exposure retains details in both the highlights and
shadows. For the autoexposure system, this is as difficult as your parking a
very large car in a very small garage. If there is even a little too much expo-
sure, the image is too light and details are lost in the highlights. If there is too
little exposure, the image is too dark and details are lost in the shadows.
One way to ensure you get the best exposure is to take three pictures. The first
would be at the recommended setting. The second would be lighter and the
third darker than the original one. This process is referred to as bracketing
because youre bracketing the suggested exposure.
In this series of
photographs you can
see the effect of
exposure on the image.
The top photo is
correctly exposed. The
bottom left photograph
was overexposed and is
too light. The bottom-
right photo was
exposed too little and is
too dark.
67 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
WHEN AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE WORKS WELL
Most scenes that you photograph have an overall brightness of middle gray.
Some areas of the scene may reflect 90% of the light and other parts may
reflect 5%, but overall the average amount of light reflecting from the scene is
18%, the amount reflected by a middle gray subject.
Whenever you photograph a normal scene with this average brightness, your
automatic exposure system exposes it correctly. Typical middle gray scenes
include the following:
Scenes in bright sunlight where the subject is front-lit by a sun that is
behind you when you face the scene.
Scenes on overcast days or under diffused light, such as in the shade or in
evenly lit scenes indoors.
This image has detail in
the lightest (highlight)
and darkest (shadow)
areas. If just a little
darker or a little lighter
details would be lost in
the shadows or
highlights.
Portraits in indirect light
generally have the
tones needed to get a
good image without
additional exposure
control.
WHEN AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE WORKS WELL
68
CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
WHEN TO OVERRIDE AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE
Lets take a look at some of the most common situations where your auto-
matic exposure system will have problems. Its in these situations where
youll need to override the suggested exposure settings.
SCENES LIGHTER THAN MIDDLE GRAY
Scenes lighter than middle gray, such as beach scenes, or bright sand or snow
covered landscapes, reflect more than 18% of the light falling on them. The
autoexposure system doesnt know the scene should look bright so it calcu-
lates an exposure that produces an image that is too dark. To lighten the
image so it matches the original scene, you must override the cameras
automatic exposure system to add exposure.
The snow scene here is
typical of scenes that
are lighter than middle
gray. Most of the
important tones in the
scene are at the lighter
end of the gray scale.
The overall average
tone would be about
one stop brighter than
middle gray. For a good
picture you have to
increase the exposure
by one stop (+1) to
lighten it. If you didnt
do this, the snow in the
scene would appear too
gray (bottom).
69 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
SCENES DARKER THAN MIDDLE GRAY
Scenes that are darker than middle gray, such as deep shadows, dark foliage,
and black cloth, reflect less than 18% of the light falling on them. Although
such scenes are not as common as scenes lighter than middle gray, you will
come across them occasionally. If you photograph such scenes using auto-
matic exposure, they will appear too light. The meter cannot tell if the scene is
dark or just an ordinary scene with less light falling on it. In either case it
increases the exposure to make the scene lighter. When it does this, it overex-
poses the image and makes it too light. To produce a picture with an overall
tone darker than middle gray, you need to override the autoexposure system
to decrease the exposure to make it darker.
The black cat is
between one and two
stops darker than
middle gray. To darken
the scene so the cats
not middle gray,
exposure must be
decreased by one (-1)
or two (-2) stops.
Here the scenes were
underexposed to
silhouette the people in
the foreground. To
show detail in the
people, exposure would
have had to have been
increased two stops
(+2).
SUBJECT AGAINST VERY LIGHT BACKGROUND
Subjects against a very light background such as a portrait against a bright
sky or light sand or snow, can confuse an automatic exposure system, par-
ticularly if the subject occupies a relatively small part of the scene. The
brightness of the background is so predominant that the automatic exposure
system reduces the exposure to render the overall brightness as a middle
gray. The result is an underexposed and too-dark main subject.
Dark subjects against
bright backgrounds will
be too dark without
exposure compensation.
WHEN TO OVERRIDE AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE
70
CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
SUBJECT AGAINST VERY DARK BACKGROUND
When a small light subject appears against a large dark background, your
autoexposure system assumes the overall tone to be darker than it actually is,
because so much of the scene is dark compared to the smaller and brighter
main subject. The autoexposure system increases the exposure to produce a
middle gray tone. The result is an overexposed and too light main subject.
SCENES WITH HIGH CONTRAST
Many scenes, especially those with brightly lit highlights and deep shadows,
have a brightness range that cannot be completely recorded by an image
sensor. When confronted with such scenes, you have to decide whether the
highlight or shadow area is most important, then set the exposure so that
area is shown accurately in the final picture. In high contrast situations such
as these, move close enough so the most important area fills the viewfinder
frame. Use exposure lock from that position to lock in the exposure. Another
way to deal with high contrast is to lighten the shadows by adding fill flash. A
portrait, for example, lit from the back or side is often more effective and
interesting than one lit from the front. But when the light on the scene is
contrasty, too much of the persons face may be in overly dark shadow. In this
case use fill flash or a white reflector card to fill and lighten the shadows.
The early morning sun
illuminated this Ibis in a
pond. If the exposure
hadnt been reduced the
background would be
too light and the white
bird would have been
burned out and too
white. A scene like this
is a great place to use
spot metering.
The archway was in the
shadows and dark while
the cathedral was
brightly lit by the sun.
Both couldnt be
exposed properly, so
the archway was left as
a solid black.
TIP
In high contrast
settings, some
cameras let you
decrease contrast
at the time you take
the picture.
71 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
HARD TO METER SCENES
Occasionally its not convenient or even possible to meter a scene. Neon
street signs, spotlit circus acts, fireworks, moonlit scenes, and many similar
situations are all difficult and sometimes impossible to meter. In these cases,
its easiest simply to experiment, using the exposure compensation control on
your camera. After taking a picture at the suggested exposure, use exposure
compensation to take other exposures both lighter and darker than the
suggested settings.
A relatively small
subject against a wide
expanse of sky will
almost always be
underexposed unless
you use exposure
compensation.
This scene has a bright
sky and one brightly
illuminated fisherman
against a dark
background. A scene
such as this is hard to
meter because of the
variety of lighting.
WHEN TO OVERRIDE AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE
72
CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
HOW TO OVERRIDE AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE
Most digital cameras provide one or more ways to override the automatic
exposure system to get the exposure you want.
EXPOSURE COMPENSATION
The perfect exposure retains details in both the highlights and shadows. For
the autoexposure system, this is as difficult as your parking a very large car in
a very small garage. If there is even a little too much exposure, the image is
too light and details are lost in the highlights. If there is too little exposure,
the image is too dark and details are lost in the shadows.
When confronted with any subject lighter or darker than middle gray, you use
exposure compensation to lighten or darken the photograph that the camera
would otherwise produce. The amount you increase or decrease the exposure
is specified in stops. For example, to increase the exposure 1 stop, you specify
+1 to open the aperture or slow down the shutter speed. Its easy to use
exposure compensation because you can preview your changes on the moni-
tor and then immediately review the results.
To lighten a picture, you increase the exposure (+). This is useful for setups
where the background is much lighter than the subject, or when photograph-
ing very light objects, such beach, fog, or snow scenes.
To darken an image, you decrease the exposure (-). This is useful for setups
where the background is much darker than the subject, or when photograph-
ing very dark objects, such as scenes in the forest or with a dark background.
The almost universally
recognized exposure
compensation icon.
When metering an
object against a
background, the
background may have
more influence over the
exposure reading than
the object does.
Many digital cameras
display an exposure
scale when you use
exposure compensation.
Underexposing by 2
stops kept the
background dark while
correctly exposing the
spotlit subjects.
73 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
1. Here are three cards
that you photograph
with each filling the
viewfinder at the time
you take the picture.
2. The cameras
exposure system makes
all three cards appear
gray in the
photographs. Only the
middle card, the middle
gray one, photographs
correctly.
3. Using exposure
compensation to
increase the exposure
for the white card and
decrease it for the black
card captures them as
they really appear. Only
the middle card, the
middle gray one, needs
no exposure
compensation.
EXPOSURE LOCK
You can point the camera at an object and press the shutter button halfway
down to lock in focus and exposure. For example, with a gray barn sitting in a
white snow-covered field, you can use spot metering or move closer to meter
just the barn and hold down the shutter button to lock in that reading. You
can continue holding the button half way down and recompose the picture
using the locked in exposure and focus setting. Some cameras also have an
AE Lock function that lets you can lock exposure independently of focus.
AUTOEXPOSURE BRACKETING
One way to ensure you get the best exposure is to take at least three pictures.
The first exposure is made at the setting recommended by the camera (0). For
the second, exposure is increased (+) to make the image lighter. For the third,
exposure is decreased (-) to make it darker. This process is referred to as
bracketing because youre surrounding or bracketing the suggested expo-
sure. When shooting the series you can select the increment in the exposure
between images. In some cases it may be a full stop, in others a half or third
stop. In addition, if the lighting is really confusing, you can take 5 or more
images at different settings. Some cameras have an autobracketing feature
that does this for you automatically and lets you specify both the number of
exposures and the change in exposure between each shot. When you later
open the images in a photo-editing program, one of them should be the best
possible exposure to work from.
HOW TO OVERRIDE AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE
+2 +2 -2
74
CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
ZONES
0Pure black
IBlack with detail
IITextured black
IIIVery dark gray
IVDark gray
VMiddle gray
VILight gray
VIIVery light
gray
VIIINear-white
IXPure white
Bracketing gives you a
series of images at
different exposures.
PLACING A VALUE
If you have ever seen an Ansel Adams print, you probably marveled at the
way he used the entire tonal range to capture detail in both the highlights and
shadows. His prints reflect the incredible control he had over his images
using the Zone System he developed. By exposing and developing the film
correctly, he could expand or contact the tonal range of the negative to match
the tonal range of the scene. Although Ansels system was very scientific and
quite technical, much of what he was able to accomplish can be accomplished
with a digital camera and a photo-editing program such as Photoshop.
Ansels system is based on the general principle that you expose for the
shadows and develop for the highlights. In digital photography, you expose so
you have pixels to work with in all of the zones that you care about. The
camera displays a histogram so you can confirm that you have done this. You
then use a photo-editing program to adjust the tones so they fall in the
desired zones.
To begin, you use exposure compensation to place a value. To do this, you
select the most important part of the scene and meter it from close up or use
spot metering mode. The key is to have the area fill the viewfinder, or most of
it. You then decide what tone you want this area to have in the final image
and then expose the image so that tone appears as light or dark as you want.
Since autoexposure will make it middle gray, you may have to change the
exposure to move it to another zone. In manual mode you can do this by
changing the shutter speed or aperture. In other modes, you can use exposure
compensation to move it up to two zones in either direction. To guide you, the
Zone System divides tonal values into nine zones from pure black to pure
white. Each zone has one stop more or less exposure than the ones next to it.
OTHER CON-
TROLS
A few cameras let
you control bright-
ness and contrast
at the time you
capture an image.
Brightness
raises or lowers the
brightness of the
entire scene to
make everything
lighter or darker
without changing
detail in the
highlights and
shadows.
Contrast adjusts
the differences
between the
brightest and
darkest areas in the
image.
75 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
The horizontal axis represents the range of brightness from 0 (shadows) on
the left to 255 (highlights) on the right. Think of it as a line with 256 spaces
on which to stack pixels of the same brightness. Since these are the only
values that can be captured by the camera, the horizontal line also represents
the cameras maximum potential dynamic range.
The vertical axis represents the number of pixels that have each of the 256
brightness values. The higher the line coming up from the horizontal axis, the
more pixels there are at that level of brightness.
To read the histogram, you look at the distribution of pixels. An image that
uses the entire dynamic range of the camera will have a reasonable number of
pixels at every level of brightness. An image that has low contrast will have
the pixels clumped together and have a narrower dynamic range.
The way a histogram looks depends on the scene youre shooting and how you
expose it. Theres no such thing as a good or bad histogram. Whether a
particular histogram is good or bad depends on what you are trying to
accomplish. If fact, you may prefer to trust your visual reaction to the image
more than the very numeric image data provided by a histogram. However,
even if you never use a histogram, you can learn about digital images by
understanding what a histogram can show about an image.
One reason to check a histogram is to see if there are enough pixels in the
shadow, midtone, and highlight areas. If there are enough, even if the image
is somewhat off, it can be corrected in a program such as Photoshop using the
Levels command. This control allows you to adjust the shadow, mid, and
highlight areas independently without affecting the other areas of the image.
This lets you lighten or darken selected areas of your images without loosing
detail.
From the histogram you can determine the images darkest shadow and
brightest highlights; called the black point and white point. In fact, its the
USING HISTOGRAMS
Most serious photo-editing programs such as Photoshop and some digital
cameras let you use a histogram as a guide when evaluating your images.
Since most image corrections can be diagnosed by looking at a histogram, it
helps to look at it while still in a position to reshoot the image. Each pixel in
an image can record any of 256 levels of brightness from pure black (0) to
pure white (255). A histogram is a graph that shows how the 256 possible
levels of brightness are distributed in the image.
This series shows three
exposures of the same
subject and the
histograms for each
exposure. As you can
see there is a significant
difference in the
distribution of light and
dark pixels.
USING HISTOGRAMS
76
CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
range between these two points that defines the dynamic range (also called
the tonal range or contrast) of the image. If the image is low contrast, you can
also tell if its low-key or high-key from the histogram. A low key image has
details concentrated at the dark end of the scale. A high-key image has them
concentrated at the light end.
When shooting for printed reproduction, the printing process has a lower
dynamic range than your camera. Any tones at the extreme ends of the
histogram will block up and be pure white or pure black. Its best if you shoot
images that have the majority of their pixels in the middle 3/4 of the dynamic
range.
In Photoshop the Levels dialog box gives you five triangles you can drag to
adjust the distribution of brightness in your image.
The three triangles below the histogram work as follows:
Dragging the left (black) triangle to the right darkens the shadows.
Dragging the right (white ) triangle to the left lightens the shadows.
Dragging the middle triangle to the left or right lightens or darkens the
image.
The two triangles below the Output Levels gray scale bar also adjust the
image, having almost the opposite affect of the triangles above.
Dragging the left (black) triangle to the right lightens the shadows.
Dragging the right (white ) triangle to the left darkens the highlights.
HIGHLIGHT
INDICATOR
Some cameras will
highlight areas of
an image that have
been burned out by
overexposure. The
highlighted areas
are white without
any detail. To get
details into those
areas, you have to
reduce the expo-
sure. If exposure
compensation or
bracketing dont
give you the control
you need, you can
always switch to
manual exposure
mode.
77 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
AA30470C
O
ne of the first things you notice about a photograph is whether or
not it is sharp. Extremely sharp photographs reveal a richness of
detail, even more than you would normally notice in the original
scene. If the entire image isnt sharp, your eye is immediately drawn to the
part that is. If your photos arent as sharp as you want them to be, you can
analyze them to see what went wrong.
Focus. If none of your image is sharp, or if your main subject is not sharp
but other parts of the photograph are, your camera was improperly focused.
Depth of Field. If your central subject is sharp but the background or
foreground is less so, you didnt have enough depth of field.
Camera Movement. If the image is blurred all over, with no part sharp,
the camera moved during the exposure. Some points appear as lines, and
edges are blurred.
Subject Movement. When some of the picture is sharp but a moving
subject appears blurred, your shutter speed was too slow.
Chapter 4
Controlling Sharpness
CONTENTS
Eliminating Camera
Movement Sharpness
Isnt Everything How
to Photograph Motion
Sharply Focus and
Depth of Field
Controlling Depth of
Field Capturing
Maximum Depth Of
Field Using Selective
Focus Conveying the
Feeling of Motion
CHAPTER 4. CONTROLLING SHARPNESS
78
CHAPTER 4. CONTROLLING SHARPNESS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
ELIMINATING CAMERA MOVEMENT
Unwanted camera movement during the exposure is probably the major
cause of unsharp photographs. Any camera or subject movement when the
shutter is open will cause some blur in the image. It may not be noticeable at
some image sizes, but it will be there. If you can keep the camera from
moving your images are guaranteed to be free of blur even at slow shutter
speeds unless the subject moves. There are two parts to this equation, se-
curely mounting the camera and then triggering the shutter without introduc-
ing motion through camera shake.
You can reduce this problem in bright light and when using flash simply by
holding the camera steady and depressing the shutter release smoothly. At
slow shutter speeds, such as those you get in dim light, particularly with a
lens zoomed in to enlarge a subject, you need a camera support.
As you zoom your lens in on a subject, you are increasing the lenss focal
length. As you zoom back out, youre reducing it. The focal length, and the
amount the image is magnified, determines the minimum shutter speed you
need to use to hand-hold the camera and avoid blur. The rule of thumb is
never to hand-hold the camera at a shutter speed lower than your lens focal
length.
SUPPORTING A CAMERA
Holding the camera correctly, bracing it, and breathing correctly can reduce
camera motion. Use the optical viewfinder to take photos because you can
brace the camera against your face instead of holding it out at shaky arms
length. Just before taking a shot, inhale deeply, then exhale and hold your
breath while smoothly pressing the shutter button down. When holding the
camera for both horizontal and vertical photographs use your right finger to
press the shutter button and your left hand to support the camera. One way
to support the camera is to lean against a wall or tree and brace yourself with
your elbows tight to your body. You can also find a branch or railing to rest
the camera on.
The camera was steady
in the left picture and
moved in the right one.
Monopods are light,
collapsible, and
easy to carry.
Courtesy of Gitzo at
(www.gitzo.com).
TIP
SLR cameras have
a mirror that
swings up when
you take a picture
so light cam expose
the image sensor.
As light as this
mirror is, it can set
off vibrations when
it swings. To
prevent this, many
cameras have a
feature called
mirror lockup.
79 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
A few cameras come
with a wireless remote
control that lets you
trigger the shutter from
a distance.
Cable releases have
been around since the
dawn of photography
but very few digital
cameras accommodate
them.
Camera supports come
in all shapes and sizes
from tripods you carry
into the field (top) to
stands used in
professional studios
(right). Courtesy of
Bogen
A self-timer icon.
USING A TRIPOD
When you want the sharpest images you need a tripod and they come in a
bewildering variety and range of prices. One good thing is that many digital
cameras are light so you can get away without a tripod thats too heavy to
carry around. The best tripods come in three partsa leg set, a head, and a
quick release system.
Leg sets vary in stability, ease of use, and how high they can be raised.
Heads vary in their ease of use, especially when making fine adjustments in
the cameras position.
A quick release system lets you mount and unmount a camera quickly and
easily. Once you have used one of these you will wonder how you ever lived
without it. One of these systems has two parts. A clamp mounts on the tripod
and a plate screws into the cameras tripod mount. To mate the two, you slide
the plate into the clamp and tighten it in place with a screw or clamp. To
release it you just press a button or lever.
USING A SELF-TIMER, REMOTE CONTROL, OR CABLE RELEASE
Almost all digital cameras have a self-timer and a few have a remote control
or cable release socket. Any of these will let you release the shutter without
moving or vibrating the camera and reduce blur when photographing in dim
light. Just place the camera on a secure surface, compose the image, and use
the timer, remote, or cable release to take the exposure.
ELIMINATING CAMERA MOVEMENT
80
CHAPTER 4. CONTROLLING SHARPNESS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
SENSITIVITY AND NOISE REDUCTION
ISO is a set of standards from the Instrentaion Standards Organization used
to designate film speeds. There is no equivalent standard for digital cameras
but the sensitivity of a sensor to light is given as an ISO equivalent.
Just as with film, an image sensor with a lower ISO needs more light for a
good exposure than one with a higher ISO. To get more light you need a
longer exposure time that can lead to blurred images, or a wider aperture that
gives you less depth of field. If you need a faster shutter speed or smaller
aperture setting, changing the ISO is one way to get it . Increasing sensitivity
is a good way to get pictures without flash in places such as concerts and
museums where flash is prohibited. Typically, ISOs range from 100 (fairly
slow) to 3200 or higher (very fast). The higher the number the less light is
needed for an exposure.
Cameras increase ISO by amplifying the image sensors signal (increasing its
gain). Increasing sensitivity adds some noise to the image and the more you
increase sensitivity, the more noise you get. This is because increasing
sensitivity amplifies the captured signal, but also amplifies the background
noise captured along with it. The noise appears as randomly spaced bright
pixels in the image, especially in shadow areas. This noise reduces the images
sharpness and makes it look fuzzy. To reduce noise, many cameras have a
noise reduction mode that you can turn on.
The normal default sensitivity (Auto) is equal to about ISO 100. In the
outdoors its rare that youll have to increase sensitivity, but some cameras
will do it automatically if you leave it set to Auto. To keep the ISO from
increasing, take it off auto and set it to the lowest number, usually 100 or so.
Noise appears in an
image as grain or
multicolored ramdon
pixels.
81 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Motion in a scene can
be frozen or blurred
depending on the
shutter speed and other
factors Blur can be used
creatively to evoke a
feeling of motion as in
this shot of a waterfall
in Yosemite National
Park.
Shallow depth of field
can focus attention on a
foreground subject by
making the background
less sharp.
SHARPNESS ISNT EVERYTHING
SHARPNESS ISNT EVERYTHING
Your photos dont always have to be sharp to be effective. In many cases, its
better to have part of the scene sharper than the rest. Your pictures can be
sharp or unsharp in different ways. The first way concerns motion. Several
factors affect the way motion is captured in images. These include your image
sensors speed, the overall brightness of the scene, lens focal length, and
subject speed, direction, and distance. Another kind of sharpness concerns
depth of field, how much of the scene will be sharp in the image. Even if you
are photographing a static scene, your picture may not be sharp if you do not
have enough depth of field. However, a shallow depth of field can be used to
make a busy background less distracting by having it out of focus in the
picture. Several factors affect depth of field, including lens aperture, lens
focal length, and subject distance.
82
CHAPTER 4. CONTROLLING SHARPNESS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
HOW TO PHOTOGRAPH MOTION SHARPLY
The sharpness of different parts of an image helps direct the viewer who
tends to look first at the most sharply focused part of the picture. In addition,
sharpness itself can be part of the message of the photograph. The immobility
of a frozen figure can be made more apparent by blurring people moving in
other parts of the image.
Blur in a photo is caused when all or part of a subject focused onto the image
sensor moves when the shutter is open. To show a moving subject sharply,
the shutter needs to open and close before the image focused onto the sensor
moves a significant amount. In other words, you need to use a fast shutter
speed. But just how fast is fast enough? The answer depends on several
factors. Because several variables are involved, you cant always predict how
motion will be portrayed in the final photograph. So use different settings
and take more than one shot if possible. Try shooting from a different angle
or perhaps wait for a pause in the action. You are much more likely to get a
good shot if you have several to choose from. Just be aware that sharpness
and blur are hard to evaluate on the cameras monitor.
The shutter speed froze
the central dancer but
was slow enough to blur
the others. This makes
the central dancer the
most important person
in the photograph.
DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
When the shutter is open, a subject moving parallel to the image sensor will
cross more of the pixels on the sensor and be more blurred than a subject
moving directly toward or away from the camera. This is why you can use a
slower shutter speed to sharply photograph a subject moving toward, or away
from you, and not the same subject moving at the same speed moving from
one side of the scene to the other.
TIP
To capture fast
action, point the
camera toward
where the action
will occur and
press the shutter
button halfway
down to set focus
and exposure. Hold
the button down
until the action
happens and youll
be able to get a shot
off a lot faster.
SPEED OF SUBJECT
The faster a subject is moving, the faster the shutter speed you need for a
sharp image. However, its not the speed of the subject in the real world that
determines blur. Its how far the subject moves on the image sensor while the
exposure is being made. This depends not just on the subjects actual speed,
but also on the direction of its movement, its distance from the camera, and
how far the lens is zoomed.
83 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
DISTANCE TO SUBJECT AND FOCAL LENGTH OF LENS
If a subject is close to the camera, even slight movement is enough to cause
blur. A subjector part of onefar from the camera can move a considerable
distance before its image on the image sensor moves very much. The focal
length of the lens can also affect the apparent distance to the subject. Increas-
ing the focal length of your lensfor example, zooming in on a subjecthas
the same effect as moving closer to your subject. The more you are zoomed in
on it, the less a subject has to move in order to have its image move on the
image sensor and become blurred.
To visualize the effects of distance on blur, look out the side window of a
speeding car (but not when youre driving). The objects in the foreground
seem to fly by while those on the horizon dont seem to move at all.
On this speeding train,
the part closest to the
camera looks the most
blurred while the
farthest part looks
sharper. Since all parts
of the train are moving
at the same speed, this
shows how distance
affects blur.
HOW TO: INCREASING SHARPNESS OF MOVING OBJECTS
Photograph fast moving subjects heading toward or away from you.
Move farther back from the subject.
Zoom the lens to a wider angle of view.
Switch to shutter priority mode and select a fast shutter speed such as 1/
500.
Increase the sensors sensitivity to light although this adds some grain to
the image.
HOW TO PHOTOGRAPH MOTION SHARPLY
84
CHAPTER 4. CONTROLLING SHARPNESS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
FOCUS
Focus is only one of the factors affecting the apparent sharpness of your
photographs, but it is a critical one because it determines which parts of the
picture will be sharpest. To understand how, imagine the part of the scene on
which you focus as a flat plane, much like a pane of glass, superimposed from
one side of the scene to the other, so that the plane is parallel to the cameras
film plane. The parts of objects cut by this imaginary plane will be in critical
focus, the sharpest part of your picture. This plane of critical focus is a very
shallow band and includes only those parts of the scene located at identical
distances from the camera. If you manually or automatically focus on differ-
ent parts of the setup, the plane of critical focus moves closer to or farther
from the camera. As the plane moves, various objects at different distances
from the camera come into or go out of critical focus. On an SLR camera, the
plane of critical focus is whats normally shown sharpest on the viewfinders
ground glass. On point and shoot cameras you dont have this feature, but
some cameras will outline the sharpest part of the scene on the monitor or in
the electronic viewfinder.
Imagine the part of the scene on which you focus as a flat plane (much like a pane
of glass) superimposed from one side to the other of a scene, so that the plane is
parallel to the back of the camera or the image sensor. Objects falling exactly on
this imaginary plane will be in critical focus, the sharpest part of your picture. This
plane of critical focus is a very shallow band and includes only those parts of the
scene located at identical distances from the camera. As you point an autofocus
camera at objects nearer or farther away in the scene, the plane of critical focus
moves closer to or farther from the camera. As the plane moves, various objects at
different distances from the camera come into or go out of critical focus.
PLANE OF CRITI-
CAL FOCUS
The plane of
critical focus in
your image will be
the area that falls
within the focus
area in the center of
the viewfinder
when you press the
shutter button
halfway down.
Here the plane of
critical focus moves
from the eagle (top) to
the fence (bottom).
Here the plane of
critical focus moves
from the flowers in the
foreground (left) to the
building with a tower
(right).
85 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
The near and far limits of depth of field are shown here as two planes (B and C),
parallel to the plane of critical focus (A). Actually, they are usually not visible as
exactly defined boundaries. Nor can you usually find the plane of critical focus by
looking at a picture. Instead, sharp areas imperceptibly merge into unsharp ones.
Notice that in the diagram the depth of field is not evenly divided. At normal
shooting distances, about one-third of the depth of field is in front of the plane of
critical focus (toward the camera), and two-thirds is behind it (away from the
camera). When the camera is focused very close to an object, the depth of field
becomes more evenly divided.
DEPTH OF FIELD
This photo of a page
from this book shows
how shallow depth of
field can be when you
get close to a subject.
In both of these images
the plane of critical
focus has been placed
on the middle face. In
the top image a large
aperture was used to
give shallow depth of
field. In the image to
the right a small
aperture was use to
give great depth of
field.
DEPTH OF FIELD
A lens can only bring objects at a single distance from the camera into
critically sharp focus. But if you look at photographs, you can see a consider-
able area of the scene from near to far that appears sharp. Even though
theoretically only one narrow plane is critically sharp, other parts of the
scene in front of and behind the most sharply focused plane appear accept-
ably sharp. This area in which everything looks sharp is called depth of field.
Objects within the depth of field become less and less sharp the farther they
are from the plane of critical focus. Eventually they become so out of focus
that they no longer appear sharp at all.
Often it doesnt matter so much exactly what you are focused on. What does
matter is whether or not all of the objects you want to be sharp are within the
depth of field so they appear sharp. If you want a large part of the scene to be
sharp, you can increase the depth of field. You can decrease it if you want less
of the scene sharp. In some scenes, you can significantly increase or decrease
the depth of field simply by shifting the point on which you are focused or by
changing the aperture setting.
TIP
To control depth of
field, switch to
aperture-priority
mode and select a
small aperture for
great depth of field
or a large aperture
for shallow depth
of field.
86
CHAPTER 4. CONTROLLING SHARPNESS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
FOCUS TECHNIQUES
All digital cameras have an autofocus system, but many also provide addi-
tional ways to focus the camera.
AUTOFOCUS
A cameras autofocus system automatically adjusts the focus to make the
subject in the center of the viewfinder appear critically sharp. When you press
the shutter button halfway down, an autofocus (AF) lamp usually glows a
steady green.
When using autofocus, the plane of critical focus in your image will usually be
the area that falls within the focus area in the center of the viewfinder when
you press the shutter button halfway down. The biggest problem with
autofocus is getting it to focus on the right part of the setup. If the main
subject is too small or off center, the camera may focus on the background. If
there is more than one item in the setup it may focus on the wrong one.
If you are having a problem with autofocus, check first that you arent too
close to the setup. Next check that you are in macro mode when you should
be, or not in it when you shouldnt be (its easy to forget). Autofocus also has
problems with setups that have little contrast, when the object in the focus
point is brighter than the rest of the scene, when the subject is poorly illumi-
nated, when both near and distant objects fall within the focus point, or when
the subject is moving. If the camera cant focus, some cameras beep or blink a
lamp. If this happens, or if the camera focuses on the wrong thing, use
manual focus or focus lock.
Some camera can divide the scene up into zones and focus on any subject that
is closest to the camera regardless of which zone it falls in. This is ideal when
the main subject isnt centered. On these cameras, you can also manually
select the focus zone to be used. You can link spot exposure metering to the
active focus zone so the same part of the scene is used to set bot focus and
exposure. When using focus lock (page 64), focus locks on the subject in the
selected focus zone.
Since focusing is so important, many cameras have a number of options from
which you can choose
Single AF focuses only when you press the shutter button halfway down.
Continuous AF keeps the camera focused at all times.
Servo AF adjusts focus continuously as long as you hold the shutter button
halfway down. If the subject moves, the camera keeps it in focus as long as it's
covered by one of the focus areas.
Predictive AF predicts where a subject will be when the image is taken.
Manual focus is useful when the other focus modes dont work well. In this
mode, you focus by rotating the focusing ring on the lens.
Many cameras have a built-in autofocus assist illuminator that lights when
you press the shutter button halfway down to help the camera focus in dim
light.
Some cameras put
more than one focus
area or zone in the
viewfinder. Here five
areas are indicated with
square brackets. This
way you can manually
select the area used to
focus the camera.
The universal infinity
focus icon.
87 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
FIXED FOCUS SETTINGS
The simplest focus settings, and those found on the least expensive cameras
are fixed focus settings such as infinity, portrait, group and the like. These
settings, especially infinity, are so useful that even expensive digital cameras
may offer them. One of their big advantages is that the camera doesnt have to
spend time focusing, the distance are preset. This lets you get shots off more
quickly.
FOCUS LOCK
To change the position of the plane of critical focus, you can use a procedure
called focus lock. Most digital cameras have a two-stage shutter button. When
you press it down halfway, it sets focus, exposure and white balance. Some
cameras beep and illuminate a lamp when these readings are locked in. If you
dont release the shutter button you can then point the camera anywhere else
in the scene and the settings remain unchanged. This lets you set the focus at
any distance from the camera to control both focus and depth of field.
HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & ZONE FOCUSING
At times you want as much depth of field as possible because important parts
of a scene you want sharp are both near to and far from the camera. Maxi-
mum depth of field seems particularly important for photographs of land-
scapes and other scenes where a distant horizon is a part of the picture.
When a subject extends to the far distance, many photographers unthinkingly
focus on that farthest part of the scene. But since one-third of the available
depth of field falls in front of the point on which you are focused and two-
thirds behind it, focusing on the most distant part of the scene wastes two-
thirds of your depth of field. That may mean that some other part of the scene
in the foreground will not be included in the one-third remaining depth of
field and consequently will not be sharp.
For more depth of field, focusing on some object one-third of the way be-
tween you and the horizon brings forward the plane of critical focus and
increases the depth of field in the foreground of your picture. This new point
of focus is called the hyperfocal distance, defined as the point closest to the
camera on which you can focus while still keeping things at infinity in focus.
Canon EF lenses, with their manual focus capabilities, give you the opportu-
nity of using an old technique of focusing on the hyperfocal distance. When
you do so, the depth of field extends from halfway to the hyperfocal distance
all the way out to infinity. For landscapes, this provides you with the deepest
possible depth of field that you can obtain with the current aperture and lens
focal length you are using.
Understanding hyperfocal distance has a side benefit. It lets you pick the
sharpest possible aperture while still getting the depth of field you want. The
smallest apertures may give greater depth of field, but they also have interfer-
ence patterns that soften the image. For the sharpest possible images, you
should use the largest aperture that will give you the depth of field you need.
Heres how you use the lens markings on a wide-angle lens to set the hyperfo-
cal distance.
For action photography, you can use a variation of this technique, called zone
focusing, to prefocus and set depth of field so a specific range is always in
focus. If anything happens within that range you can quickly capture it
without focusing.
Here 6 feet (2m) on the
distance scale has been
aligned with f/11 on the
right side of the scale.
On the left side of the
scale, read up from f/11
to see that everything
from about 1.75 feet
(0.6m) to 6 feet (2m) is
in focus.
Here the infinity symbol
on the distance scale
has been aligned with f/
11 (the selected
aperture) on the right
side of the scale. On the
left side of the scale,
read up from f/11 to
see that everything
from about 2.5 feet
(0.7m) to infinity is in
focus.
The depth of field
markings on a Nikon
Lens.
FOCUS TECHNIQUES
88
CHAPTER 4. CONTROLLING SHARPNESS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
Depth of field preview
button (bottom).
CONTROLLING DEPTH OF FIELD
Sharpnessor the lack of itis immediately noticeable when you look at a
photograph. If you are making a portrait, you want only the person to be
sharply focused, but not a distracting background. In a landscape, on the
other hand, often you will want everything sharp from close-up rock to far
away mountain. Once you understand how to control depth of field, you will
feel much more confident when you want to make sure something isor
isntsharp.
To control how deep or shallow depth of field is, you have three factors to
work with.
Aperture size. The smaller the size of the lens aperture (the larger the
f-number), the greater the depth of field. The larger the aperture, the shal-
lower the depth of field.
Camera-to-subject distance. As you move father from the subject you
are focused on, you increase depth of field. As you move closer, you decrease
it.
Lens focal length. Zooming out to a wider angle of view increases depth
of field. Zooming in decreases it.
Each of these three factors affects depth of field by itself, but even more so in
combination. You can get the shallowest depth of field with a lens zoomed in
on a nearby subject using a large aperture. You get the deepest depth of field
when you are far from a subject, with the lens zoomed to a wide angle, and
using a small aperture.
To check the depth of field on an SLR-type camera, you press a depth of field
preview button that stops down the aperture to the one that will be used to
take the photo. On point and shoot digital cameras, the best way to check
depth of field is to take a trial picture and then play it back on the monitor
where most cameras will let you zoom it and then scroll around it to examine
details.
On the left, the
cameras depth of field
was deep enough to
keep both the flower
and sign in focus. On
the right it wasnt.
By changing focus, the
plane of critical focus
moves back.
89 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Here the camera was
set to aperture-priority
mode and the aperture
was changed for each
picture. The camera
automatically changed
the shutter speed to
keep the exposures
constant, but notice
how the depth of field
changed.
f/2.8
f/5.6
f/8
f/16
A large aperture gives a shallow depth of field (top). A small aperture gives greater
depth of field (bottom).
When you get the camera really close, dont expect much depth of field. Its
best to arrange the objects so the most important part falls on the same plane.
That way, if part of it is in focus, all of it will be. Another thing to try with a
zoom lens, is to use a wider angle of view. This will give you more depth of
field if you dont also have to move the camera closer to the subject (doing so
will offset the advantage of the wide-angle lens).
Shallow depth of field has its own benefits, so you dont necessarily have to
think of it as a problem. An out-of-focus foreground or background can help
isolate a subject, making it stand out sharply.
Normally we first compose an image using our position and lens focal length.
Once this is done, our only control over how much depth of field we get is the
aperture setting and placement of the plane of critical focus.
CONTROLLING DEPTH OF FIELD
90
CHAPTER 4. CONTROLLING SHARPNESS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
INCREASING DEPTH OF FIELD
Many times when you are photographing you will want to get as much depth
of field as possible because important parts of a scene are both near to and far
from the camera, and youll want all of them to be sharp. Maximum depth of
field seems particularly important for photographs of landscapes and close-
ups. When you want as much depth of field as possible, there are things you
can do to obtain it.
Dont focus on the part of the setup closest to the camera. Since one-third
to one half of the available depth of field falls in front of the point on which
you are focused, focusing on the front wastes one-half to two-thirds of your
depth of field. This may cause some other parts of the object to be unsharp
because they are not included in the one-third remaining depth of field. If you
focus one-third to one-half of the way back, you will shift the available depth
of field back to include more of the setup while still keeping the front part
acceptably sharp.
Increase the light on the setup so you can use a smaller aperture.
Zoom the lens out to a wider angle of view.
Move farther away from the subject.
Switch to aperture-priority mode and select a small aperture such as f/11.
Switch to infinity focus mode if the camera has one.
Here the depth of field
is great enough to
make the person in a
tower restaurant and
Niagara Falls in the
background sharp.
A typical infinity focus
icon.
F/64
In the early 1900s,
romantic soft focus
photos were all the
rage. Ansel Adams
and others formed
a group called f64
that strived to
popularize straight
photography
sharp, unmanip-
ulated images
Here a wide-angle lens
was used with a small
aperture to keep
everything in the
foreground and
background of this New
York street scene in
focus.
91 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
DECREASING DEPTH OF FIELD
Imagine you are photographing a scene something like the one below. Which
part of the scene are you most interested in? Chances are its the head in the
foreground and not the one in the background. One way to make something
stand out is to photograph it so it will be sharper than its surroundings--
called selective focus. When everything in a picture is equally sharp, the
viewer tends to give equal attention to all parts of the scene. But if some parts
are sharp and others are not, the eye tends to be drawn to the sharpest part of
the image. You can selectively focus the camera and your viewers attention on
the most important part of the scene if you restrict the depth of field so that the
significant elements are sharp while the foreground and background are less
so.
Digital cameras have great depth of field so you have to really push the limits
to see the effects of selective focus. Move close, zoom in, and select a wide
aperture. When using selective focus, here are some things you can do to
reduce depth-of-field:
Reduce the light on the setup so you can use a wider aperture.
Zoom the lens in to enlarge the subject.
Move closer to the subject.
Switch to aperture-priority mode and select a large aperture such as f/4.
Focus in front of or behind the subject to waste some depth-of-field.
TIP
Digital cameras
have great depth of
field so you have
to really push the
limits to see the
effects of selective
focus. Move close,
zoom in, and select
a wide aperture.
With the background
head out of focus
(right), your eye is
immediately drawn to
the foreground figure.
When both are sharp
(above), that doesnt
happen as quickly.
With the camera
focused on the vulture,
the guardrails in the
foreground go out of
focus.
DECREASING DEPTH OF FIELD
92
CHAPTER 4. CONTROLLING SHARPNESS
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
Panning the camera as
this young great blue
heron took off blurred
the background.
HOW TO: CONVEYING MOTION
Try blurring images in low-light situations. In bright light, the shutter
will open and close too fast.
Switch to shutter priority mode and select a slow shutter speed.
In some situations, you may want to turn the flash off when trying to
blur nearby subjects.
Panning with this barred
owl blurred the
background and created
an impressionistic
image.
CONVEYING THE FEELING OF MOTION
Blur can contribute a feeling of motion in the image that may be missing from
a more static shot. A slow shutter speed, or one of the other techniques
described here, causes a moving subject to move across the image sensor
during the exposure causing a blur that conveys a strong sense of motion.
These techniques often work best with a long lens or a big subject so the
subject doesnt look too small in the image. One place to begin is to shift to
shutter-priority mode and pick a slow shutter speed. You can use this setting
to deliberately blur moving objects such as running water.
Panning the camera in the same direction as a moving subject produces an
image where the subject is relatively sharp against a blurred background.
Your movement should be smooth and controlled to get a good pan, so begin
to pan the camera before the subject enters your viewfinder. Smoothly
depress the shutter release as you follow the motion of the subject, keeping it
in the same position in the viewfinder. Follow through as you would in golf or
tennis. Panning takes practice so take as many images as you can and erase
those that dont work. Results are quite unpredictable here because your body
motion adds yet another variable to the final picture.
93 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Chapter 5
Capturing Light & Color
I
mage sensors in digital cameras are designed to produce colors that
match those in the original scene. However, there is a lot of variation
among sensors and among the circuits and software that process raw
images into final photographs. The results you get depend, in part, on the
accuracy with which you expose the image and how the camera handles color
balance.
With film cameras, photographers usually explore a wide variety of films
before settling on the one or two they like best. This is because each film type
has its own unique characteristics. In some the grain is small, in others its
large. A film may have colors that are warmer than other films, or slightly
colder. These subtle variations among films are what make photographers
gravitate to one or the other. With digital cameras, you dont have this choice.
The film in the form of an image sensor is built into your camera. Whatever
its characteristics are, they are the characteristics you have to live with until
you buy another camera.
In this chapter, we explore the world of light and color and how you manage
it in your photos.
CONTENTS
Where Does Color
Come From? White
Balance Color
Balance and Time of
Day Sunsets and
Sunrises Weather
Photographing at Night
The Direction of Light
The Quality of Light
AA30470C CHAPTER 5. CAPTURING LIGHT & COLOR
94
CHAPTER 5. CAPTURING LIGHT & COLOR
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
WHERE DOES COLOR COME FROM?
Why do we see colors? Light from the sun or from a lamp seems to have no
particular color of its own. It appears simply to be white light. However, if
you pass the light through a prism, you can see that it actually contains all
colors, the same effect that occurs when water droplets in the atmosphere
separate light into a rainbow. A colorful object such as a leaf appears green
because when white light strikes it, the leaf reflects only the green wave-
lengths of light and absorbs the others. A white object such as a white flower
appears white because it reflects most of the wavelengths that strike it,
absorbing relatively few. Inks, dyes, or pigments in color prints also selec-
tively absorb and reflect certain wavelengths of light and so produce the effect
of color.
Although light from the
sun appears colorless or
white, it actually
contains a range of
colors similar to a
rainbow. You can see
these colors using a
prism to separate them
out.
White objects reflect
most of the
wavelengths of light
that strike them. When
all of these wavelengths
are combined, we see
white. When all of them
are absorbed, and none
reflected, we see black.
A green object such as
a leaf reflects only
those wavelengths that
create the visual effect
of green. Other colors
in the light are
absorbed by the leaf.
95 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
WHITE BALANCE
Although light from the sun and a light bulb looks the same to us, they
actually contain different mixtures of colors that affect the color of any scene
they illuminate. The color of the light is specified by its color temperature in
degrees Kelvin, somewhat like the room temperature is specified in degrees
Fahrenheit or Centigrade. As color temperature increases it moves through
the colors red, orange, yellow, white, and blue white in that order. Daylight
contains proportionately more light toward the blue end of the spectrum.
Incandescent light contains more toward the red end. (Despite the fact that
blue light has a higher color temperature than red light, we refer to blue as
colder and red as warmer.) Here are the approximate color temperatures of
lighting sources you are likely to encounter in your photography.
Incandescent3,000 K
Fluorescent4,200 K
Direct Sunlight 5,200 K
Flash5,400 K
Cloudy6,000 K
Shade8,000 K
To capture images with colors that look like they were shot at midday, you
can use flash with the same color temperature as daylight. Alternatively, you
can take advantage of our digital cameras unique white balance system. This
system adjusts the image so its colors appear the way they would look if shot
in daylight. For example, the fluorescent setting compensates for the greenish
light from fluorescent lamps and the tungsten setting compensates for the
warmer, more reddish color of tungsten lights.
As you change the cameras white balance setting you can preview color
balance by looking at a scene or captured image on the monitor. If you
examine an image closely you may notice that white areas in particular have
some color cast to them. If so, you may want to adjust white balance for
subsequent shots. Many digital cameras offer a number of white balance
settings, including the following:
Auto works in a wide variety of lighting conditions and is the default
setting that you should try first. If it doesnt work you can try other settings
such as flash or tungsten, or manually set white balance if your camera lets
you.
Manual (also called preset) lets you set white balance manually while
aiming the camera at a piece of white paper, neutral gray paper, or other
evenly lit neutral surface, under the same light youll be using to take the
picture. This is the best setting when photographing under mixed lighting
(any combination of daylight, tungsten, and florescent), as you often are in
the home or office.
Flash is best when photographing with flash.
Daylight is best when photographing outdoors in bright sunlight.
Fluorescent is best when photographing indoors under fluorescent lights.
Often there is more than one fluorescent setting because there is more than
one kind of fluorescent bulb.
TIPS
If you like the
warm glow of
incandescent lights,
you can capture
that look when
shooting under
them by setting
white balance to
Daylight.
The image on the
screen is displayed
using the current
white balance
setting. Use it as a
guide, but also
check the captured
image.
The color
temperature of
most light bulbs
changes over time
and as they warm
up. Be sure to
check white
balance each time
you take pictures,
or periodically
during a long
session.
Typical white balance
icons (clockwise from
top) are auto (AWB),
manual, flash,
fluorescent, tungsten,
cloudy, shade, and
sunlight.
WHITE BALANCE
96
CHAPTER 5. CAPTURING LIGHT & COLOR
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
White balance settings
on your camera can
have a huge effect on
the colors you get. Here
the same subject has
been photographed with
two different settings
daylight (top left) gives
it a warm look, and
auto or tungsten
(bottom right) renders
the colors more
realistically.
These two photos were
taken under the exact
same light, but with
different cameras. Both
the gray background
and yellow colors differ
significantly.
Incandescent or tungsten is best when photographing indoors under
incandescent lights.
Cloudy is best when photographing outdoors in cloudy or overcast condi-
tions.
Shade is used in open shade such as under a tree where the only light is
the blue reflected from a clear sky.
Daylight is best in direct sunlight.
97 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Ideally, every light source illuminating a subject would have the same color
temperature so the cameras white balance system could capture perfect
colors. This is how it is done in a studio. However, in other settings mixed
light is more often the case. For example, indoors there is usually ambient
light streaming in windows and direct light from tungsten lamps or maybe
flourescent fixtures. Outdoors the subject may be lit on one side by direct
sunlight, and on the other by light reflecting off a colored wall. When you set
white balance, it can only be set for part of the subject. Other parts will have
some color shifts to them, especially shadow areas or parts of the subject
farthest from the brightest source of light. These areas are more likely to be
illuminated primarily by light from another source. If light reflected from the
blue sky is illuminating shadow areas, these areas will appear blue.
In addition to selecting a white balance setting, some cameras give you others
ways to ensure you get the colors you want.
White balance bracketing takes a photo and then processes it using a series
of white balance adjustments. At least one image is at the setting youve
specified, one is redder, and the other bluer.
Fine tuning controls let you manually adjust the selected white balance
setting to make it slightly redder or bluer.
Saturation controls the intensity of color in an image and some cameras let
you increase or decrease it.
RAW mode (page 00) doesnt use a white balance setting. You select one
latter, while editing ther image on your computer. This is the ideal situation
since you can change the white balance while looking at the image on the
screen and seeing the effect your change has. If you dont like the result, you
can undo it and try another setting.
Color temperture settings let you set the camera to a specific color tem-
perature. If you want to get really serious, you use a color temperature meter
to detemine the exact color temperture of the light, then use this setting to
match it.
The tungsten lights
create a pool of light
that white balanced can
be set to capture
accurately. However,
light coming through
the windows will make
everything else blue.
The almost universally
recognized manual
white balance icon.
WHITE BALANCE
Using a program such
as Photoshop you can
set the white balance of
a RAW image after
youve taken it.
98
CHAPTER 5. CAPTURING LIGHT & COLOR
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
COLOR BALANCE AND TIME OF DAY
In photography, there is a color of light called daylight. However, this type
of light occurs only at a specific time of day. Over the course of the day, the
light can change from a warm red at sunrise, to a cold blue at noon, and then
back to a warm red or orange at sunset. Daylight on the color temperature
scale is really set for midday sun between 10 A.M. and 2 P.M on a clear day.
During these hours, colors appear clear, bright, and accurate in a photo.
Before and after midday, light from the sun is modified by the extra distance
it travels through the Earths atmosphere. Some of the blue light is filtered
out, leaving the light with a more reddish cast than at midday. This is easily
seen very early or late in the day when the light is often quite red-orange in
tone. The change in color will affect your pictures strongly, and this reddish
cast is a wonderful light to photograph in.
Early morning and late
afternoon light
produces a more
reddish color balance
than you get at midday.
Just before dawn and at
dusk, colors often
appear muted or
monochromatic. During
these hours when light
is relatively dim, you
often have to use an
extra-long exposure
time.
Midday light on a sunny
day will produce colors
that appear natural and
accurately rendered.
99 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
SUNSETS AND SUNRISES
Sunsets and sunrises are relatively easy to photograph because the exposure
is not as critical as it is with some other scenes. If you underexpose the scene
slightly, the colors will simply be a bit richer and darker. Slight overexposure
will make the same scene slightly lighter.
The sun often takes on
a flattened appearance
as it rises above the
horizon. When partially
obscured and softened
by a haze, its warm,
red glow illuminates the
foreground.
The colors in the sky are often richest in the half hour before the sun rises and
the half hour after it sets. It pays to be patient as you watch the sky change
during these periods. For one thing, the sun itself is below the horizon and
not in the image so exposure problems are greatly reduced. Also, clouds in
the sky often light up dramatically and in some cases, reflect the light to other
clouds until you find yourself under a wonderful canopy of reflected color.
Every sunrise and sunset is unique and the variations can be truly amazing.
Its certainly not true that if youve seen one sunrise or sunset, youve seen
them all. If you want the sun in the photo, it has to be softened and partly
obscured by a mist or haze. If it rises or sets as a hot white or yellow ball, find
another subject, or turn around and photograph the scene its illuminating.
With the bright disk of
the sun included in a
sunset or sunrise, your
picture may come out
somewhat
underexposed and
darker than you
expected it to be. Add 1
or 2 stops of exposure
to a sunset or sunrise
that includes the disk of
the sun.
Sunrises and sunsets by
themselves arent
always interesting. Its
objects in the
foreground, such as a
skyline, or unusual
atmospheric effects
such as this dark cloud,
that give them some
punch.
WARNING!
Never look at the
bright sun
through the
viewfinder. You
can seriously
damage your
eyes.
SUNSETS AND SUNRISES
100
CHAPTER 5. CAPTURING LIGHT & COLOR
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
Its tempting to take all of your photos of a rising or setting sun, but it often
pays to turn around. The rich, warm light changes the colors of everything it
hits. This is a magic time to capture images that will really stand out. Colors
take on a warm, soft glow that cant be found at any other time of the day.
Here the camera was
positioned so the rising
sun was behind one of
the grain elevators and
wouldnt burn out the
image with its glare.
Instead of shooting into
the sun at sunrise or
sunset, shoot with it
behind you to capture
rich, warm colors of
scenes bathed in the
suns light.
A long-focal-length lens
enlarges the disk of the
sun so that it becomes
a more important part
of the picture.
Foreground objects
silhouetted against the
bright sky, can also add
interest.
ANTICIPATING THE SUN AND MOON
When planning to integrate the sun or moon into an image it helps to
know when it rises or sets and what phase the moon is. This information is
available in almanacs and on the Web at the U.S. Naval Observatory
(http://www.usno.navy.mil).
101 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
WEATHER
Theres no need to leave your camera home just because the sun hasnt come
out. In fact, rain, snow, fog, and mist can add interest to your pictures.
Objects at a distance often appear diffused and gray in such weather, with
foreground objects brighter than normal because they are seen against a
muted background. Remember to take a little extra care in bad weather to
protect your camera against excessive exposure to dampness.
Snow covered scenes
are not only beautiful to
look at, they make
great photographs.
A light fog subdues
colors and softens
objects in the
background.
WEATHER
102
CHAPTER 5. CAPTURING LIGHT & COLOR
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
Rainbows always make good pictures. The problem is, you rarely find them
where you want them, when you want them. To get better at capturing them,
you should know something about how they form so you can anticipate them.
Rainbows are formed by sunlight being refracted by raindrops. Youll usually
find the combination of rain and sun at the leading or trailing edge of a
summer storm. You cant see rainbows at all times of the day. To understand
why, visualize the way the rainbow works. If you stand with your back to the
sun while looking at a rainbow, imagine a line from the sun passing through
your eye, through the Earth, and out into space. (This is called the antisolar
point.) The rainbow forms a complete circle around this imaginary line,
however from ground level part of it is always below the horizon. A line
drawn from your eye to the top of the rainbow forms a 42-degree angle with
the imaginary line from the sun through your eye. (If there is a secondary
rainbow, it forms an angle of 51 degrees.) Because these angles determine the
position of the rainbow in the sky, it will sink as the sun rises and rise as the
sun sinks. At midday, the entire rainbow, not just the bottom half, will be
below the horizon where you cant see it.
From a plane you can
sometimes see all 360
degrees of a rainbow.
Here you see a section
of one shot through an
airliner window. To the
right of the brighter
primary rainbow is a
dimmer secondary one.
A very light mist can
dim the sun enough to
include it in a
photograph. If it
werent partially
obscured by the fog, it
would appear as a white
dot against a very dark
background.
CAMERA CARE
In the cold, the
monitor may be
slow to come on or
suddenly change
color. Batteries also
run down a lot
faster. To prevent
these problems,
keep the camera
under your coat so
it stays warmer.
103 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
PHOTOGRAPHING AT NIGHT
You can photograph many different things outdoors at night, so dont put
your camera away just because the sun is gone for the day. Light sources
(street lights, automobile lights, neon signs, or fires) or brightly lit areas
(illuminated buildings or areas under street lights) will dominate pictures at
night because they stand out strongly against darker backgrounds. Plan to
use these bright areas as the dominant part of your picture. A tripod will
support your camera during long exposures and prevent blur caused by
camera motion during the time the shutter is open.
This old train station
was shot at night with
just illumination from
lights on the platform.
To capture interesting images of fireworks, put people or water in the fore-
ground. It also helps if there are identifiable objects in the image such as an
illuminated building or monument to give the viewer a sense of place. Get
upwind from the show since fireworks generate a lot of smoke that can
become a problem if you are downwind. If you are upwind, the smoke will
also become part of the image, illuminated by the fireworks. Automatic
exposure doesnt work well with fireworks. If you can, set your exposure by
switching to aperture-priority, shutter-priority, flexible program, or manual
mode and choosing the largest aperture and a shutter speed of 1/30 second or
bulb (page 00). Try a series of exposures of different bursts because there is a
certain amount of luck involved. You might also use flash to illuminate
foreground figures or one of the continuous modes to capture a series of
images (page 00).
You might try increasing the ISO (page 00), use exposure compensation or
autoexposure bracketing (page 00), and try different combinations of aper-
ture and shutter speed. For example, a very slow shutter speed might let you
capture more than one burst. For special but hard to predict effects, you
might try slow-sync flash if there is a foreground subject that can be illumi-
nated (page 00).
Fireworks can be
dramatic, but are
difficult to capture. You
need to experiment and
a digital camera is
perfect for that because
you can instantly review
your results.
TIPS
At night, turn off
the flash unless
you want to
illuminate nearby
subjects. Leaving it
on will throw off
your exposure.
PHOTOGRAPHING AT NIGHT
104
CHAPTER 5. CAPTURING LIGHT & COLOR
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
Resting the camera on
a bench for this picture
captured a soft,
romantic image of the
moons reflection on the
sea.
The rising full moon,
and the trail it leaves
across the water adds a
lot to this photo of an
old-fashioned coal-
burning power plant on
Salem Harbor.
The moon, especially when full, adds a lot to an image. The best time to
capture the moon is when its near the horizon. Because it is close to fore-
ground objects at that time, it looks much larger than when its higher in the
sky. Keep in mind that the moon is relatively dim and usually requires long
exposures. Since its moving relative to the Earth, longer exposures can
actually blur it, giving it a slightly oblong shape. To reduce the chances of this
happening, shoot just before sunrise or just after sunset when there is still
some light in the atmosphere from the recently set sun. (It bends around the
Earths curvature due to refraction in the atmosphere.)
When you photograph with long shutter speeds, usually above one second,
the image sensor collects noise along with image pixels. The noise appears as
grain in the image, reducing its sharpness and making it fuzzy. To eliminate
this noise, some cameras have a noise reduction mode that cancels out the
noise for better images.
USING BULB
In addition to your normal shutter speed settings, you can choose bulb. This
cancels the flash and keeps the shutter open as long as you hold down the
shutter button; up to 60 seconds. To avoid blur in your images due to camera
shake, use a tripod and the self-time, remote control, or cable release so you
dont move the camera when you press the shutter button.
Noise appears in an
image as grain or
multicolored ramdon
pixels.
105 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
TIPS
At night, here are some things you may want to explore:
Use noise reduction mode to reduce noise in the dark areas of the image.
Switch to manual exposure mode and use bulb.
Try slow sync flash for unusual lighting effects.
Increase the ISO.
If focus is a problem, switch to infinity focus or manual focus.
Use the self-timer, remote control, or cable release to trigger the shutter
without moving the camera.
The moon makes any
scene look better and
looks especially good
with water in the
foreground to reflect its
light.
The full moon taken
with a telephoto lens on
a digital camera.
PHOTOGRAPHING AT NIGHT
Slow sync flash lets you
lighten what would
otherwise be a black
background when you
use flash at night.
106
CHAPTER 5. CAPTURING LIGHT & COLOR
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
THE DIRECTION OF LIGHT
The direction that light is coming from relative to your cameras position is
important because it affects the shadows that will be visible in your picture.
Four main types of lighting are illustrated here: front-lighting, side-lighting,
backlighting, and top-lighting. Notice the position of the shadows in these
photographs and how they affect the subjects.
The direction of light can affect your automatic exposure. Backlighting, for
example, can leave your subject silhouetted against a background so bright
that your automatic exposure system will underexpose the scene and make
the subject even darker. This is fine, if you want a silhouette. If you dont, you
should use exposure compensation to lighten the image.
Side-lighting that falls
mainly on one side of
the subject increases
the sense of texture
and volume because
such cross-lighting
casts shadows visible
from the cameras
position that emphasize
surface details.
Landscape
photographers often
prefer to work early in
the morning or late in
the day because the
low sun sidelights
scenes and adds
interesting surface
textures.
Front-lighting that falls
on the subject more or
less from the cameras
position decreases
visible shadows and so
minimizes surface
details such as skin
texture. Front-lighting
also tends to minimize
the apparent roundness
or volume of the
subject
107 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Backlighting that comes
from behind the subject
puts the side of the
subject that is facing
the camera in shade.
Automatic exposure
tends to make backlit
scenes too dark. You
can add exposure to
lighten the picture,
especially those parts
that are in shade.
THE DIRECTION OF LIGHT
108
CHAPTER 5. CAPTURING LIGHT & COLOR
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
Top-lighting that comes
from overhead can
occur outdoors at noon
or indoors in public
buildings or other
places where ceiling
lights predominate. If
you are photographing
a person, you will notice
that top-lighting tends
to cast shadows in eye-
sockets and illuminate
the top of the nose
brightly. To avoid this
effect, you might try
moving the person into
the shade.
Top-lighting can
selectively illuminate
things, such as this flag
in the mans back
pocket, that would be in
shadow with light
coming from a lower
angle.
109 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Direct light comes from
a point source, such as
the sun on a clear day.
Direct light produces
dark, hard-edged
shadows that crisply
outline details. Here the
light and shadows
almost form an
abstraction.
Diffused light comes
from a light source that
is so large relative to
the subject that it
illuminates from several
directions. On a hazy or
overcast day,
illumination comes from
the entire dome of the
sky, not from the
brighter, but smaller,
sun. Indoors, light
bounced into an
umbrella reflector or
onto a wall or ceiling
creates a broad source
of light that wraps
around the subject.
THE QUALITY OF LIGHT
Light not only has direction, it can be direct or diffused. Direct light coming
mainly from one direction, produces relatively high contrast between bright
highlights and dark shadows. Diffused light bounces onto the subject from
several directions, lowering contrast. Contrast, in turn, affects the brilliance
of colors, the amount of texture and detail, and other visual characteristics.
In direct light you may have to choose whether you want highlights or shad-
ows to be correctly rendered because image sensors can accurately record
only a limited range of contrast between light and dark areas. If this creates a
problem because both highlights and shadowed areas are important, you can
sometimes add fill light to lighten shadows and decrease contrast and some
cemeras let you adjust a contrast setting. In diffused light, colors tend to be
softer than in direct light and textures are also softened because shadow
edges are indistinct.
THE QUALITY OF LIGHT
110
CHAPTER 6. USING LENSES
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
M
any digital cameras come with zoom lenses so you can zoom in or
out to meet different photographic opportunities. Zoom in on a
subject and you can capture distant action at sporting events or in
the field. Zoom out and you can capture a wide-angle view of a large group, a
roomy interior, or of an expansive landscape. The ability to change your angle
of view as you frame your image is one of your most powerful creative con-
trols. Although built-in lenses are ideal for most situations, there are times
when one lens cant meet all needs. As digital cameras with interchangeable
lenses become more affordable, your choices increase. Digital cameras from
companies with a long history in photography often have vast arrays of lenses
that can be used on digital cameras as well as film cameras. These range from
fish-eye lenses for extreme wide-angle shots, to lenses that will capture an
athletes expression across the width of a football field. If youre new to
photography, youll be amazed at the difference high-quality interchangeable
lenses can make.
In this chapter we look at both built-in and interchangeable lenses and how
you use them creatively.
Chapter 6
Using Lenses
CONTENTS
Digital Camera
Lenses Zoom Lenses
Normal Focal Lengths
Short Focal Lengths
Long Focal Lengths
Portraits With a Long
Focal Length
Perspective in a
Photograph Macro
Mode and Macro Lenses
Lens Converters
Tilt-Shift Lenses Lens
Accessories
AA30470C
111 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
DIGITAL CAMERA LENSES
The characteristics of your cameras lens has a huge impact on the quality of
your photos. Most digital cameras come with built in zoom lenses. However,
cameras with interchangeable lenses are becoming increasingly affordable.
FOCAL LENGTHS
One of the most obvious characteristics of a lens is its focal length or in the
case of a zoom lens, its range of focal lengths. This is because a lenses focal
length determines its angle of view or how large an area of a scene you can
capture. A long focal length (telephoto) has a narrow angle of view and lets
you capture smaller subjects farther away such a bird on a tree limb. A short
focal length (wide-angle) has a wide angle-of-view and lets you capture a wide
area such as a room interior or landscape.
Focal lengths by themselves dont tell you much. What photographers care
about is how much of a scene they can capture. The problem is that at any
given focal length, this depends on the size of the image sensor. Since differ-
ent cameras have differently sized image sensors camera companies have a
difficult time describing their lenses. They know their lens is 7.1mm but most
photographers have no idea what that focal length means on that particular
camera. All they know is that on a 35mm camera that would be a fisheye lens.
To make focal length designations more meaningful, digital camera lenses are
compared to 35mm camera lenses with which many photographers are
already familiar. Experienced photographers know that a 35mm lens on a
35mm camera is wide-angle and a 180mm lens is telephoto.
For a digital camera with a built-in lens, you are given the actual focal
length of the lens and then an equivalent focal length on a 35mm camera that
would capture the same area in a scene. For example, a camera may list its
lens as 7.5mm (equivalent to 50mm on 35mm camera). Zoom lenses will give
you a range of focal lengths. For example a lens may be listed as 7.1mm-
23mm (35-105mm equivalent in 35mm photography).
Cameras with interchangeable lenses are often adapted from 35mm film
cameras and use the same lenses as the film versions. These lenses project an
image circle onto the image sensor that is designed to cover a frame of 35mm
film. When used on a digital camera, the angle of view captured in the image
depends on the size of the cameras image sensor. If the digital version of the
camera uses an image sensor thats the same size as a frame of 35mm film,
called a full-frame sensor, then a lenses angle of view is the same as it is on a
film version of the camera. If the image sensor is smaller than a frame of film,
as many are, it will capture a smaller area, effectively increasing the lenses
focal length. Effective focal lengths can increase by a factor of 1.5 x or so
compared to the indicated focal length of the lens. As a result, a lens that is
100mm on a film camera will be 150m on the digital version. This multiple
works across the entire family of lenses that work with the camera, making
wide-angle lens less so on a digital camera, and making telephoto lenses more
so.
Digital cameras with interchangeable lenses designed from the ground up
for digital photography are just appearing. The Four Thirds(4/3) system
introduced by Olympus and Kodak establishes an open standard so lenses
can be swapped between all 4/3 cameras regardless of who made them. Every
camera and lens will have the same lens mount, image circle size and connec-
tions so the lens and camera can exchange information.
On Canons digital SLR
cameras the image
sensor (medium sized
rectangle) has an area
of 22.7 x 15.1mm in
comparison with the 36
x 24 mm image size of
a 35mm film camera
(largest rectangle). The
smallest rectangle
shows how small some
other digital camera
image sensors are.
Interchangeable lenses
give you options. Here
are just some of the
lenses that fit Canons
digital cameras.
A wide-angle lens (top)
has a wider angle-of-
view than a telephoto
lens (bottom).
DIGITAL CAMERA LENSES
112
CHAPTER 6. USING LENSES
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
A lens projects the
image as a circle and
the size of the film or
image sensor
determines how large
an area of the circle is
captured. Here the
larger frame is the area
captured by a 35 mm
camera and the smaller
frame the area captured
by a typical digital
camera image sensor.
FOCAL LENGTH
The focal length of a lens is the distance between the optical center of the
lens and the point at which it focuses an image. When you use a magnify-
ing glass to focus the light from the sun onto a sheet of paper, the area
illuminated by the beam will become larger or smaller as you change the
distance between the magnifying glass and paper. At the point where the
bright circle of light is smallest (and where it might set the paper on fire),
the simple lens that constitutes the magnifying glass is in focus. At that
point the distance between the magnifying glass and the paper is the lens
focal length.
SYNONYMS
When you read about lenses or hear people talk about them, there are a
number of synonyms used that can be confusing. For example:
A wide-angle lens is often called a short focal length lens, or just a short
lens. To get a short focal length on a zoom lens you zoom it out to a wider
angle of view.
A telephoto lens is often called a long focal length lens, or just a long
lens. To get a long focal length on a zoom lens you zoom it in to a narrower
angle of view.
Interchangeable lenses
usually have a lens
release button.
Some photographers
spend more time
discussing lens quality
issues than they do
taking pictures. One
reaction against this has
been the widespread e
of the Diana, a plastic
camera sold as a toy in
the 1960s. (http://
www.huskudu.com)
Pinhole cameras dont
even need a lens. They
just let the light in and
focus it through a small
pin hole.(http://
www.mottweilerstudio.com)
113 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Here you can see the
electrical contacts inside
the lens mount.
Courtesy of Olympus.
Light is bent when it
passes between
substances having
different densities. You
can see this if you look
at an object that is both
in and out of water; for
example a spoon in a
glass half full of water
looks bent at the point
where it enters the
water. Obviously, the
spoon isnt bent; the
light reflecting from the
spoon is, as it passes
from the dense water to
the less dense air. The
same effect occurs
when light passes from
the air through a piece
of glass. If the glass is
curved correctly, as it is
in a camera lens, it can
bend the light in such a
way that an image of
the scene in front of the
lens is focused behind
it.
MAXIMUM APERTURES
A lens maximum aperture is determined by dividing the actual diameter of
the aperture opening into the focal length of the lens. Thats why the aperture
on a zoom lens might change from f/2.6 when zoomed out to f/4 when
zoomed in on a subject. Large maximum aperture on long lenses are heavy
and expensive because the front elements must be so large. Despite this,
nature photographers and photographers on the sidelines at sporting events
use such huge lenses. They need very large maximum apertures to get action-
freezing shutter speeds. The larger the maximum aperture of a lens, the more
ability it has to gather light. Larger maximum apertures allow faster shutter
speeds, even in low light situations. The theoretical maximum aperture is f/
1.0 and a few lenses have that capability. Generally, lenses have smaller
maximum apertures, especially at longer focal lengths.
ELECTRONIC LENS MOUNTS
Digital cameras with interchangeable lenses use electrical rather than me-
chanical connections. These connections provide the power needed by a
small motor in the lens that controls autofocus and the electromagnetic
diaphragm that controls aperture settings. This electronic system is much
more accurate, reliable, and flexible than older mechanical linkages.
FOCUSING TECHNOLOGY
A few digital cameras with built-in zoom lenses have a focus ring, and these
rings are standard on all interchangeable lenses. In most lenses small motors
move lens elements for autofocusing.
IMAGE STABILIZATION
If youve ever photographed in dim light, or tried to hand-hold a long tele-
photo lens, you know how easy it is to get blur in your images from camera
shake. In most cases, we resort to tripods or other camera supports to reduce
or eliminate this. However, some lenses use image stabilization (IS). Lenses
with this feature contain gyro sensors that sense movement of the lens and
micro-motors that instantly shift a special lens group to compensate for the
motion and keep the image steady on the sensor. These lenses break the old
rule that you should never hand hold a lens using a shutter speed slower than
the reciprocal of the lens focal length. For example, when using a standard
125mm lens, you normally shouldnt use a shutter speed slower that 1/125.
Image stabilized lenses let you add two stops to that calculation. You can
hand hold an image stabilized 125mm lens at 1/30 of a second shutter speeds.
Note that when using an image stabilized lens on a tripod, you should turn
off image stabilization. If you dont, you can actually add blur to the image.
(A few lenses have a mechanism that prevents this problem.) This is because
when image stabilization is on, the special image stabilization lens group is
free to move. If it moves or vibrates while everything else is perfectly stable,
blur results. When image stabilization is off, the image stabilization lens
group is locked in place so it cant move.
On some image stabilized lenses the view through the viewfinder still shakes
so some lenses now stabilize the viewfinder image as you pan the camera to
follow a moving subject.
A lens with a larger
maximum aperture
(right) will let in more
light than those with
smaller maximum
apertures.
DIGITAL CAMERA LENSES
114
CHAPTER 6. USING LENSES
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
ZOOM LENSES
A zoom lens lets you choose any focal length within the range the lens is
designed for. When you change focal lengths by zooming the lens, important
effects are immediately obvious.
Angle of view refers to how much of a scene the lens covers. Zoomed out,
you have a wide-angle of view that captures a wide expanse of a scene. As you
zoom in, the field of view narrows and you can isolate small portions of the
scene without moving closer to the subject.
Magnification is related to the lens angle of view. Since zooming out
includes a wide sweep of the scene, all of the objects in the scene are reduced
to fit into the image. Zooming in gives a much narrower angle of view, so
objects in a scene appear larger.
Maximum aperture gets smaller as you zoom in on a subject. This may
force the camera to compensate with a slower shutter speed to keep the
exposure constant.
On cameras with a built in lens there are two buttons or a movable lever.
Pressing one zooms in, increasing the focal length and narrowing the angle of
view. Pressing the other zooms out, decreasing the focal length and widening
the angle of view. On interchangeable lenses, there is a zoom ring that you
rotate for the same effects. The viewfinder zooms along with the optical zoom
lens although it doesnt always show the entire picture area.
Zooming a lens gives
you a choice of angle of
view. Here, a lighthouse
in Maine is photo-
graphed from the same
spot with a short,
normal, and long focal
length.
If your camera has a
zoom ring on the lens,
you can turn it during a
slow exposure to streak
lights.
A zoom lens lets you
control the angle of
view.
Zoom comes in two varieties; optical and digital.
An optical zoom actually changes the amount of the scene falling on the
image sensor. Every pixel in the image contains unique data so the final photo
is sharp and clear.
A digital zoom uses sleight of hand by taking a part of the normal image
falling on the sensor and then enlarging it to fill the sensor. It does this by
adding new pixels to the image using interpolation. The interpolated image
doesnt have as many unique pixels as one taken with an optical zoom so is
inferior. In fact, you dont even need this zoom feature because you can get
exactly the same effect just by cropping a normal image in a photo-editing
program and then enlarging it.
115 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
NORMAL FOCAL LENGTHS
A normal lens for a 35mm camera usually refers to a lens with a 50mm
focal length. When using a normal focal length, look at the image on the
monitor or in the viewfinder of an SLR camera, and the scene looks about the
same as it does to the unaided eye. With a longer focal length, everything
appears closer than it actually is. With a shorter focal length, everything looks
farther away.
A normal focal length isnt necessarily the one photographers choose for
much of their work. Many prefer the wider angle of view and greater depth of
field provided by a shorter focal length.
SEE FOR YOURSELF
A lens is called normal because it captures a scene just as the human eye
does. This seems to violate common sense because the eyes angle of view
is much wider than any normal lens. However, you can demonstrate this
for yourself using a zoom lens. While a passenger in a car, try zooming the
lens as you watch the traffic ahead on the monitor or in the viewfinder of
an SLR camera. A longer focal length makes distant cars appear right on
top of you. With a shorter focal length, cars look far ahead, even when
relatively close. A normal focal-length makes the cars appear in the same
distance relationship as you perceive them ordinarily.
Another demonstration is to take two photographs of greatly different size
and tape them to a wall. Look at them one at a time on the cameras
monitor or through an SLRs viewfinder with the lens zoomed to a normal
focal-length a little above its widest angle. Move close enough so each fills
the monitor. Youll discover you are at the correct distance for viewing the
prints. With a longer focal-length you would feel too far away, and with a
shorter one too close.
Its hard to look at a
photo and tell what
focal-length lens was
used to take it.
However, objects in an
image taken with a
normal lens look normal
in their spatial
relationships.
NORMAL FOCAL LENGTHS
116
CHAPTER 6. USING LENSES
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
If you dont get too
close to your subjects a
short focal length is
good for indoor
portraits where
including the setting is
important.
A short focal length
increases depth of field
and widens the angle of
coverage making it
ideal for interior shots.
The great depth of field
also makes focusing
less critical so you can
capture those fleeting
moments you might
otherwise miss.
SHORT FOCAL LENGTHS
Short focal length lenses give you a wide-angle of view that lets you capture a
wide expanse of a scene. This wide angle of view is ideal for capturing land-
scapes and when photographing in small rooms where you cant position the
camera a great distance from the subject.
Short focal lengths have great depth of field. This makes them ideal for street
or action photography. When out to capture quickly unfolding scenes, use a
short focal length so youll have maximum depth of field when you respond
quickly to a photo opportunity.
LENS FLARE
When photograph-
ing toward a bright
light source such as
the sun or a studio
light, short focal
lengths are prone
to lens flare.
117 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Shooting down on these
two girls makes their
heads look much larger
than they really are
since they are much
closer to the camera
and its wide-angle lens.
Short focal lengths also let you focus very close to your subject, and the effect
this can have on the perspective in your images can be dramatic. Objects very
close to the camera loom much larger than those farther in the background.
This distortion in the apparent size of objects can deliberately give emphasis
and when carried to an extreme, give an unrealistic appearance to a scene.
Cameras with fixed lenses often have optional lens converters that will give
you a wider angle of view.
Wide-angle lenses have
tremendous depth of
field. Here one was
used to shoot through a
toy space station and
make Quinlan look like
a giant.
SHORT FOCAL LENGTHS
118
CHAPTER 6. USING LENSES
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
LONG FOCAL LENGTHS
A long focal length lens acts somewhat like a telescope in that it magnifies the
image of your subject. This is especially useful when you cant get close to
your subjector dont want to. Long lenses are ideal for wildlife, portrait, and
candid photography, whenever getting close to a subject might disturb it.
With a long focal length, depth of field gets shallower so you must focus more
carefully. Also, long lenses visually compresses space, making objects in the
scene appear closer together than they actually are (see Perspective in a
Photograph on page 00). The primary drawback of a long focal length is that
most (but not all) give you a smaller maximum aperture. This smaller maxi-
mum aperture may require a longer shutter speed. Since a long focal length
magnifies movement, just as it magnifies the subject, you may have to use a
tripod instead of hand-holding the camera.
A long focal length
makes distant objects
appear compressed.
Here a long lens has
been used to
compress a row of
condos on a Florida
beach.
When the lineup of cement trucks (bottom right) is shot head-on with a long focal
length (above left) they appear much closer together then they really are. This is
actually due to the distance from the subject, not the focal length of the lens, but
the effect is easy to get with a long focal length.
For a telephoto view, you can zoom the lens all the way in. For even more
magnification, some cameras have interchangeable lenses or optional lens
converters that increase your focal length.
A long focal length
makes the sun look
larger in relation to
foreground objects.
119 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
PORTRAITS WITH A LONG FOCAL LENGTH
A long focal length is ideal for portraits, especially for head-and-shoulders
portraits. It lets you keep your distance and still fill the viewfinder and image
with the subject. Keeping at a distance eliminates the exaggerated perspective
caused by working very close to a subject with a shorter focal length lens. It
also helps relax your subjects if they get uneasy, as many people do, when a
camera comes close.
A long focal length lets
you get portraits
without crowding in on
the subject. This lets
you capture more
natural expressions.
A short focal length
used close to the
subject adds some
distortion to the portrait
but it still works as an
image. Perhaps not as
flattering as it might be,
the image is probably
more interesting to
others than to the
subject.
PORTRAITS WITH A LONG FOCAL LENGTH
120
CHAPTER 6. USING LENSES
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
PERSPECTIVE IN A PHOTOGRAPH
A photograph can appear to compress space so that objects appear closer
together than you expect. Another photograph of the same scene can seem to
expand space so that objects appear farther apart than normal. These appar-
ent distortions in perspectivethe appearance of depth in a photographare
often attributed to the focal length of the lens being used but are actually
caused by the distance of the lens from the subject.
Changing camera-to-
subject distance does
change perspective as
shown here. As the
camera moves closer to
the foreground subject
(right), the background
appears to increase in
size and move closer
relative to the
foreground. This
changing relationship
between the size of
objects in the
foreground and
background creates the
difference in
perspective.
The image on the left
appears to be more
open and spacious
than the more visually
compressed one on
the right. However, the
image on the right is
actually contained in the
image on the left. It
just appears more
compressed because
the enlarged section
includes only those
elements farthest from
the camera.
121 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
This small, but very
colorful caterpillar was
captured with a macro
lens.
MACRO LENSES AND MACRO MODE
One thing digital cameras are great for is photographing small objectscoins,
jewelry, prints, maps, even insectsanything small enough to fit on a table-
top. You can put photos of your collectibles onto a Web page, sell them on an
on-line auction, or make prints to file in a safe deposit box for insurance
purposes. When photographing small objects, your lens minimum focusing
distance determines how close you can get to the subject. The closer you can
get, the larger a subject will be in the final image. A tiny coin surrounded by a
large background isnt what youre trying to get. Youre trying to get a large
coin surrounded by a small background. For many pictures, just getting close
or zooming your lens in on the subject will suffice. However, macro mode or
macro lenses let you get a lot closer to small subjects, making them much
larger in the final image. If you cant get close enough to an object to fill the
image area, you can always crop out the unwanted areas later. Just keep in
mind that the more you crop, the smaller the image becomes in terms of the
number of pixels it contains.
In close-up photography digital cameras have a huge advantage over tradi-
tional film cameras because you can review your results and make adjust-
ments as you shoot. If a photo doesnt turn out as youd hoped, just delete it
and try something new. A film photographer has to wait to get the film back
from the lab before they can make adjustments. By then, the moment has
passed, they have probably taken apart the tabletop setup, or they have
forgotten what it was they did. Take advantage of your instant feedback to
experiment and learn.
MACRO LENSES AND MACRO MODE
Cameras with built-in lenses usually have a setting for close-up photography
called macro mode. Cameras with interchangeable lenses have macro lenses
specifically designed to take close-ups. To get even closer to a subject, you can
use other optical devices.
Extension tubes fit between a removable lens and the camera body and
allow the lens to focus much closer than normal, giving increased magnifica-
tion. The larger the amount of extension, the greater the increase in magnifi-
cation.
Close-up lenses fit over the main lens and let you get closer to the subject.
They magnify the subject without affecting aperture settings. These lenses
come in a variety of enlarging powers (+1, +2, +3, and so on) and can be used
individually or in various combinations. When using them in combinations,
mount the higher power lenses closer to the camera lens.
When taking macro close-ups, use the monitor to compose the image. Since
the viewfinder is offset from the lens if the camera isnt an SLR, the area seen
in the viewfinder will differ from the area included in the image.
An angle finder attaches to the viewfinder eyepiece so you can photograph
from a low angle without kneeling or lying down. Its also great when doing
copy work and macro photography.
EXPOSURE
The exposure procedure for close-up photography isnt much different from
normal photography, but you have the opportunity to control lighting with
An extension tube fits
between the camera
and lens on a camera
with interchangeable
lenses.
When using a camera
that accepts
interchangeable lenses
you need a macro lens
for close-up
photography.
The almost universally
recognized icon for
macro mode.
MACRO LENSES AND MACRO MODE
122
CHAPTER 6. USING LENSES
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
A monarch butterfly
captured with a macro
lens.
flash or reflectors. The biggest difficulty may arise from automatic exposure.
Many close-up photographs are of small objects that dont entirely fill the
viewfinder frame. Automatic exposure systems can be fooled if the brightness
of the small object is different from the brightness of the larger background.
The meter averages all of the light reflecting from the scene and may select an
exposure that makes the main subject too light or too dark. In these cases, use
exposure compensation to adjust for the background. If an image is too dark,
increase the exposure. If the image is too light, decrease the exposure.
When taking macro close-ups you can use spot metering to meter just a small
part of the image so the background doesnt influence the exposure.
BACKGROUNDS
Some thought should be given to the background you use. It should be one
that makes your subject jump out, and not overwhelm it. The safest back-
ground to use is a sheet of neutral gray poster board that can be formed into a
curved L shape to give a nice smooth gradation of light behind the image.
Its safe, because it reduces potential exposure problems and most things
show well against it. Other options include black or white backgrounds but
they may cause some exposure problems unless you use exposure compensa-
tion. Finally there are colored backgrounds, but these should be selected to
support and not clash with the colors in the subject.
The texture of the background is also a consideration. For example, black
velvet has no reflections at all while black poster board might show them.
123 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
In the lower photo, a
small aperture has
given great depth of
field. In the upper
photo, a large aperture
has given a shallow
depth of field. In both
images, the camera was
focused on the same
face.
DEPTH OF FIELD
If you look at some close-up photographs, you will notice that very few of
them appear to be completely sharp from foreground to background because
the depth of field in a close-up tends to be shallow. The depth of field in an
image depends on how small an aperture you use, how close you are to a
subject, and the focal length of the lens. When you get the camera really close,
dont expect much depth of field. Its best to arrange the objects so they all fall
on the same plane. That way, if ones in focus, they all will be. Another thing
to try is a shorter focal length for a wider angle of view. This will give you
more depth of field if you dont also have to move the camera closer to the
subject (doing so will offset the advantage of the shorter focal length).
Also, when you focus, keep in mind that depth of field includes the plane you
focus on plus an area in front of and behind that plane. Youll find that in
close-ups half of the sharpest area will fall in front of the plane on which you
focus and half behind it.
INCREASING DEPTH OF FIELD IN CLOSE-UPS
Increase the illumination of the subject to stop down the aperture.
Dont get any closer to the subject than you have to.
Focus on something in the middle of the scene (front to back) since in
close-ups, depth of field is half in front and half behind the plane of critical
focus.
To increase depth of field, switch to aperture priority mode and select a
small aperture such as f/11.
MACRO LENSES AND MACRO MODE
124
CHAPTER 6. USING LENSES
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
LENS CONVERTERS
Not all digital cameras have interchangeable lenses. Most have a built-in
zoom lens that cannot be removed. To change its focal length, you have to use
lens converters that screw in or slide on to the zoom lens.
Wide converters reduce the focal length of the lens for a wider-angle effect.
Tele-converters increase the focal length of the lens so you can zoom in
even farther.
Fish-eye converters let you capture that extremely wide fish-eye look.
When using these converters, here are some things to be aware of:
The image through the viewfinder may be partially blocked by the lens
converter. The image on the monitor wont be.
The internal flash may be partly obstructed by the lens and cast a shadow
on the subject. Its usually best to turn off the flash.
An external flash may not adjust its output to compensate for a converter
lens.
Dont use filters or lens hoods with converters unless they are specifically
designed for them.
At some or all zoom settings you may get vignetting or other image prob-
lems.
Be sure to keep dust off the front of the lens because the camera may focus
on it. To remove it, use a lens blower brush.
On some cameras, you need to use step-up adapters to adapt the threads
on the camera lens to the threads on the lens converter.
A wide-angle lens
converter attached to
the camera using a lens
adapter.
Vignetting with a lens
converter cuts off the
corners of the image.
When used with flash, a
lens converter can cast
a shadow as it did here
in the lower left corner.
A lens converter.
125 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
TILT-SHIFT LENSES
Tilt-shift lenses serve two very important purposes. The tilt controls depth of
field and the shift controls the way vertical lines appear in the image. Until
Canon developed these kinds of lenses, their effects could only be achieved on
a large format camera. The lenses charge a small penalty for all of their
flexibility. They can cause metering errors and require you to open up one or
two stops.
Tilting the lens allows you to control depth of field in an image without
changing the aperture. Normally a lens is parallel to the image sensor. To
change the depth of field for a given subject and camera position you have to
open or close the aperture. With a lens that tilts from side to side or top to
bottom, the plane of critical focus can be tilted one way to dramatically
increase depth of field or the other way to dramatically decrease it. The fact
that you can use a wide aperture and still get great depth of field makes it
possible to photograph scenes you might have missed before, such as a field
with flowers blowing in the wind because of slow shutter speeds.
Shifting the lens helps you correct for converging vertical lines that occur
when you tilt the camera to capture trees, buildings, or other tall subjects.
These lines converge in the image whenever the camera is tilted and the
image sensor is no longer parallel to the subject. Using the lens shift func-
tion, the lens can be shifted upward to eliminate the foreground while keep-
ing the image sensor parallel to the subject.
You can create panoramic images by taking two photos with the lens
shifted in opposite directions.
When photographing reflective subjects, you can eliminate your reflection
by moving the camera to a position where the reflection doesnt show, and
then shifting the lens to center the subject in the picture area. The same
technique can be used to eliminate unwanted subjects in the foreground.
Canon has three Tilt-Shift (TS-E) lens in different focal lengths. All three can
rotate 90-degrees, be tilted +/-8-degrees, and be shifted +/-11 mm. On the 24
mm lens, some of the shift and tilt ranges are marked in red because images
may be vignetted if shifted or tilted into these zones on a 35mm camera. This
happens because the lens focuses a circle of light on the image plane and as
you tilt and shift, the film captures different parts of the circle. However, on
many digital cameras the image sensor is smaller so the lens can be shifted
and tilted farther without vignetting.
A bubble level that slips
into the hot shoe
assures you that the
camera is perfectly level
when using the
cameras shift control.
This is the Bl2 from
Kaiden.
The house on the left,
shot by pointing the
camera up to get in the
entire house, has
converging vertical lines
and looks tilted. In the
photo on the right taken
with the lens shifted,
the house looks
rectangular and all
vertical lines are
parallel.
TILT-SHIFT LENSES
126
CHAPTER 6. USING LENSES
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
LENS ACCESSORIES
Many lenses have threads into which you can screw filters and other accesso-
ries. Here are just some of the accessories you can attach.
Lens hoods protect the front element from bumps and keep stray light from
striking the front of the lens and causing flare or ghost images.
Caps protect the front and rear of the lens when its not in use. A body cap
protects the camera when no lens is attached.
Protect filters keep the front element of your lens from getting scratched or
dirty.
Circular polarizing filters remove reflections from glass, water, and other
reflective surfaces, darken blue skies, and improve color saturation. If you use
a linear polarizing filter, you cant use autofocus.
Skylight filters reduce the blue casts you often get when photographing
subjects in the shade on sunny days.
UV filters absorb ultraviolet light and cut the haze when photographing
landscapes or from airplanes.
Neutral density filters cut the light entering the camera so you can use
slower shutter speeds or wider apertures in bright light.
Soft focus filters soften the focus to make portraits more flattering and to
make hazy, romantic landscapes.
Close-up lenses magnify the subject without affecting aperture settings.
Color conversion filters let you fine-tune the way you capture colors.
TIP
As a rule, use
only one filter at a
time or you may
get vignetting.
One of the
reasons filters
arent as popular
with digital cam-
eras as they are
with film cameras
is because you can
get most of the
same effects in a
photo-editing
program. If you use
a filter on the
camera, the image
itself is changed. If
you add the effect
in a photo-editing
program, you still
have an unchanged
original image.
A polarizing filter (top)
darkens the sky and
removes reflections
from foliage so it has
more color. A shot
without a filer is shown
at the bottom.
127 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
A
utomatic built-in flash is so convenient and easy to use that you are
sometimes unaware it even fires. With the flash set to auto, its always
ready when your autoexposure system decides its needed. But the
light from this built-in flash has certain characteristics that can make a
difference in the way your pictures look. For example, the pictures have a
flat lighting caused by the direct head-on light typical of built-in flash.
Alternative approaches, such as using an external flash or even just turning
the flash off may produce more interesting results. In any event, you will be
able to use flash to better advantage as you become more familiar with its
characteristics. In this chapter we introduce on camera flash photography
including flash modes, flash techniques, and external flash units and accesso-
ries.
Chapter 7
On-camera Flash Photography
CONTENTS
Autoflash Red-eye
Reduction Fill Flash
Flash Off Slow Sync
Flash Controlling
Flash Exposures
Flash and Shutter
Speeds Flash and
Distance Using and
External Flash
External Flash Accesso-
ries
AA30470C CHAPTER 7. ON-CAMERA FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY
128
CHAPTER 7. ON-CAMERA FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
AUTOFLASH
Almost every digital camera comes with a small built-in electronic flash that
is tied into the autoexposure system. This built-in flash is normally set to
auto so it fires when the light is dim. Some cameras also recognize when the
main subject is backlit and automatically fire the flash so the subject doesnt
appear as a dark silhouette against a bright background.
Using a built-in flash set to auto is very convenient, however you should be
aware of the following issues:
Most cameras have an LCD indicator that lights when you press the shutter
button halfway down. If this light glows steady it means the flash will fire
when you take the picture. In some situations, you may want to turn the flash
off so it wont fire (page 00). If the indicator blinks, it usually means the flash
is charging. Release the shutter button, wait a few seconds, then try again.
The range of these units is very short, often less that 15 feet or so. Using
one in a large room or outdoors to photograph a large subject wont work.
One solution is to add a more powerful accessory flash (page 00). Another is
to turn off the flash and see what kinds of images you can get using available
light (page 00).
When you get very close to a subject, the lens on some cameras blocks the
flash and casts a shadow. One solution is to move farther back, perhaps using
a longer focal length lens to compensate.
Some built-in flashes overexpose foreground subjects when they are too
close. A few cameras let you vary the flash intensity if this happens (page 00).
Although some flashes pop up, many are so close to the lens axis that
photos of people in dim rooms often capture them with red eyes. To reduce
this problem, many cameras have a red-eye reduction mode (page 00).
Because a built-in flash is so small it emits a hard, direct light and it cant
be rotated to bounce flash off a wall or ceiling to diffuse and soften it. The
direct head-on light casts few shadows to add texture or volume to the
subject. As a result, pictures can look flat, and at their worst can look some-
what like police mug shots or drivers license photos. One solution is an
accessory flash that lets you bounce light off a wall, ceiling, or even an
umbrella (page 00).
Because of the head-on position of the flash, its light will cast a shadow
behind the subject if there is a nearby background. Possible solutions include
using bounce flash or moving the subject farther from the wall.
In dim light the background may go totally black because the exposure is
set for the foreground subject illuminated by the flash. To capture some
detail in the background, you need to use slow sync flash (page 00).
To change the flash mode, you usually press a flash button marked with a
lightening bolt icon to cycle through the cameras other flash modes. As you
do so, an icon on the control panel usually indicates the current mode.
The almost universally
recognized icon for the
flash button.
Built-in flash units
either pop-up when
needed (top) or are
fixed in the camera
body (bottom).
129 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
RED-EYE REDUCTION
When photographing people in dim settings, youll often see images with
whats called red eye. In these pictures the light from a flash has entered
through the subjects pupil, illuminated the retina at the back of the eye, and
reflected back out to the camera. Since the retina is full of thin blood vessels,
the light takes on a red color. The more open the eyes iris is, and the closer
the flash is to the lens axis, the more pronounced this effect can be. Since the
iris widens in dim light, one way to close it down somewhat is to use the
cameras red-eye reduction mode. This mode fires a red-eye reduction lamp
or a preflash to close down the iris a moment before the flash fires to take the
picture. Red-eye reduction works best when the subject isnt too far away and
looks directly into the camera.
To minimize red eye, you can also position an external flash farther away
from the axis of the camera lens, increase the overall room lighting, or have
the subject stare at a bright light or window for a few moments just prior to
the shot. You can also remove red-eye later using photo-editing software, but
its easier to avoid it to begin with.
Eric shows one way to
avoid red-eye.
Red-eye can look eerie
and unless you are very
good with a photo-
editing program, its
best to avoid it.
The almost universally
accepted icon for red-
eye reduction mode.
To reduce red-eye some
cameras raise the flash
so its farther from the
lens axis.
RED-EYE REDUCTION
130
CHAPTER 7. ON-CAMERA FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
FILL FLASH
When photographing people or other subjects against a bright background or
with the light behind them, the cameras exposure is overly influenced by the
bright background and underexposes the main subject, leaving it dark. When
photographing a subject lit from the side, parts of the subject away from the
light source may appear in the photo as dark shadows. In both cases one
solution is to use fill flash, sometimes called flash on, forced flash, or anytime
flash. In this mode the flash fires even when there is enough available light to
take a picture without it. The flash illuminates a backlit subject and fills
shadows in one thats side lit. A few cameras recognize backlit scenes and
automatically fire the flash to illuminate the foreground subject. Using fill
flash is also a good way to get accurate color balance under unusual lighting.
With no fill flash (top)
the bright background
has caused the main
subject to be
underexposed. Fill flash
(bottom), gives the
subject the correct
exposure.
The almost universally
accepted fill flash icon.
131 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
FLASH OFF
When you press the shutter button halfway down on most cameras, an LCD
will light to warn you that the flash will fire when you take the photo. It pays
to be aware of this warning in many places so you arent surprised when the
flash fires. The bright flash can draw unwanted attention, especially in art
galleries or museums where flash is normally prohibited. To prevent the flash
from firing, you can turn it off. You can also turn it off for creative reasons.
There may be situations in which the light is dim, but you want to capture the
unique colors of the available light. For example, you might want to capture
the romantic glow of an interior space or retain the moody darkness of a shot
at night. In other settings, flash exposes the foreground subject correctly but
leaves the background black. Using available light might give you a much
better image.
The way you turn off the flash varies. On some cameras you just close the
flash. On others you press a flash button to select the flash off mode, some-
times called flash cancel, or flash prohibited.
When photographing in dim light without using flash there are things you
can do to get better results and avoid blur caused by camera movement.
Increase the cameras ISO although it will add noise to the image.
Support the camera by using a tripod, placing the camera on a shelf or
railing, or bracing the camera against a tree or other solid support.
Use the cameras self-timer, remote control, or a cable release to trigger the
shutter so you dont introduce camera motion when pressing the shutter
button with your finger.
Here the lenses was
zoomed during a long
exposure while
supporting the camera
on a railing.
Available light can add
beautiful colors to a
photograph.
The almost universally
accepted icon for flash
off.
FLASH OFF
Turning the flash off for
indoor portraits can
give you much more
natural lighting.
132
CHAPTER 7. ON-CAMERA FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
SLOW SYNC FLASH
Normally, when you photograph a subject in dim light, the flash properly
exposes the foreground subject but the background is dark or black. One
technique you can use to lighten the background is called slow sync flash.
This mode fires the flash normally, but selects a slow shutter speed to lighten
the background. This works best when the main subject is fairly close to the
camera and the background isnt totally blackeven better if it has some light
on it as a cityscape does.
On some cameras, slow sync flash, sometimes called night, night scene, or
night portrait mode, is chosen just like other flash modes using buttons, dials,
or menus. On cameras with shutter-priority or manual exposure modes, you
can also use slow sync just by selecting a slow shutter speed. The slower the
speed the more pronounced the effect; even bordering on making the picture
unrecognizable. Its best to experiment with a shutter speed around 1/15
second and adventure out from there.
At a shutter speed of 1/200, or when the foreground subject is too far from
the camera, the effects of slow sync arent always apparent. However, at
slower shutter speeds and with closer foreground subjects, the effects get
more pronounced.
In many cases, the slow shutter speed used in this mode allows blur from
rapidly moving objects or camera shake to appear as blur or motion trails in
the images. To avoid blur, use a tripod and photograph static subjects. Or, use
this effect creatively. A short flash burst combined with a long shutter speed
gives interesting effects. The flash freezes objects sharply, and then the dim
ambient light blurs the image slightly and moving lights appear as streaks.
For example, if the scene you are photographing contains bright lights, such
as automobile head or tail lights, youll get streaks in your image if either the
camera or subject moves.
Some slow synch icons.
A slow shutter speed
and flash combined to
create this photo
showing both sharpness
and blur.
133 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Flash froze the main
subject but a slow
shutter speed was used
to lighten the
background in this
action shot on a New
York City street.
Slow sync flash froze
parts of the image but
allowed others to blur.
SLOW SYNC FLASH
Some cameras offer two flash sync modes: front curtain and rear curtain.
Front curtain synch fires the flash just after the shutter is fully open.
Rear curtain synch fires the flash just before the shutter starts to close.
The differences can be striking. For example, when photographing a moving
car at night, front curtain sync will cause the taillights to have a forward
streak and rear curtain sync will cause them to have a receding streak.
134
CHAPTER 7. ON-CAMERA FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
CONTROLLING FLASH EXPOSURES
When using the built-in or external flash, there are times when the main
subject is too dark or light , or fill flash isnt giving you the results you want.
These things happen for a variety of reasons. You may be too close or too far
from the subject, the subject may be too small or off center, or it may be very
dark or light or against a very dark or light background. As youve seen (page
24), you can use exposure compensation, exposure bracketing, and exposure
lock to control camera exposures. With some cameras, you have the same
control when using flash.
FLASH EXPOSURE LOCK (FEL)
Flash exposure lock (FE Lock) acts much like the more familiar AE Lock.
When you use this feature, a preflash is fired and the exposure system
calculates the flash exposure and stores the settings. When you then recom-
pose the scene and take the picture, its the stored settings that are used to
determine the exposure. FE lock is extremely useful when you wish to place
the main subject in a part of the picture area that is not covered by the
cameras metering system. It can also eliminate potential exposure errors
caused by unwanted reflections from highly reflective surfaces such as
windows or mirrors.
FLASH EXPOSURE COMPENSATION
Flash exposure compensation lets you manually adjust the amount of flash
illuminating the subject without changing the cameras aperture or shutter
speed. This is an ideal way to balance flash and natural light when using fill
flash and to correctly expose scenes or subjects that are darker or lighter than
normal (middle-gray).
FLASH AND EXPOSURE COMPENSATION
You can also use flash exposure compensation in conjunction with regular
exposure compensation. Doing so lets you use regular exposure compensa-
tion to lighten or darken the background thats illuminated by natural light,
and use flash exposure compensation to lighten or darken the subject illumi-
nated by the flash. This is a powerful combination of exposure controls that
lets you capture images just the way you want them.
Here five photos have
been taken with flash.
In each, the flash
exposure has been
changed one stop from
the next image.
+2 +1 0 -1 -2
135 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
FLASH EXPOSURE BRACKETING (FEB)
Flash exposure bracketing (FEB) is a form of automated flash exposure
compensation. This mode takes a series of flash pictures exposed at slightly
different settings above and below the exposure recommended by the autoex-
posure system. The flash output changes with each image while the back-
ground exposure level remains the same.
FLASH AND SHUTTER SPEEDS
When photographing with flash, the brief burst of light from the flash must
occur at just the right time. Electronic flash is so brief1/1000 second or
fasterthat it must fire at the exact moment when the shutter is wide open.
This is known as X-sync. On more expensive digital cameras with focal plane
shutters, if the flash fires earlier or later, the part of the image covered by the
shutter is not exposed. Thats because these shutters use two curtains, with
the first shutter curtain opening to begin the exposure, then the second
curtain closing to end it. At shutter speeds above 1/200 or so the second
curtain starts to close before the first curtain is fully open. As a result, a slit
formed by the two curtains moves across the image sensor and the rest of the
sensor is blocked by one or both curtains.
To get a fully exposed image on a camera with a focal plane shutter, shutter
speeds above 1/200 or so require whats known as high-speed sync flash (also
called FP or focal plane sync). High-speed sync can capture a fully exposed
image because the flash fires repeatedly as the slit moves across the image
sensor during the exposure. The only drawback is that the flash power is
reduced so you cant be positioned as far from a subject. The higher the
shutter speed you use, the closer you have to be.
Since this feature lets you use flash at very fast shutter speeds, there are a
number of situations where you might find it useful:
When using fill flash out of doors, it allows you to use a fast shutter speed
to freeze action, or a wide aperture to throw the foreground or background
out of focus.
When doing a portrait and want catchlights in the subjects eyes.
When using fill flash to lighten shadows.
Stroboscopic flash fires the flash a number of times at high speed to capture
multiple images of the same subject in the same photograph. Youve probably
seen examples of this mode in sports photography where it can be used to
demonstrate or analyze a swing of a bat or club.
In the image on the left
flash was used to
photograph the Cardinal
flower. In the image on
the right, exposure
compensation was set
to -2 to darken the
background.
CONTROLLING FLASH EXPOSURES
136
CHAPTER 7. ON-CAMERA FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
FLASH AND DISTANCE
Every flash has a maximum useful range. How bright the light from a flash is
when it reaches a subject depends on the flashs power and on how far the
light has to travel. The further the subject is from the flash, the less light will
reach it and so the less light will be reflected from the subject back toward the
camera.
The light from a flash
becomes dimmer the
farther it travels.
Objects near the flash
will be lighter in a
picture than objects
farther away. You can
use this to advantage;
for example, at night
you can isolate a
subject against a dark
background.
Light falls off with distance because when the flash fires, the beam of light
expands as it moves father from the camera. As a result, subjects nearer the
flash will be illuminated with a more intense light than subjects farther away.
The rate at which the light falls off is described by the inverse square law. If
the distance between the flash and subject is doubled, the light spreads out to
cover an area four times larger. As a result only one quarter the amount of
light will illuminate the subject. Conversely, when the distance is halved, four
times as much light falls on a given area.
When subjects in an image are located at different distances from the camera,
the exposure will only be correct for those at one distancenormally those
closest to the camera or in the middle of the area metered by the autoexpo-
sure system. Subjects located farther from the flash will be increasingly
darker the farther they are from the flash.
To calculate the maximum range of a flash, you can use its guide numbera
measure of its light output. The higher the guide number, the greater the
intensity and range of the flash. Guide numbers are determined experimen-
tally, usually by the manufacturer. A flash unit and subject are set up and
exposures are made at a variety of f/stops. When the best exposure is deter-
mined, the guide number is calculated from the distance and the f/stop used
as follows:
TIP
Have you ever
seen someone use
flash to photo-
graph the moon, a
cityscape, or an
athletic event from
the grandstands.
What effect would
you think the flash
has?
As the distance doubles,
the amount of light
illuminating the subject
is only one-quarter of
the original amount.
137 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
guide number = f/stop x flash-to-subject distance
More powerful flash units with higher guide numbers have a greater range,
have faster recycle times, and make bounce flash more effective. Canons
Digital Rebel is a good example of how guide numbers indicate flash range.
The cameras built-in flash has a guide number of 43 (in feet, with ISO set to
100). The accessory 550EX flash has a guide number of 180. When using an
aperture setting of f/3.5, the range of the built in flash is about 12 feet and
that of the external flash is over 50 feet.
In addition to being an indicator of a flashs power and range, you can use a
flashs guide numbers to calculate aperture setting and subject distance when
using the camera and flash on manual mode as when you are using a flash not
designed to work with the camera.
To calculate the f/stop needed, divide the guide number by the distance to
the subject.
f/stop = guide number flash-to-subject distance
To calculate the maximum flash range, divide the guide number by the f/
stop you plan on using.
flash-to-subject distance = guide number f/stop
When making these calculations, there are a few things to be aware of:
Guide numbers are usually given for a setting of ISO 100. If you increase
the ISO setting, the camera needs less light for a good exposure so the range
of the flash increases. Doubling the ISO setting, say from 100 to 400 in-
creases the guide number by a factor of 1.4X; quadrupling the ISO, say from
100 to 400, doubles the guide number.
It is the flash-to-subject distance that you use, not camera-to-subject.
These two distances are the same when using on-camera flash but not when
using flash on a cable or a slave flash. When using bounce flash, the distance
is the longer path which the light travels.
Guide numbers are usually given for both feet and meters so be sure you
use the right one in your calculations. The differences can be substantial. For
example, a guide number of 12, when using meters as a unit of measure, is the
same as a guide number of 39 when using feet. Conversions between a guide
number for feet and a guide number for meters are as follows:
- From meters to feet: GN(ft) = GN(m) x 3.3
- From feet to meters: GN(m) = GN(ft) x 0.3
You can use a flash
meter to check
exposures when using
flash. Courtesy of
Sekonic.
FLASH AND DISTANCE
138
CHAPTER 7. ON-CAMERA FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
One of the biggest advantages of an external flash is that you can swivel and
rotate the flash head to bounce light off walls, ceilings, or reflectors. This
softens the light, fills shadows, and spreads the light over a much larger area.
Subjects in the background are much lighter than they would be with direct
flash. Bounce flash travels a much longer path to the subject so its range isnt
as great as direct flash. You may find many rooms too large, or ceilings too
high for bounce flash to work effectively unless there is something else large
and bright to bounce the light off of. Bounce flash also consumes more of the
flashess charge, so recycle times get longer.
The two most common kinds of external flash units are the hot shoe mounted
and handle mounted varieties. The handle-mounted flash units are usually
more powerful.
A special kind of flash is the ring flash. These units fit around the lens and
fire a circle of light on the subject. They are ideal for shadowless close-up
photography common in medical, dental, and nature photography. Because
ring flash is so flat (shadowless), most units allow you to fire just one side or
the other so the flash casts shadows that show surface modeling on the
subject. If you happen to be selling or collecting scorpions or fireflies, one
side benefit of ring flash is that it freezes action. That frisky beetle or wind-
blown blossom can be photographed as if it were frozen in time.
USING AN EXTERNAL FLASH
To increase the range of your flash, or to overcome the limitations of a built-
in flash, you can add an external flash unit. When one of these flash units is
designed to work with the camera model you are using, its call a dedicated
flash. The cameras exposure system controls both the internal and dedicated
external flash by immediately cutting off the flash when the right exposure
has been reached. Flash units not specifically designed to work with your
camera usually fire at full-strength so you have to control the exposure using
the cameras aperture setting. Dedicated flash units also zoom the beam of
light they emit along with the lens. As you widen the angle of view, the flash
beam expands to cover the increased area. As you zoom in, the flash beam
narrows to retain coverage but increasing the useful range.
Ring flash used in close-
up photography.
Courtesy of Nikon.
A handle mounted flash
with remote control.
Metz flash courtesy of
Bogen.
One new variant of the
ring flash is Canons
Twin Lite that has two
adjustable flash heads.
Its almost like a
camera mounted studio.
A hot shoe mounted
flash. Courtesy of
Olympus.
139 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
EXTERNAL FLASH ACCESSORIES
If you are using an external flash, there is a variety of accessories that
photographers have found useful for both general and studio photography.
Battery packs containing large rechargeable batteries let you extend your
shooting time. These units, small enough to attach to your belt, connect to the
flash by cable. They not only extend your shooting time, they also shorten
recycle timesthe time it takes the flash to fully recharge for the next picture.
With one of these you wont be caught missing a shot because your battery
isnt charged or the flash recycled. (If you have ever taken a series of flash
pictures and one is much darker than the others, its because the darker one
was taken before the flash completely recycled.)
Flash brackets, often seen being used by wedding photographers, elevate
the flash to move it farther from the lens axis. This reduces red-eye in photos
of people but also changes the angle of light so its not as flat. These units
mount onto the camera using its tripod socket. You then slip the flash into the
brackets cold shoe. (A cold shoe is like a hot shoe but lacks the electrical
connections needed to fire and control the flash.) To connect the camera and
flash you use a sync cord (page 42).
Flash reflectors bounce the light emitted by the flash and soften it because
their reflective surface is larger than the flashs. One version has cutouts in it
so some light bounces off the ceiling and the rest is reflected forward on the
subject.
Flash diffusers are like translucent softboxes that spread out the flash so it
bounces off more surfaces, softening it.
Extension cables (shown below) let you connect the flash to the camera
without mounting it in the hot shoe. This lets you hand hold the camera some
distance from the camera, or even mount it on a tripod. The flash built into
the camera is very close to the lens and fires along the same axis. For more
interesting lighting effects, and shadows that show texture and relief, you
have to position the flash further from the lens axis using a long sync cord to
attach the flash.
A battery pack speeds
recycle times and
extends shooting
sessions.
A flash bracket.
Flash reflectors.
A flash diffuser.
EXTERNAL FLASH ACCESSORIES
140
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
Chapter 8
Studio Photography
CONTENTS
CameraLight
Connections The
Studio Studio Lights
Hard and Soft Light
Lighting Controls
Color and Exposure
Controls Studio
Lighting Backgrounds
Lighting at Work
Portraits Lighting at
WorkSubjects with
Relief or Texture
Lighting at WorkShiny
Objects Lighting at
WorkTransparent or
Translucent Objects
AA30470C
N
ature usually provides us with the light we need to take photos.
However, there are times when it doesnt provide enough light, or
the right kind of light, for what we want to do. At these times,
photographers use electronic flash or studio lights, along with reflectors,
diffusers, and other devices that control it. Professional studios spend small
fortunes on lighting equipment, but that need not be the case for everyone.
Ruth Bernhard, who learned some of what she knew from Edward Weston,
took fantastic photos of seashells with the simplest and least expensive setup
imaginable. As she wrote in 1945 Before photographing I give much thought
and time to lighting. I like to use small and not too powerful spotlights in
combination with shaving mirrorsthe five and ten-cent store variety. I
seldom direct the light directly on the surface but prefer to use the edge of the
light. If hard shadows interfere with the delicacy of the design, I use diffusion
screens even on the mirrors. With little and soft light, and careful planning,
the beautiful plastic form of the shell can be recreated. Because of the cost
and expertise required, studio photography has traditionally been the reserve
of professional photographers. With digital cameras and the huge expansion
of Internet-based publishing and on-line auctions, its now much more
widespread with millions of nonprofessionals taking studio-like images.
141 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
USING CONTINUOUS LIGHTS
In the studio, where managing light is an art form, photographers use both
hot lights and strobes. One thing digital cameras have made popular again is
the continuous studio light that stays on all of the time, much like the table or
desk lamp you read by. These lights fell out of favor in film photography when
strobes came along because they require filters on the camera or flash to
match the light to the film. Choosing the right filters takes more knowledge
and experience than most of us have, especially since you cant see the results
until the film is developed. However, with digital cameras, white balance
eliminates this concern so continuous lights are again popular, especially in
home and small business studios. One big advantage of continuous lights is
that you can see their effects on the setup as you view the scene directly or on
the cameras monitor. As you move the lights, you can see the highlights and
shadows change on the subject. This allows you to interact with the lighting
setup much more than you can when using strobes. Its almost as if you are
painting with light.
The only real problem with continuous lights is the heat that some kinds of
bulbs throw offspecifically tungsten and quartz-halogen bulbs. Newer lights
that run much cooler have dramatically reduced, and even eliminated this
problem. There are three parts of these lights to consider: stands, reflectors,
and bulbs.
STANDS
Stands come in a variety of styles and prices. Their purpose is to hold lights,
umbrellas, diffusers, softboxes, and other lighting devices in a fixed position.
They are usually collapsible for easy storage, and have legs in sections so you
can adjust their height. You can add a boom to hold lights, reflectors, diffus-
ers, gobos, or other objects out at a distance. For most purposes, stands need
not be too tall6 to 8 feet should suffice.
REFLECTORS
Reflectors vary from those found in hardware stores to expensive professional
units. There are a number of things to consider when buying or using reflec-
tors:
How to they attach to the stand you plan on using? If the attachment isnt a
good one, the lights can easily slip out of position at almost any time.
What is the size and the angle of light the reflector projects? Some project
narrower beams than others and some are even classified as spot or broad
because of their angles.
What is the maximum wattage they are designed for?
BULBS
The bulb is the most critical part of the continuous lighting system.
Tungsten lamps, especially photofloods, throw off a lot of heat. Some also
have an unusually short life spanas low as 3 hours. Because these were the
only bulbs available when continuous lights were last widely used, they
account for the alternate name for continuous lighting hot lights.
HMI (Halide Metal Oxide) lamps are small, very expensive arc lamps that
Reflectors for
photoflood and other
bulbs are available for
almost any light stand.
Courtesy of Smith-
Victor.
A compact fluorescent
(CFLs) bulb.
A collapsible light stand.
Courtesy of Smith-
Victor.
A boom mounted on a
light stand lets you
position a light over the
subject without the
stand being in the
picture. Courtesy of
Smith-Victor.
USING CONTINUOUS LIGHTS
142
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
generate four or more times the light of tungsten bulbs with less heat. The
light is also perfectly daylight balanced.
Fluorescent bulbs are inexpensive, cooler, require 90% less power, and last
100 times longer than tungsten lightsup to 10,000 hours. They can also be
dimmed to 3% of their full power and provide a more consistent color tem-
perature. A new type of fluorescent bulb, called a compact fluorescent (CFL)
comes in a variety of color temperatures. The 6500K bulb emits white light
commonly called "Cool Daylight" and 5000K bulbs match midday light. You
can screw one of these bulbs into a regular fixture for cool light. Because
these bulbs have so many good features, they are a favorite choice for digital
photography.
Although a digital cameras white balance control can capture normal colors
under a wide variety of lighting conditions, you should be aware that different
types of lights cast different colors on a setup. This is why when shooting in
homes, photos often have a warm reddish cast, while those taken under some
florescent lights look greenish. When choosing studio lights, especially
continuous lights, you should investigate two color-related terms used to
describe themcolor temperature and color rendering index.
Color temperature describes how cool or warm the light source appears.
For example, incandescent lamps have a warmer, more reddish appearance
than colder, bluer HMI lamps. Color Temperature is expressed in degrees
Kelvin (K). Daylight on a clear day is about 6500 Kelvina mix of direct sun
at 5500K and skylight at 9500K. Lights with lower color temperatures look
red; those with higher color temperatures look blue. To picture this imagine a
blacksmith heating an iron bar. It first gets red hot, then as its temperature
increases, it becomes white hot, and finally, blue white hot. To measure the
color temperature of a light, you can use a color meter. These are fairly
expensive and although crucial with film photography, they are not as neces-
sary with digital cameras because of white balance control.
The Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a relative measure of how colors
shift when illuminated by a particular lamp as compared to a reference
source such as daylight. Daylight has a CRI of 100, the highest possible CRI.
The closer the CRI of a light source is to 100, the truer it renders color.
The power of continuous lights is usually given in watts, but occasionally in
lumens.
Watts describe the power consumed, not the light emitted. For example,
there are many different lighting fixtures that use 100 watt lamps, but the
output efficiency of these lamps will vary by 100% or more.
Lumens indicates the lighting intensity of continuous lighting. It's a
measure of the total light output of the lamp. A 27 watt CFL lamp has 1750
lumens, the same as a 100 watt tungsten bulb.
Reflector efficiency ensures that the available light is focused on the subject
to be photographed and not on areas outside the camera's field-of-view.
Generally, the brighter the light, the smaller the aperture you can use or the
farther the lights can be positioned from the subject. However, for tabletop
photography, almost any bright light will work. Some continuous lights are
equipped with a dimmer switch. This lets you adjust the lights brightness
without having to change its distance to the subject. The only thing to be
aware of is that adjusting brightness also affects the lights color temperature.
Be sure to adjust your cameras white balance after adjusting the lights
brightness.
The least expensive
lights for the digital
studio are swing-arm
desk lamps. They
combine the stand and
reflector in one unit.
Calumet's Tri-Lite uses
three fluorescent bulbs
that throw off almost no
heat. This lets you
position the light close
to a subject for the
highest levels of
illumination without
damaging the subject
with intense heat.
To see if your fuses or
circuit breakers will
handle the lights you
want to use, add up all
of the wattages and
divided by 110 to
calculate the number of
amps the lights will
draw. If the number is
higher than the rating
of your fuses or circuit
breakers, use less
power, or plug the
lights into different
circuits.
143 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
USING STROBES
Strobes are the real workhorses in a professional studio, and are basically
larger and more powerful versions of your cameras built-in flash. They are
cooler than many continuous lights mainly because they fire very short bursts
of light. These bursts are of such short duration, they also freeze motion.
Since they are not on all the time, strobes often have low intensity modeling
lights so you can see how the light will fall on the subject. Strobes are great,
but cost hundreds, and usually thousands of dollars. They generally have one
or more lightweight heads containing the flash tubes that connect by high-
voltage cables to a separate power pack that powers and controls the light.
However, a version called a monolight has all of the needed circuitry built
into the head.
The power of these units is usually specified in watt-seconds. The higher the
rating, the more powerful the unit. Another important attribute is the units
recycle time. The shorter the time, the faster you can get off the next shot.
The power of a flash is important relative to the size of the subject. If you are
shooting small objects you dont need anywhere near as much power as you
do when shooting large ones. However, the more power you do have, the
smaller the aperture you can use to gain increased depth of fieldespecially
important when doing close-ups.
Many digital cameras with fixed lenses have a fairly large minimum aperture
of f/11 or so. The camera cant stop down far enough to prevent overexposing
an image when used with a powerful strobe. This forces you to move the
strobe father from the subjectmaking the light harder. Too many watt
seconds arent always good.
Some strobes have zoom heads so you can adjust the cone of light. For
consistency in catalogs and specifications, the width of this cone is usually
specified at 10 feet from the light.
Strobes have heads
(the light), stands to
hold them up, and
power packs to provide
the burst of power
needed to fire them.
Courtesy of Bogen
Photo Corp.
Monolights are strobes
with all of the needed
circuitry built in so you
dont need a separate
power pack. Courtesy of
Smith-Victor.
You cant use your
cameras exposure
meter to set exposures
with strobes. You can
do it by trial and error
or use a flash meter.
Courtesy of Bogen
Photo Corp.
USING STROBES
144
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
CONNECTING THE CAMERA AND LIGHTS
When you use an external flash or strobes with your camera, you need a way
to connect them so when you press the shutter button down, the flash knows
to fire. (Continuous lights dont need to be connected to the camera.) There
are a variety of ways to do so.
HOT SHOES
Many cameras have a hot shoe into which you can slide and lock an external
flash thats designed to work with the camera. The electrical connections to
the cameras shutter release and autoexposure system are made automati-
cally when the flash is locked in place. There are also adapters for the hot
shoe that let you connect strobes or off-camera flash units.
PC TERMINAL
A PC (Prontor-Compur) terminal located on some camera bodies lets you use
cables to connect a flash or strobe. The cable that attaches to the PC terminal
is called a sync cord (for synchronization and pronounced sink) or PC cord.
When you take a picture, a signal is sent from the camera along the cable to
fire the studio flash. A few cameras have what looks like a hot shoe but
lacking electrical connections. These cold shoes just hold a flash in place and
require a cable and a PC terminal for the electrical connection. If your camera
lacks a PC terminal but has a hot shoe, you can use an adapter in the hot shoe
to connect a sync cord.
When connecting an external flash or strobes to the camera you should
consider using a voltage regulator. These devices reduce the sync voltage to 6
volts, protecting your camera from voltage spikes that could damage it.
WIRELESS REMOTE FLASH
If you have one or more external flash units, you can make them into mini
strobes using remote flash triggers. One of these inexpensive devices (some
flash units have them built in) make any flash into a slave unit by firing it
when it senses a flash firing elsewhere. This allows you to get lighting effects
you couldnt possibly get with a single unit. More advanced flash units
accomplish the same goal using optical or radio signals. You mount a master
flash or a transmitter on the cameras hot shoe and it transmits wireless
signals to the slave units telling them what settings to use and when to fire.
The master flash on the camera can be enabled or disabled. When disabled, it
still transmits signals to the remote units.
With expensive units, the output ratio (page 00) of different slave units can
be set to finely tune exposures. This is ideal for background or accent lighting
when shooting in a studio setting. When using wireless remote flash, you can
use a modeling light that illuminates the subject for a full second so you can
preview flash effects such as shadows and highlights before taking a picture.
Some cameras have a
hot shoe into which you
can slip an external
flash unit.
A PC terminal.
A remote flash trigger
fires the flash to which
its connected when the
main flash fires.
Courtesy of Vivitar.
A sync cord. Courtesy
of Paramount Cords.
A slave bulb courtesy of
Smith-Victor.
145 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
UNDERSTANDING HARD AND SOFT LIGHT
When you photograph indoors or out, the scene is illuminated by light that
ranges from hard to soft.
Whether light falling on a subject is hard or soft depends on one thing, the
relative sizes of the light source and subject. A large source will wrap light
around a small subject filling shadows and lowering contrast. A small source
will direct light onto a large subject creating hard shadows and high contrast.
To imagine this, think of the light falling on a landscape on a bright sunny
day. The sun is small compared to the landscape, so the light is hard. Pictures
have black shadows or burned out highlights. Now imagine a thin layer of
clouds drifting across the sky from horizon to horizon. The sun hits the cloud
layer from above, and it retransmits the light from all parts of the sky. The
light source has gotten dramatically larger and its diffuse light softens
shadows and lowers contrast.
There are two ways to soften light indoors in addition to moving a light closer
to the subjectusing reflectors (page 00) and diffusers (page 00). To get
harder light, move the light farther from the subject or use a bare bulb or bare
bulb flash. When a bulb is mounted in a reflector, its really the larger reflec-
tor that is the light source. A bare bulb has no reflector so the light source is
much smaller. Since its more of a point source, it casts a hard light on the
subject. Because it lacks a reflector to focus the light, its range is shorter than
other kinds of light.
Hard light is created
when the light source is
small relative to the
subject.
Smith-Victor makes a
softlight that hides the
bulb and bounces the
light off a large curved
reflector.
UNDERSTANDING HARD AND SOFT LIGHT
A light box set on end
makes a soft light bank
when placed close to a
subject. Light boxes are
also daylight balanced.
146
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
Soft light is created
when the light source is
large relative to the
subject.
Here a baseball has
been photographed with
hard light (top, left) and
soft light (bottom,
right). The differences
are striking. The soft
light wraps around
the ball because the
source is so much
larger. The hard light
has a more dramatic
effect on the surface
texture.
Smith-Victor makes a
diffusion screen that
enlarges the size of the
light source. It does so
by reducing the
influence of the direct
light from the small
bulb screwed into a
reflector.
147 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
The LumiQuest Table
Top Reflector System.
Courtesy of LumiQuest.
USING FILL CARDS AND REFLECTORS
Fill cards and reflectors can do two important thingssoften light by enlarg-
ing the source and redirecting it to open shadows and lower contrast.
A light on one side of a subject will leave the other side in shadow. By placing
a reflectorcalled a fill cardon the other side, you can bounce some of the
light back onto the subject to open those shadows with reflected light. A small
light bouncing off a large reflector not only redirects light, it also softens it
because the larger reflector becomes the light source. You can get this effect
by bouncing a flash off a wall or ceiling when photographing indoors. You can
also buy reflectors with smooth or wrinkled surfaces in a variety of shapes
and colorsincluding white, black, silver, or gold. The more wrinkled the
surface, the more diffuse the light, and gold gives warmer light. You can make
reflectors from large sheets of white poster board available from any art
supply store. You can even cut up large boxes and cover them with aluminum
foil. You can also crumple the foil and then flatten it back out to give an even
more diffuse light. When cutting up the boxes take advantage of the folds to
make large folding reflectors. You might also look for those reflectors that
people put in the windshield on hot sunny days. The most portable and
storable reflectors are the collapsible kind that you twist and fold so they are
small enough to fit in a pouch.
PhotoFlex LiteDiscs
collapse for easy
storage and expand for
use. Courtesy of
PhotoFlex.
LastoLites pocket
reflector bracket lets
you position a small
reflector almost
anywhere. Courtesy of
Bogen Photo Corp.
USING FILL CARDS AND REFLECTORS
This pair of photos
shows the dramatic
impact a fill card can
have. In the top photo
the car is back lit so the
front is in shadow. In
the bottom photo a fill
card is used to bounce
lite back to illuminate
the near side.
148
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
When a light is
projected into the
center of an umbrella,
the light bounces
around and out. Since
the umbrella is larger
than the light, it casts a
softer light on the
subject. Courtesy of
Smith-Victor.
Umbrella reflectors
come in all sizes from
the jumbo to the
camera mounted.
Jumbo courtesy of
Bogen Photo Corp.
Camera mounted
umbrella courtesy of
BKA Group.
One very popular form of reflector is the umbrella. When using one of these,
the open side of the umbrella faces the subject and the flash fires into it. The
light bouncing off the inside of the umbrella illuminates the subject with soft
light reflected from a very large surface area.
A handy reflector to
have around is an
inexpensive shaving
mirror.
149 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
A fabric diffuser on a
stand. Courtesy of
PhotoFlex.
USING DIFFUSERS
In a digital studio, the lights often have small bare bulbs close to the setup, so
unless the subject is very small, the light is hard. To soften the light, you place
a diffuser between the light and the subject. The hard light from the lamp hits
the diffuser and some light passes through making the diffuser the light
source. Since its larger than the light, and closer to the subject, it casts softer
light that envelops the subject and fills shadows. Some companies sell
diffusers for flash units that are the same size as the flash head but have a
translucent surface. The impression some people have is that the translucent
material through which the light passes softens it. This isnt true. Its only size
that counts. A diffuser larger than the light source will soften the light. One
the same size will only dim it.
A very low-budget diffuser can be assembled from stretcher bars used to
stretch canvas for paintings, and a sheet of vellumboth available from an art
supply store. Stretcher bars are ideal to use for a diffuser because you buy
pairs to assemble into any size frame and then tape vellum to them. These
may seem simple, but even the pros use them.
The frame stretchers
snap together without
the need for any tools
and you can attach the
vellum to the frame
with tape.
Lastolite makes a
collapsible Ezybox
softbox thats easy to
store when not in use.
Courtesy of Bogen
Photo Corp.
Inexpensive stretcher
bars can be found in
almost any art supply
store. The same store
should have a sheet of
vellum in the same size
as the assembled
frame.
If you have more money to spend, the next step up the scale is a fabric
diffuser, perhaps with a stand to hold it in place. If you are using strobes, the
ultimate diffuser is the softbox. Softboxes are lined with reflective material
and one side is a translucent white fabric. When a bare bulb fires inside the
box, its light bounces around inside the box and exits out through the
translucent fabric, making the large fabric a much softer light source.
USING DIFFUSERS
150
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
The ezCube lets you
photograph small
objects in diffuse light.
(www.ezcube.com)
A small diffuser can be
attached to an external
flash to soften the light.
A translucent plastic
gallon milk bottle makes
a fine diffuser when
photographing small
objects. Just cut out the
top end for the camera
lens and the bottom for
the subject.
The photo of the head
on the left was taken
without a diffuser, the
one on the right with
one.
A large softbox
illuminates with very
soft light. Courtesy of
Smith-Victor.
151 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
OTHER LIGHTING CONTROLS
There are a number of devices you can use to direct or control your studio
light. Some you can jury-rig yourself, others you can buy. In most cases the
light must be designed to accept these accessories and they are not always
interchangeable between makes and models. Generally, the more popular the
light, the more accessories youll be able to find for it.
Zoom heads on some lights let you adjust the width of the light beam.
Barn doors are adjustable black metal flaps or leaves surrounding a light.
You can position them to keep the light from spilling into areas where its not
wanted. When the light is pointed toward the camera, one flap can be ad-
justed to prevent light from entering the camera lens and causing lens flare.
Snoots attach to the front of the light and direct the light onto the subject
in a narrow beam to highlight a small area with little or no effect on the
surrounding area.
Gels are colored filters can then be placed in front of a light to change the
color it casts. To get the full effect, you need to set you cameras white balance
to match the light source before attaching the filter. To add gels or other
filters, you use a filter holder that attaches to the front of the light.
Scrims are screens woven from fine wire. Their function is to reduce light
output at the source without affecting the color temperature. They may be
stacked to achieve variations of light intensity.
Fresnel lenses focus light into a narrower beam.
Diffusion screens made of translucent plastic, paper, or fabric, are
placed in front of a light to soften it.
Honeycomb grids make light more specular and less diffuse. Specular
light rays are more parallel and tend not to fill shadows or lower contrast as
much as more diffuse light does.
Gobos or flags are panels or other things that are placed between the light
and subject. These block light from the lens or part of the scene or create
patterns of shadows on the background or subject. One use is to position
them between the light and a hot spot on the subject to reduce the contrast
and eliminate a reflection.
Barndoors. Courtesy of
Smith-Victor.
A snoot. Courtesy of
Smith-Victor.
A honeycomb grid.
Courtesy of Smith-
Victor.
Scrims. Courtesy of
Smith-Victor.
Gels (Snappies).
Courtesy of Smith-
Victor.
A diffusion screen.
Courtesy of Smith-
Victor.
OTHER LIGHTING CONTROLS
152
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHEREXPOSURE AND WHITE BALANCE
When shooting with a digital camera, your biggest advantage is that you can
see the image you just captured and make adjustments as you go along. Only
when it looks perfect on the monitor, need you go to the computer to see what
it looks like enlarged. However, when shooting a number of objects, as you
might for a catalog, or an on-line business, it helps to develop a system that
makes things faster and easier. When shooting in a studio, a video out
connection on the camera allows you to connect it to a TV so each image that
you take is instantly displayed. Not only is the screen much larger than the
cameras monitor, it is adjustable. (Some camera monitors are also. Most let
you adjust brightness, and a few let you adjust hue and saturation.) Another
advantage of the CRT on a TV is that the density of the image doesnt change
depending on your viewing angle. On many camera LCD monitors it does.
You can also use the same setup to take portraits and let the subject see
themselves immediately as each picture is taken. It makes a session a lot
more interactive.
There are also things you can do to be sure you are using the best possible
exposures and white balance. Although you can see the results of your shots
on the monitor, and make adjustments as you go along, there are ways to be
more efficient and more accurate. They involve shooting standardized cards
containing gray scales and color samples.
Shooting a gray card helps you place middle gray precisely where it be-
longsright in the middle of the histograms horizontal axis (page 00). When
you shoot the gray card under the same light youll use to photograph the
subject, the histogram should show a spike right in the middle of the horizon-
tal axis. If its to the left, the image is too dark so you should use plus (+)
exposure compensation to increase exposure and move it to the right. If its to
the right, the image is too light. Use minus (-) exposure compensation to
decrease exposure and move it to the left.
If your camera displays
a histogram, the one for
the gray card should be
a spike right in the
middle of the horizontal
axis.
A gray card.
If all of your light
sources do not have the
same color
temperature, you can
white balance for one
mix but not for all
possible combinations.
Here Quinlan sits in
front of three lights
red, green, and blue.
Where he blocks the
light from one bulb, a
shadow forms from a
mixture of the other
two bulbs. You will get
a similar effect in areas
lit from sources other
than the mix of light for
which you have set
white balance.
153 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
The cameras video out
terminal can be used to
connect a TV set while
you are shooting. This
allows you to
immediately review
images greatly
enlarged. (The foil on
the top light in this
image is used to block
light from the
background.)
The Kodak Color
Separation Guide (top)
and Gray Scale
(bottom). These two
printed cards come
together in large 14"
(Q-14) and small 8" (Q-
13) sizes.
Once you have placed middle gray, you can then check the dynamic range and
white balance and adjust the camera or attached TV to be sure you're seeing
the best possible colors. To do this, you can use the same exposure setting to
photograph Kodak Color Separation Guides and Gray Scales available from
Calumet or B&H Photo. You begin by photographing these cards under the
same light you use to photograph your subjects. You can also place them
along the edges of any art you are photographing for more accurate reproduc-
tion or photo editing of your artwork.
The KODAK Gray Scale lets you see if you are capturing all of the possible
tone values and making full use of the camera's dynamic range. The scale has
20 steps in 0.10 density increments between 0.0 white and a practical print-
ing black of 1.90 density. When you photograph this scale you should be able
to adjust the monitors or TVs brightness and contrast controls so you can
see each and every one of the 20 steps. If the whites all run together, you are
overexposing. If the blacks do, you are underexposing.
The KODAK Color Separation Guide helps you compare the color of the
subject with known printing colors. You can use it as a guide when adjusting
your camera's white balance, hue, and saturation, and if you send the photo
to a printer for inclusion in a catalog it helps them create separation negatives
need to print the images. The card contains nine patches, with two satura-
tions of each patch. When you shoot color patches, your goal is to make the
monitor display them as close to the original colors as possible.
The Macbeth color
chart.
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHEREXPOSURE AND WHITE BALANCE
154
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
CHOOSING A BACKGROUND
When photographing objects, they stand out better when placed in front of
the appropriate and properly lit background. The goal is to have a back-
ground that doesnt distract from the main subject. If possible it should
enhance the subject, but at the very minimum it should be neutral.
BACKGROUND MATERIALS
One of the most widely used background materials is poster board from an
art supply store, where its usually found in a spectrum of colors. For larger
subjects, professional photographers use seamless paper that comes in rolls
up to 140 wide. Stands are available to hold a roll of seamless paper at the
proper height and make it easy to pull off clean, new paper when needed
somewhat like pulling a paper towel off a roller.
The color and tone of your background is important. Backgrounds come in a
wide variety of colors and even patterns, but white, gray, and black are good
choices for most subjects. You can also use color poster board, or place
filters over the background light to add color to a white background. If you
use colors, you need to consider how the background color relates to the
color of the subject you are photographing.
In some cases, you may want to use unusual materials for your background.
Cloth, slate, tiles, wood, and almost any other material can work if it
complements the subject and is well lit. In other cases you may want to add
other elements to the setup to invoke a mood. For example, an expensive
pen might be shown in a rich setting with fine grained wood and leather
bound books.
BACKGROUND LIGHTING
The lighting of the background is as important as the lighting of the subject.
The most common techniques are to use even, graduated, or shadowless
lighting.
Graduated lighting is created by curving the background into a sweep and
positioning a light away from the top of the curved background and pointing
down. This projects more light on the lower part of the background making
it go from darker at the top to lighter at the bottom. If necessary, you can
tape a piece of tinfoil to the side of the lamp facing the background to keep
it from shining on the top part of the background. You may want to raise the
subject up from the background on a piece of glass or plexiglass so the light
can sweep under it.
Shadowless lighting captures the subject against a pure white or colored
background so it seems to float on the page. One way to do this is to place a
light so the background is overexposed and burned out. Some people feel
that a drop shadow in front of the subject adds weight. To do this, you
place the main light above and behind the subject. You can use a fill light or
reflectors to add light to the front of the subject.
The easiest way to get shadowless lighting with a small subject is to place it
on a raised translucent plexiglass panel lit from below. If you are displaying
images on the Web, you can use this same concept to make a subject appear
to float on the background. One color, the pure white background, can be
designated as the transparent color that the background shows through.
Art supply stores often
have leftover pieces cut
from large sheet of
poster board sheets
that you can use for
small setups.
Background stands can
hold rolls of paper in
almost any color.
Courtesy of Smith-
Victor.
Bogen makes collapsible
backgrounds. Courtesy
of Bogen Photo Corp.
A light box used for a
shadowless
background.
155 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
The camera in this
photo was shot with the
background burned out
so its silhouetted
You can photograph for a transparent GIF (page 00) against any background
as long as it's perfectly uniform. For other uses you may want the background
to be pure white without any detailbasically a burned out highlight.
Interest is added by
photographing an old
photo against the title
page of a book written
by the subject of the
photo. It puts the item
in context.
Here the background
was a sheet of neutral
gray poster board (top)
and slate (bottom).
CHOOSING A BACKGROUND
To create a dropped-out
background (right), you
can place the subject on
a sheet of plexiglass
and light it from below
(left).
156
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
POSITIONING THE CAMERA
The position of the camera relative to the subject and background is one of
the many decisions you have to make. Here are some things to consider:
Wide-angle lenses are more prone to lens flare so the placement of lights is
more critical, especially when aimed toward the camera.
All lenses have a minimum focus distance that determines how close you
can get to the subject. To get closer, you need to switch to macro mode or use
a macro lens. If you get closer than allowed to any part of the setup, you
wont be able to focus on that part.
If the camera is tilted up or down, especially when using a wide-angle lens,
any vertical lines on the subject will convergean effect called keystoning
since the lines converge like those in a keystone. There are special tilt-shift
lenses for 35mm-style cameras that lets you correct for this, but they are
expensive. For most of us, the solution is to use a level to make sure the
cameras image sensor planethe camera back is parallel with the vertical
face of the subject.
In the left photo the
camera was tilted so
parallel lines seem to
converge. In the right
photo the camera back
was parallel to the
subject so the lines
appear parallel.
If the camera is too close to the subject, the lens may block the light from
covering the subject. Because of the angles involved it may cast a shadow.
157 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
The top photo was shot
from close up with a
wide-angle lens. The
bottom photograph was
taken with the camera
moved back and the
lens zoomed in. The
image taken with the
wide-angle lens shows
heads farther from the
lens as much smaller.
The image taken with a
longer focal length
shows the relative sizes
the way they actually
are.
Focal length affects perspective. A subject shot from close-up with a wide-
angle lens will look different from the same subject shot farther away with a
longer focal length.
POSITIONING THE CAMERA
When zoomed out or using a wide-angle lens, its hard to keep the edges of
the setup from showing in the picture. Sometimes, there is only one angle to
shoot from. Zooming in, or using a longer focal length lens from farther back,
reduces this problem and gives you more flexibility when choosing a camera
angle.
Think about whether the camera should be set horizontally or vertically for
the subject.
Consider the camera angle. Do you want to shoot head-on, up, or down at
the subject.
158
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
In the left photo the
subject was shot from
close up with a wide-
angle lens. In the right
photograph the camera
was moved back and
the lens zoomed in to
keep the subject the
same size. The two
images are quite
different with the one
on the right being much
more faithful to reality.
If the camera is too close to some three-dimensional subjects, it will distort
them. Any part of the subject closest to the camera will appear larger than
parts farther away.
If the camera is too close to a flat subject, and a wide-angle lens is used, the
subject may show barrel distortion. This is most obvious in subjects with
straight lines or edges that fall near the edges of the image. These lines will
appear curved or swollen instead of straight. Longer focal length lenses
reduce or eliminate this distortion as will using a smaller aperture since
barrel distortion is less of a problem when using the center of the lens.
Both of these photos
are of items with
perfectly straight edges.
However, both were
shot from close up with
a wide-angle lens and
show barrel distortion
with all sides seeming
to bulge out.
159 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
POSITIONING LIGHTSINTRODUCTION
In the studio, you usually use more than one light to illuminate a scene. The
goal is often to create light that looks like that found outdoors. The lights can
be hot lights, strobes, or slave flash unitsor even fill cards. Two or three
lights are often used.
The use of main, fill, background and rim lights is a classic studio lighting
setup for portraits, and its principles can also be adapted to tabletop photog-
raphy. Once you know how to do it well, you can explore variations off this
basic theme.
The main light is positioned somewhat to one side of the subject and
somewhat above it.
A fill light is placed opposite the main light, but more nearly at the subjects
level.
A background light is used to control the lighting on the background
behind the main subject.
A rim light is placed quite high and behind the subject to highlight edges
and separate the subject from the background.
Although this lighting setup gives you almost total control, for most purposes
you can get by with just the main light and a fill light. In fact, you can often
get along with just the main light by replacing the fill light with fill cards to
bounce light into the shadows. The way you position a light relative to the
subject is very important.
As you move a light farther away from the subject you reduce the light
falling on it. Because there is less light you may have to use a larger aperture
which gives less depth of field.
Moving a light back hardens its light, while moving it closer softens it.
Positioning the light at an angle to the subject will make the light uneven
over the subject with the part closest to the light getting more light. The
exposure will only be correct for those at one distancenormally those in the
middle of the area metered by the autoexposure system. Parts of the setup
located farther from the light source will be increasingly darker the farther
away they are.
Given that light on a subject can be increased or decreased just by moving the
light source closer or farther away gives you a way to control the lighting on
your setup. This is especially true when you use two lights of the same
intensity. By moving a light farther away, you can reduce the light it illumi-
nates the subject with. On strobes, you do it by adjusting the lights intensity.
On continuous lights you can do the same with a dimmer switch. As youll see
in the section on positioning the fill light, you can have one light illuminate
the subject with more intensity than another light. The difference between the
two lights is called the lighting ratio.
Here two lights and a
diffuser are used to
photograph a toy.
A spot light can get
light into dark shadow
areas. Courtesy of
Smith-Victor.
POSITIONING LIGHTSINTRODUCTION
160
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
THE MAIN LIGHT
Outdoors, the brightest source of light is usually the sun. In the studio, the
role of the sun is performed by whats called the main light (or sometimes the
key light). Like the sun its the brightest source of light and casts the darkest
shadows. There are two things to consider when placing the main lightits
position relative to the lens axis and its distance from the subject.
When close to the axis of the lens, shadows are minimized. They are there,
but fall behind the subject. As the light moves further from the lens axis,
shadows expand and become more prominent as seen from the camera
position.
As the light is moved closer to the subject, the light falling on the subject
increases and you can use a smaller aperture. Also as you move it closer, its
relative size increases so the light becomes softer. It casts shadows with less
defined edges and lowers contrast as it envelopes the subject in light.
Like the sun, this light is often positioned above and often slightly to the side
of the subject. Placing the light above the subject creates light on the subject
that is familiar, as are the shadows it creates. Placing it below the subject
often creates a mysterious, eerie looking effect. Youll see this lighting in
horror and mystery movies, especially with bad guys. However, its position
depends on the subject. If you wanted to bring out the dimples in a golf ball,
youd place the light farther away and rake the light across the surface of the
ball. For a portrait, you might do exactly the opposite, moving it closer and
more in front.
Here the main light is to
the left, above, and
right of the subject.
Lighting from below can
give an eerie effect to
portraits and other
subjects. Its not the
way we are used to
things being lit.
161 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
THE FILL LIGHT
In addition to the main light, many photos are taken with a fill light that
represents the light that falls on an outdoor subject from the broad expanse
of an open sky, or reflecting from surfaces in the landscape. This light, placed
opposite the main light, opens shadows by lighting the dark side of the
subject facing away from the main light. Its intent is to lighten the shadows to
reveal otherwise hidden detail, not eliminate the shadows. In some situations,
a fill card is used instead of the fill light. It reflects light from the main light
back onto the dark side of the subject. You can change the position of the fill
light for different effects and to eliminate hot spots. Also, when placing it
closer to the lens axis you reduce the possibility of creating a confusing or
unflattering second set of crisscrossing shadows on the subject.
Since fill light has less intensity than the main light, it can more easily be
overwhelmed by ambient light coming from room lights or windows. This
ambient light isnt necessarily bad, provided you are aware of the effects it is
having on the light and white balance. To eliminate it, you can turn off the
room lights and use window shades or blinds to block or reduce daylight
streaming through the windows.
The fill light is almost always less bright than the main light, in fact about half
as bright. Its relative brightness can be controlled in a number of ways. For
example, it can be placed farther away, a diffuser or scrims can be used, or
you can use a less powerful light. On strobes you also adjust lighting ratios to
make one light brighter than the other by a specified number of stops. Some
continuous lights are equipped with a dimmer switch.
When using two or more light sources on a subject, the differences in intensi-
ties can be expressed as a ratio. For example, if two lights illuminate the
subject with the same intensity, the ratio is 1:1. As one source gets brighter,
the ratio can change to 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, and so on. The first number in the ratio is
the number of stops difference between the two levels of illumination. The
higher the ratio, the more contrast the image will have. At very high ratios,
white will be burned out or shadow areas will be black.
TIP
Since each change
of one stop doubles
the light, stops and
ratios are ex-
pressed differently.
0 stops = 1:1
1 stop = 2:1
2 stops = 4:1
3 stops = 8:1
4 stops = 16:1
The fill light on the right is
moved closer and closer.
THE FILL LIGHT
162
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
THE BACKGROUND LIGHT
A background light can be used to control how light or dark the background
behind the subject. A lighter or darker background can help visually separate
the subject from the background. It can also lighten shadows cast on the
background by other lights. In fact, if made light enough, it can silhouette the
subject.
The background light
can be varied for
different effects. When
only spillover light
illuminates the
background (upper-left)
its a uniform gray.
When not illuminated at
all (upper-right) its
black. When the
background is lit by a
spot it is graduated
(lower-left). When
illuminated with a bright
light it is burned out to
pure white (lower-
right).
163 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
THE RIM LIGHT
A back light or rim light can be positioned behind the subject and facing
toward the camera to illuminate the edges from behind so they glow and are
visually separated from the darker background. In portrait photography this
light is often used to back light the hair, but is also used with many other
subjects. The back light is often set up behind the subject and slightly higher
than the other lights. Because its facing the camera, its important that it be
completely blocked by the subject or out of the field of view to reduce the
possibility of lens flare and lowered contrast. If you get these effects, use a
gobo to block light from the camera lens.
THE RIM LIGHT
The final image is
beautifully lit and well
separated from the
background. Its a
visually interesting
image.
164
CHAPTER 8. STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE III.
THINKING ABOUT YOUR PHOTOGRAPH
Before you begin arranging your setup for a photo shoot, you should think
about what it is that you are trying to capturethe lighting is a means, not an
end. The end is to have an image that is not only a descriptive record of what
the object looks like, but one thats visually interesting. People should enjoy
looking at it because it draws their attention. At the very least it should be
professional and show craftsmanship.
The first thing to do when photographing a subject is to take a deep breath
and tell yourself that patience will be its own reward. The goal is to get a good
picture, no matter how long it takes. Its a lot quicker in the long run to get it
right, then to have to do it over. And dont have that lurking thought that you
can fix it in Photoshop. You may be able to save a bad image, but you cant
really fix one or make it much better than it looked when you shot it.
Once you are in the right frame of mind, ask yourself what it is that you want
to convey about the subject. One way to begin is to identify those characteris-
tics of the subject that you want to feature or highlight. Most subjects will
have one or more of the following characteristics to consider:
Translucence or transparency is a characteristic that lets light shine
through. When photographing an object with this characteristic, such as
glassware, minerals, or jewelry, you try to get a light behind it.
Reflectance is a characteristic where the subject has a shiny surface and
reflects things around it. These kinds of subjects, such as silverware, need to
be photographed so the reflections are picking up things that reveal modeling
or otherwise enhance the subject.
Flatness is a characteristic where we think of the subject as having only two
dimensions, length and width. These kinds of subjects, such as prints, maps
or charts, need to be evenly lit.
Depth is a characteristic where an object is 3-dimensionaleven if the
depth is shallow as it would be on a fabric or coinor deep as it would be on
a machine. To photograph a subject having depth, the light needs to be
uneven so shadows and highlights create an illusion of depth. Depth of field
must also be considered so you capture all parts of the image as sharp as you
want them.
Detail is a characteristic where part or all of the subject has fine details that
need to be shown. If photographing used items you need to show damage or
details such as interesting labels. One way to emphasize the details is to shoot
close. Another way is to use lighting that brings it out.
Once we have made some decisions about the object itself, we need to think
about the setting in which we want to photograph it. The setting is essentially
the background against which we place an item.
Backgrounds in many cases show nothing but a color or tone, or even the
absence of these. Other items may look best when photographed in a context
that invokes a mood. A piece of Navajo silver might look better on a piece of
stone than on a white background. A pen may look best shot on an attractive
desktop with leather bound books and rich wood surfaces in the scene. Think
of ways to use surfaces, color, tones, and even reflectance to enhance the
main subject.
Scale is sometimes important unless the object is one thats common and
Details.
Translucence.
Reflectance.
Flatness.
Depth.
165 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Scale is important. The
large pin (top) shows
sufficient detail, but
gives no indication of
size. When a dime is
included in the picture,
you immediately know
how large the pin is.
TIPS
Keep ambient background light low so you control the lighting without
interference or contamination from other light sources.
Use the cameras AC adapter so you can leave it on continually.
Turn the auto off setting off so the camera doesnt turn off every minute
or so if you dont use the controls.
Use the monitor to compose and evaluate your shots (if your camera lets
you do so). However, dont rely on the monitor too much. Its very hard to
judge sharpness, exposure, and color balance on such a small screen.
available in only one size. The best way to show scale is to include something
else in the picture that has a commonly recognized size.
Take the fact that you have no film costs, and can see your results immedi-
ately, as an invitation to experiment. Try moving lights and reflectors,
experiment with diffusers and backgrounds. Your only limit is your imagina-
tion and willingness to try new things.
THINKING ABOUT YOUR PHOTOGRAPH
TIPS
It may surprise
you how many
famous photogra-
phers have set their
exposure using
instruction sheets
packaged with the
film they used.
There is nothing
embarrassing
about your setting
it by trial and error
using the monitor.
Be aware that
your viewfinder or
monitor may show
only about 95% of
the image area.
There may be
things in the edges
of your pictures
you didnt expect.
256
APPENDIXGLOSSARY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE V.
Appendix
Glossary
To keep the cost of this eBook as low as possible, we have invited leading
companies in digital photography to list their products and services.
CONTENTS
What Is A Digital
Photograph? The
Number of Pixels The
Image Sensor Image
Sensor Characteristics
Digital Color Types
of Digital Cameras
Composing Images
Capturing Images
Scanners
AA30470C
257 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Angle of view. The amount of a scene that can be recorded by a particular
lens; determined by the focal length of the lens.
Adapter. Used to insert a smaller storage device into a larger slot in a com-
puter or other device.
Additive color system. See RGB.
Aperture, maximum. The largest size of the hole though which light enters the
camera.
Aperture. The lens opening formed by the iris diaphragm inside the lens. The
size of the hole can be made larger or smaller by the autofocus system or a
manual control.
Aspect ratio. The ratio between the width and height of an image or image
sensor.
ATA. A standard for storage devices that lets them be treated as if they were
hard drives on the system. Any ATA compatible media can be read by any
ATA device.
Attachment. A file such as a photography sent along with an e-mail message
so it can be viewed or saved at the recipient's end.
Automatic exposure. A mode of camera operation in which the camera
automatically adjusts the aperture, shutter speed, or both for proper expo-
sure.
Automatic flash. An electronic flash unit with a light-sensitive cell that
determines the length of the flash for proper exposure by measuring the light
reflected back from the subject.
Back-lit. The subject is illuminated from behind and will be underexposed
unless you use fill flash or exposure compensation.
Bayer pattern. A pattern of red, green, and blue filters on the image sensor's
photosites. There are twice as many green filters as the other colors because
the human eye is more sensitive to green and therefore green color accuracy
is more important.
Bit-mapped. Images formed from pixels with each pixel a shade of gray or
color. Using 24-bit color, each pixel can be set to any one of 16 million colors.
Burst mode. The ability of a camera to take one picture after another as long
as you hold down the shutter release button.
Card. The sealed package containing storage chips or other devices with
electrical connectors that make contact when inserted into a card slot on a
camera, printer, computer, or other device..
CCD raw format. The uninterpolated data collected directly from the image
sensor before processing.
CCD. See Charge-coupled device.
Charge-coupled device (CCD). An image sensor that reads the charges built
up on the sensor's photosites a row at a time.
CMOS image sensor. An image sensor created using CMOS technology.
CMOS. See CMOS image sensor.
Color balance. The overall accuracy with which the colors in a photograph
match or are capable of matching those in the original scene.
258
APPENDIXGLOSSARY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE V.
COMPANY NAME
Color depth. The number of bits assigned to each pixel in the image and the
number of colors that can be created from those bits. True Color uses 24 bits
per pixel to render 16 million colors.
CompactFlash. A popular form of flash storage for digital cameras.
Compression, lossless. A file compression scheme that makes a file smaller
without degrading the image.
Compression, lossy. A file compression scheme that reduces the size of a file
but degrades it in the process so it can't be restored to its original quality.
Compression. The process of reducing the size of a file.
Depth of field. The distance between the nearest and farthest points that
appear in acceptably sharp focus in a photograph. Depth of field varies with
lens aperture, focal length, and camera-to-subject distance.
Docking station. A small base connected to the computer by a cable. You
insert the camera or other device into the docking station to transfer images.
Download. Sending a file from another device to your computer.
Exposure. 1. The act of allowing light to strike a light-sensitive surface. 2. The
amount of light reaching the image sensor, controlled by the combination of
aperture and shutter speed.
Exposure compensation. The ability to adjust exposure by one or two stops to
lighten or darken the image.
Exposure/focus lock. The ability to point at one part of the scene and hold the
shutter button half-way down to lock in exposure and focus settings when you
point the camera elsewhere to compose the scene.
Firewire. Apple's name for IEEE 1394.
Flash card reader. An accessory that attaches to your computer by cable. You
insert a flash memory card into the reader to transfer files.
Flash memory card. A card containing chips that store images.
Flash memory. A form of memory using chips instead of magnetic media. The
data in the device isn't lost when the power is turned off.
Flash, fill. Flash used to fill shadows even when there is enough light to
otherwise take the photograph.
Flash, ring. A special circular flash that fits over a lens to take close-up
pictures
Flash, slave. A flash that fires when it senses the light from another flash unit.
FlashPix. An image format that contains a number of resolutions, each of
which is broken into tiles that can be edited and displayed independently.
Floppy drive. A storage device on almost all computers that accepts 3 or 5
-inch floppy disks.
Focal length. The distance from the optical center of the lens to the image
sensor when the lens is focused on infinity. The focal length is usually ex-
pressed in millimeters (mm) and determines the angle of view (how much of
the scene can be included in the picture) and the size of objects in the image.
The longer the focal length, the narrower the angle of view and the more that
objects are magnified.
Focus lock. See Exposure/focus lock.
259 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Focus. The process of bringing one plane of the scene into sharp focus on the
image sensor.
Frame grabber. A device that lets you capture individual frames out of a video
camera or off a video tape.
Frame Rate. The number of pictures that can be taken in a given period of
time.
f-stop. A numerical designation (f/2, f 2.8, etc.) indicating the size of the
aperture (lens opening).
GIF. An image file format designed for display of line art on the Web.
Gray market. Importing camera equipment outside of the normal
manufacturer's distribution channels to take advantage of lower prices
elsewhere in the world.
Gray scale. A series of 256 tones raging from pure white to pure black.
Guide number. A rating of a flash's power.
Hot shoe. A clip on the top of the camera that attaches a flash unit and
provides an electrical link to synchronize the flash with the camera shutter.
IEEE 1394. A new port on the computer capable of transferring large
amounts of data. Currently the fastest available port.
i.Link. Sony's name for IEEE 1394.
Image sensor. A solid-state device containing a photosite for each pixel in the
image. Each photosite records the brightness of the light that strikes it during
an exposure.
Infrared. See IrDA.
International Organization for Standardization. See ISO.
Interpolation. In an image interpolation adds extra pixels. It's done with
some zoom lenses.
Inverse square law. The physical law that causes light from a flash to fall off
in such a way that as flash to subject distance doubles, the light falls off by a
factor of four.
IrDA. An agreed upon standard that allows data to be transferred between
devices using infrared light instead of cables..
ISO. A number rating indicating the relative sensitivity to light of an image
sensor or photographic film. Faster film (higher ISO) is more sensitive to
light and requires less exposure than does slower film.
JPEG. A very popular digital camera file format that uses lossy compression
to reduce file sizes. Developed by the Joint Photographic Experts Group.
Landscape mode. Holding the camera in its normal orientation to hake a
horizontally oriented photograph.
Lempel-Ziv-Welch. See LZW.
LiOn. Lithium ion battery.
Long-focal-length lens (telephoto lens). A lens that provides a narrow angle
of view of a scene, including less of a scene than a lens of normal focal length
and therefore magnifying objects in the image.
Lossless. See Compression, lossless.
260
APPENDIXGLOSSARY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE V.
Lossy. See Compression, lossy.
LZW. A compression scheme used to reduce the size of image files.
Macro mode. A lens mode that allows you to get very close to objects so they
appear greatly enlarged in the picture.
Matrix Metering. An exposure system that breaks the scene up into a grid and
evaluates each section to determine the exposure.
Megapixel. An image or image sensor with over one million pixels.
Memory stick. A flash memory storage device developed by Sony.
Moore's Law. Gordon Moore's law that predicted that the number of transis-
tors on a chip would double every 18 months.
Motion Pictures Expert Group. See MPEG.
MPEG. A digital video format developed by the Motion Pictures Expert
Group.
Multi-megapixel. An image or image sensor with over two million pixels.
Multiple exposure mode. A mode that lets you superimpose one image on top
of another.
Multiple exposure. An image made up of two or more images superimposed
in the camera.
NiCad. Nickel cadmium battery.
NiMH. Nickel metal hydride battery. Ecologically safe and very efficient.
Noise. Pixels on the image sensor that misread the light.
Normal-focal-length lens. A lens that provides about the same angle of view
of a scene as the human eye and that does not seem to magnify or diminish
the size of objects in the image unduly.
NTSC. A US video out standard to display images on a TV screen.
Open up. To increase the size of the lens aperture. The opposite of stop down.
Operating system. The program that controls the camera's or computer's
hardware.
Optical viewfinder. See Viewfinder.
Orientation sensor. A sensor that knows when you turn the camera to take a
vertical shot and rotates the picture so it won't be displayed on it's side when
you view it.
Overexposure. Exposing the image sensor to more light than is needed to
render the scene as the eye sees it. Results in a too light photograph.
PAL. A European video out standard to display images on a TV screen.
Panorama. A photograph with much wider horizontal coverage that a normal
photograph, up to 360-degrees and more.
Panoramic mode. A digital camera mode that uses just the center band on the
image sensor to capture an image that is much wider than it is tall.
Parallax. An effect seen in close-up photography when the viewfinder is offset
by some distance from the lens. The scene through the viewfinder is offset
from the scene through the lens.
261 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Parallel port. A port on the computer that is faster than a serial port but
slower than SCSI, USB, or IEEE 1394 ports. Often used by printers and flash
card readers.
PC card. A card, in the case of cameras usually a storage device, that plugs
into a slot in a notebook or hand-held computer. Originally called PCMCIA
cards.
PCMCIA card. See PC Card.
Photosite. A small area on the surface of an image sensor that captures the
brightness for a single pixel in the image. There is one photosite for every
pixel in the image.
Picture elements. See Pixels.
Pixelization. An effect seen when you enlarge a digital image too much and
the pixels become obvious.
Pixels. The small picture elements that make up a digital photograph.
Port. An electrical connection on the computer into which a cable can be
plugged so the computer can communicate with another device such as a
printer or modem.
Portrait mode. Turning the camera to take a vertically oriented photograph.
Preview screen. A small LCD display screen on the back of the camera used to
compose or look at photographs.
Prosumer. A very serious photographer who can be either an amateur or
professional.
Rangefinder. A camera design that has a viewfinder separate from the lens.
RAW. An image file containing all of the data captured by the image sensor
but not processed in the camera. The highest quality image format.
Read out register. The part of a CCD image sensor that reads the charges built
up during an exposure.
Recycle time. The time it takes to process and store a captured image.
Red-eye reduction mode. A mode that fires a preliminary flash to close the
iris of the eye before firing the main flash to take the picture.
Red-eye. An effect that causes peoples eyes to look red in flash exposures.
Refresh rate. The time it takes the camera to capture the image after you
press the shutter release.
Removable media. Storage media that can be removed from the camera.
Resolution, interpolated. A process that enlarges an image by adding extra
pixels without actually capturing light from those pixels in the initial expo-
sure.
Resolution, optical. The true resolution of an image based on the number of
photosites on the surface of the image sensor.
Resolution. An indication of the sharpness of images on a printout or the
display screen. It is based on the number and density of the pixels used. The
more pixels used in an image, the more detail can be seen and the higher the
image's resolution.
RGB. The color system used in most digital cameras where red, green, and
262
APPENDIXGLOSSARY
TO DETERMINE IF THIS IS A LEGAL COPY OR REPORT SUSPECTED ABUSE, SEE PAGE V.
blue light is captured separately and then combined to create a full color
image.
Scanner. An input device that uses light to read printed information including
text, graphics, and bar codes, and transfers it into the computer in a digital
format.
SCSI port. A port that's faster than the serial and parallel ports but slower
and harder to configure than the newer USB port. Also know as the Small
Computer System Interface.
Serial port. A very slow port on the computer used mainly by modems. Many
digital cameras come equipped with cable to download images through this
port but it's slow! Both parallel and USB ports are faster connections.
Short-focal-length lens (wide angle). A lens that provides a wide angle of view
of a scene, including more of the subject area than does a lens of normal focal
length.
Shutter Speed. The length of time the shutter is open and light strikes the
image sensor.
Shutter. The device in the camera that opens and closes to let light from the
scene strike the image sensor and expose the image.
Shutter-priority mode. An automatic exposure system in with you set the
shutter speed and the camera selects the aperture (f-stop) for correct expo-
sure.
Single-lens reflex. See SLR.
SLR. A type of camera with one lens which is used both for viewing and
taking the picture.
SmartMedia. A popular form of flash memory card.
Spot Metering. Autoexposure is based on a meter reading of a small circle in
the center of the viewfinder.
Stop 1. An aperture setting that indicates the size of the lens opening. 2. A
change in exposure by a factor of two. Changing the aperture from one setting
to the next doubles or halves the amount of light reaching the image sensor.
Changing the shutter speed from one setting to the next does the same thing.
Either changes the exposure one stop.
Stop down. To decrease the size of the lens aperture. The opposite of open up.
Tagged Image File Format. See TIFF.
Telephoto lens. See Long-focal-length lens.
Thru-the-lens. See TTL.
TIFF. A popular lossless image format used in digital photography.
Time-lapse photography. Taking a series of pictures at preset intervals to
show such things as flower blossoms opening.
TTL. A camera design that let's you compose an image while looking at the
scene through the lens that will take the picture. Also called thru-the-lens.
Unbundling. When a dealer removes normally included items from a camera
package and then sells them to you separately.
Underexposure. Exposing the film to less light than is needed to render the
scene as the eye sees it. Results in a too dark photograph.
263 FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT THE HOME OF THIS TEXT AT HTTP://WWW.PHOTOCOURSE.COM
Upload. Sending a file from your computer to another device.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator). The address of a Web site.
USB port. A high-speed port that lets you daisy-chain devices (connect one
device to another).
VGA. A resolution of 640 x 480.
Video card. A card the fits into a computer's expansion slot so you can edit
digital video.
Viewfinder. A separate window on the camera through which you look to
compose images.
White balance. An automatic or manual control that adjusts the brightest
part of the scene so it looks white.
Wide-angle lens. See Short-focal-length lens.
Zoom lens. A lens that lets you change focal lengths on the fly.

You might also like