Architectures of Computational Verb Controllers: Towards A New Paradigm of Intelligent Control

74
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COMPUTATIONAL COGNITION (HTTP://WWW.YANGSKY.COM/YANGIJCC.HTM), VOL. 3, NO. 2, JUNE 2005
Architectures of Computational Verb Controllers:

Towards a New Paradigm of Intelligent Control
Tao Yang
Abstract There are at least two kinds of methods of designing

(computational) verb proportional-integral-derivative(PID) controllers. The first one is to generalize fuzzy PID controllers
by substituting BE in fuzzy control rules with non-static
computational verbs. The second one is to directly construct
evolving functions of verbs in human experiences of dynamic
processes. These methods will lead to different architectures of
verb PID controllers because computational verb theory can be
used in different situations where adjectives or noun phrases
have different computational interpretations. Three examples of
these computational interpretations of nouns are crisp, fuzzy and
probabilistic. Correspondingly, a PID controller can be designed
based on crisp or fuzzy representations of human experiences. If
the dynamic aspects of these human experiences are emphasized
explicitly, the resulting design principle must take advantage of
the computational verb theory. This is the principle behind the
architectures of the verb PID controllers. The basics of fuzzy
logic and fuzzy PID controllers can help the reader to understand
this paper. However, the fuzzy logic is only one of at least three
methods of interpreting computational nouns used together with
computational verbs. Therefore, fuzzy logic is not an essential
component for designing computational verb controllers though
it is a very helpful component.
In this paper, a detailed method of designing verb PID
controllers by generalizing fuzzy PID controllers are presented.
The static and local fuzzy rules are transformed into dynamic and
global verb rules by representing fuzzy rule sets on phase plots.
The control trajectories are chunked into a set of computational
verbs based on the dynamic experiences generated by the
relations among a group of fuzzy control rules. Using these
computational verbs, three sets of control rules, respectively for
P-, I- and D-components, based on computational verbs(verb
rules for short) are generated from the dynamic experiences
modelled by using mental experiments. To implement these verb
rules, verb implication relations are constructed based on verb
similarity functions which are generated based on a set of
standard verbs for modelling dynamic experiences. The last step
to implement verb PID controllers is to calculate the control verb
based on the observe verb and verb rule inference called verb
generalized modus ponens(GMP). The results of a verb GMP is
a verb similarity which is the union of a set of verb similarity
functions modified by verb rule firing adverbs. At the symbolic
level, the resulting verb similarity of a verb GMP corresponding
to a control verb. The control verb must be deverbified into
a conventional control signal before the control loop can be
closed in the physical world. Simulation results for controlling a
delayed second-order process are used to demonstrate the design
processes for verb P-, PD- and PID controllers. Copyright c 2004Manuscript received October 21, 2003; revised February 13, 2004; July 15,
2004.
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, Yangs
Scientific Research Institute, 1303 East University Blvd. # 20882 Tucson,
Arizona 85719-0521, USA. Email: [taoyang@yangsky.com]
Publisher Item Identifier S 1542-5908(05)10210-3/$20.00
c 2004-2005
Copyright
Yangs Scientific Research Institute, LLC.
All rights reserved. The online version posted on June 1, 2004 at
http://www.YangSky.com/ijcc32.htm
2005 Yangs Scientific Research Institute, LLC. All rights reserved.

Index Terms Intelligent control, computational verb, PID
controller, verb controller, fuzzy theory, verb similarity, verb
inference, verb reasoning, fuzzy controller, PID controller.
I. I NTRODUCTION
E sometimes feel more conformable to manipulate our

own languages than formal logic or numbers, this is
at least my personal feeling and I think it is shared by many
others. With a background of control engineering, sometimes
I asked myself: What is an intelligent controller? Or in a more
general context, what an intelligent system should be? Finally,
I gave up my efforts of casting a comfortable definition of
intelligence because its meaning is a verb collapse[18] of
a verb phrase1 become intelligent that has no truth value
of any sort unless it is dead[15]. Since either the intelligence
of each individual or the collective intelligence of the entire
human society evolves continuously along time, we always
on the course of becoming intelligent. It will be hopeless
to imagine the verb collapse of become intelligent for
our current society, therefore, it will be hopeless to define
intelligence. Instead, I use a poor mans working definition
of intelligence as follows.
Poor mans working definition of intelligent systems. An intelligent system reduces the mental stress
of achieving a goal. The most intelligent system is a
human individual in the sense that one can reduces
the mental stress to a minimum amount, which is
used to generate a verbal command, by asking other
person to achieve a goal. Therefore, the smartest
man-made system must have the ability to ground
natural languages.
The definition above is in fact the reason for the initiative
of computational verb theory. To the best knowledge of the
author, before the initiative of computational verbs[4], [5],
there was no systematic implementation of verbs in engineering problems. As addressed in the newly developed physical
linguistics[18], [21], we have already systematically used
fuzzy theory[23] and probabilities to implement adjectives and
noun phrases for different kinds of engineering problems. In
contrast to the maturation of the paradigms that engineers
used to cope with adjectives and noun phrases, the infancy of
computational verb theory, which is the only existing paradigm
1 Here we will use verb phrase and verb interchangeable because we
only emphasize the dynamics modelled by natural languages. The ways of
representing these dynamics in natural languages are not our main interest.
YANG, ARCHITECTURES OF COMPUTATIONAL VERB CONTROLLERS
for making verbs computable, is extremely striking. The huge

gap between the degrees of maturities of these two kinds of
paradigms comes with the following reasons.
1) Static versus dynamic. With the current mainstream
architecture of computers, a piece of knowledge is more
likely to be implemented by a set of static tokens;
namely, members of a formal symbolic system. To
represent a piece of dynamic knowledge such as a video
clips, huge amount memory is needed. Only recently
computer systems can offer cheap and fast solutions
to partially solve this problem. We still feel painful
to manipulate a computer to recall a piece of vision
memory while we feel painless to recall a smiling facial
expression anytime and anyplace. However, with the
future development of cognitive computers, computers
can gain more and more the ability of handling dynamic
knowledge. This tendency might be helpful to solve the
conflict between static and dynamic representations.
2) Rational versus irrational. A theory needs to preserve
truth in order to be scientific based on repeatable
measurements or to be formal based on mental deduction. However, verbs intrinsically have nothing to say
about truth. Verbs represent irrational aspects of human
thinkings. It is not comfortable to handel verbs in a
scientific framework if we do not find a way to bridge
rational symbolic systems and the irrational aspects of
thoughts. In computational verb theory, a mechanism
or hardware called machinself2 was used to function
as the irrational aspects of human thoughts. One of the
main focus of computational verb theory is to implement
irrational aspects of human intelligence into man-made
machines.
3) Linguistics versus engineering. When a control engineer try to design or adjust the parameter settings of
a controller, what in the mind is the design details
and often the fact that these details are described by
using sentences in natural languages in many occasions
is ignored. Since the intrinsic ambiguities in natural
languages, the tradition of pursuing accuracy in both
sciences and specially in engineering prevent natural
scientists and engineers from designing in natural language terms. On the other hand, linguists rarely thought
about there are many natural language statements in
engineering problems need their expertise. Since this
historical gap between linguistics and engineering, many
linguistic problems in engineering were solved using
inefficient tools such as numerical problem solvers.
As the first try of a paradigm shift for solving engineering
problems using verbs, the computational verb theory and
physical linguistics have undergone a rapid growth since the
birth of computational verb in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California at
Berkeley in 1997[4], [5]. The paradigm of implementing verbs
in machines were coined as computational verb theory[18].
The building blocks of computational theory are computational
verbs[13], [8], [6], [14], [19]. The relation between verbs
2 It
was coined from machine and itself [5].
75
and adverbs was mathematically defined in [7]. The logic

operations between verb statements were studied in [9]. The
application of verb logic to verb reasoning is addressed in [10]
and further studied in [18]. A logic paradox was solved based
on verb logic[15]. The mathematical concept of set was generalized into verb set in[12]. Similarly, for measurable attributes,
the number systems can be generalized into verb numbers[16].
The applications of computational verbs to predictions were
studied in [11]. The applications of computational verbs to
different kinds of control problems were studied on different
occassions[17], [18]. In [20] fuzzy dynamic systems were used
to model a special kind of computational verb that evolves
in a fuzzy space. The relation between computational verb
theory and traditional linguistics are studied in [18], [21]. The
primary application of computational verbs to P-controllers
can be found in [22].
Conventional and fuzzy PID controllers were widely used
in many engineering applications and consumer products[1]
and of great importance to practical engineering processes.
Enormous amount of experiences had been accumulated in the
design of different kinds of PID controllers. My thesis here is
to take advantage of the intelligence in human dynamic experiences such that the design of PID controllers can embed more
flexibility that natural languages can offer. Here the design
principles of verb PID controller will be addressed under a
more systematic framework. A primary design example can
be found in [22].
The organization of this paper is as follows. In Section II
the basics of the design of PID controllers will be presented
to make this paper self-contained. In Section III the computational verb rules and computational verb inference will
be studied for the purpose of implementing verb controllers
based on verb rules. In Section IV, the verb PID controllers are
designed based on the generalization of fuzzy gain schedulers
of PID controllers. In Section V, some concluding remarks are
given.
II. BASICS OF PID C ONTROLLERS
P-Component
Kp (t)
r(t)
e(t)
+
-
+
I-Component
Ki (t)
+
+
u(t)
Plant/
Process
y(t)
D-Component
Kd (t)
PID-Controller
Fig. 1.
loop.
The block diagram of a conventional PID controller in the closed
The block diagram of a conventional proportional-integralderivative(PID) controller in the closed loop is shown in Fig. 1
where r(t) is a reference signal, y(t) is the output, e(t)
r(t) y(t) is the control error, and u(t) is the control signal.
The PID-controller consists of three components; namely, a Pcomponent with a parameter Kp (t) called proportional gain,
an I-component with a parameter Ki (t) called integral gain,

and a D-component with a parameter Kd (t) called derivative
gain. The control law is defined by a mapping between u(t)
and e(t) and is given by the following linear combination in
the time domain
e( )d + Kd (t)
0
de(t)
.
dt
(1)
If we implement the PID controllers by using digital processors, the following discrete-time form of PID controller is
useful
Verb inference engine
(2)
where Ts is the sampling period for the digital controller, u(k)

and e(k) are the control signal and the error at the sampling
moment kTs , respectively. Kp (k), Ki (k), and Kd (k) are the
proportional, integral and derivative gains at the sampling
moment kTs , respectively. And we define the change of error
during the sampling interval [(k 1)Ts , kTs ] as e(k)
e(k) e(k 1).
The authors of [2] lumped fuzzy PID controllers into at
least 4 categories, here we only consider the implementation
of the gain-scheduling fuzzy PID controllers of which the
block diagram is shown in Fig. 2. Observe that in Fig. 2
the parameters of the PID controller are tuned by the fuzzy
inference engine.
Defuzzification
Fuzzy rules
and reasoning
Fuzzification
e(t)
-
+
I-Component
Ki (t)
r(t)
e(t)
+
-
+
I-Component
Ki (t)
+
+
u(t)
Plant/
Process
y(t)
D-Component
Kd (t)
PID-Controller
III. C OMPUTATIONAL V ERB RULES AND C OMPUTATIONAL

V ERB I NFERENCE
P-Component
Kp (t)
+
P-Component
Kp (t)
Fig. 3. The block diagram of a computational verb PID controller in the

closed loop.
Fuzzy inference engine
r(t)
Verbification
Kd (k)
u(k) = Kp (k)e(k) + Ki (k)Ts
e(i) +
e(k)
Ts
i=0
Deverbification
u(t) = Kp (t)e(t) + Ki (t)
controllers. First, the output of the verbification block is

a verb observe. The verb inference is based on verb GMP
first presented in Section 5.3.3 of Reference [18]. However,
since the original verb GMP, which is only one of many
possible verb GMPs, was based on the collapses of verbs,
we need to develop a new verb GMP based on the method
presented in the examples in [22]. Before we can present the
design details of verb PID controller, we need to review some
basics of (computational) verb rules and (computational) verb
inference.
Verb rules
and reasoning
76
+
+
u(t)
Plant/
Process
y(t)
D-Component
Kd (t)
PID-Controller
Fig. 2. The block diagram of a fuzzy PID controller, in which the gainscheduling control strategy is used, in the closed loop.
As presented in Chapter 6 of Reference [18] that the

structure of a verb PID controller corresponding to the fuzzy
PID controller in Fig. 2 can be easily constructed as shown in
Fig. 3. The striking similarity between a fuzzy PID controller
and a verb PID controller results from the fact that the only
verb used in fuzzy logic; namely, BE is a special kind of
verb called static verb. However, as shown in the existing
examples of verb controllers[18], [22] the design principles
are dramatically different between these two kinds of PID
In the context of engineering applications, the definition of

computational verb in [18] is too complex to be operational.
A light working definition of computational verb is used here.
Computational Verb. A computational verb V is
defined by the following evolving function
EV : T
(3)
where T
R and
Rn are the time and the
universe of discourse, respectively.
A. Canonical Computational Verbs for Verb PID Controllers
In order to ease the implementations of verb PID controllers
by using VLSI chips, we need to minimize the number of
different verbs used in a verb controller. One way to do
this is to choose a few canonical computational verbs[13]
for different kinds of controllers. From the design example in
[22] we know that in verb PID controllers, only one canonical
computational verb; namely, become, is needed.
In the context of verb PID controller, the canonical form
of verb become can be represented as become(state 1,
state 2) where state 1 and state 2 can be crisp or
fuzzy numbers or a special value current. Some examples
77
of becomes are listed in Table I. Observe from Table I that

the canonical forms of verb statements can be implemented
by rich variations of verb statements in which different kinds
of adverbs/adverbials might be used. In the canonical forms
listed in Table I, the symbol denotes an operation between
an adverb/adverbial and a computational verb[7]. Also observe
that as a special case of verb statements, the fuzzy statements
in the last two rows of Table I can also be represented by
canonical forms in become.
B. Verb Similarity
The similarity between verbs(verb similarity, for short) is
of the essential importance to the inference of verb rules[18].
Since there is no crisp definition of similarity between two
dynamic systems, the verb similarity can be defined based on
many different concerns as addressed in [18]. Therefore, rather
than give a closed form of the definition of verb similarity, the
boundary conditions are used to define it as follows.
Verb Similarity. Given two computational verbs V1
and V2 , the verb similarity S(V1 , V2 ) should satisfy
the followings.
1) S(V1 , V2 ) [0, 1];
2) S(V1 , V2 ) = S(V2 , V1 );
3) S(V1 , V2 ) = 1 if V1 = V2 almost everywhere,
where V1 = V2 means both computational
verbs have the same evolving function.
For the purpose of the design of digital verb controllers,
we only consider the cases when the evolving functions of
the computational verbs are discrete-time samples. Let two
computational verbs V1 and V2 with normalized evolving
functions EV1 (k) [0, 1], EV2 (k) [0, 1], k Z, then three
verb similarities are listed in Eqs. (4), (5) and (6)(see next
page).
Observe that when both computational verbs are dead;
namely, EV1 (k) = EV2 (k) = 0, k, then we define their
similarity as 0. Otherwise, the verb similarities in Eqs. (4)
and (5) can only be 0 when one of EV1 (k) and EV2 (k) is zero
for all k. In summery, when at least one of EV1 (k) and EV2 (k)
is 0 for all k, then the verb similarities (4) and (5) are zero.
C. Verb Inference with Single Verb Rule
The process of evaluating a verb statement is called verb
inference. In the design of verb controllers, we will use verb
generalized modus ponens (GMP). In verb GMP, when a verb
IF/THEN rules and its antecedent, which is a verb statement,
are approximately matched, a consequent, which is also a verb
statement, may be inferred. If we only consider one verb rule,
a verb GMP can be formally written as
IF NP1 Vx0 , THEN NP2 Vy0 .
NP1 V1
NP2 V2
a verb similarity. All computational verbs above the line are

considered known, whereas the computational verb blow the
line; namely, V2 is considered unknown. A (computational)
verb rule can be analytically represented by a verb implication
relation. In verb relations we consider pairs or more generally
n-tuples related to a degree of verb similarity. In contrast to
the question of whether some verb belongs to a verb set may
be considered a matter of degree of verb similarity, whether
some verbs are associated may also be a matter of degree of
verb similarity. In computational verb theory, computational
verb relations play roles much like relation functions do in
conventional approaches.
A computational verb relation R is defined over the Cartesian product of two or more verb sets. For this moment let us
only consider verb relations defined over the Cartesian product
of two verb sets Vx and Vy . Here we assume that both verb
sets have only finite number of computational verbs as
Vx
Vy
=
=
{Vx0 , Vx1 , . . . , Vxm },

{Vy0 , Vy1 , . . . , Vyn }.
Let a binary verb relation R defined on Vx Vy , then we can

list all its pairs explicitly as follows
R
= {((Vx , Vy ), R (Sx (Vx0 , Vx ), Sy (Vy0 , Vy )))},
R (Sx (Vx0 , Vx ), Sy (Vy0 , Vy ))/(Vx , Vy )

(Vx ,Vy )Vx Vy
(9)
where every pair (Vx , Vy ) belongs to Vx Vy , Sx (, ) and
Sy (, ) are two verb similarities, Vx0 and Vy0 are reference
computational verbs, R : [0, 1] [0, 1] [0, 1] is called
a verb relation operator. Some examples of verb relation
operators are as follows.
R (x, y) = x y,
R (x, y) = (x y) (1 x),
R (x, y) = x y,
R (x, y) = 1 (1 x + y),
R (x, y)
R (x, y)
R (x, y)
where NP1 and NP2 denote two noun phrases and V1 is an

observed verb matching the antecedent computational verb to
=
=
=
R (x, y)
R (x, y)
R (x, y) =
R (x, y) =
(7)
(8)
(1 x) y,
1 x + x y,
0 (x + y 1),
1, if
y, if
1,
y/x,
x y,
x > y,
if x y,
if x > y,
1, if x y,
0, if x > y,
if y = 1,
x,
y,
if x = 1,
0, if x < 1, y < 1.
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
Observe that methods of calculating verb similarities might

be different if qualitative behaviors of the computational verbs
in the associated computational verb pairs are different. Verb
78
TABLE I
E XAMPLES OF VERB STATEMENTS AND THEIR CANONICAL FORMS IN become.
Verb statements
|e(k)| decreases
|e(k)| decreases to small
|e(k)| increases to ten
|e(k)| increases from small to big
|e(k)| decreases from 10 to 0.01
|e(k)| climbs very fast
|e(k)| jumps up
|e(k)| bounces back
|e(k)| stays high
|e(k)| is high
S(V1 , V2 )
S(V1 , V2 )
S(V1 , V2 )
Canonical forms in become

become(current, less than current)
become(current, small)
become(current less than ten, ten)
become(small, big)
become(10, 0.01)
(very fast) become(current, bigger than current)
(very fast) become(current, bigger than current)
become(current, before current)
become(high, high)
become(high, high)
|EV1 (k) EV2 (k)|

1
k=0
n
EV1 (k) + EV2 (k) = 0,

k=0
EV1 (k) + EV2 (k)

0,
k=0
otherwise.
n
[EV1 (k) EV2 (k)]2

k=0
[EV1 (k) + EV2 (k)]2 = 0

n
k=0
[EV1 (k) + EV2 (k)]2
k=0
0,
otherwise.
n
EV1 (k) EV2 (k)
k=0
,
EV1 (k) EV2 (k) = 0,
n
=
k=0
E
(k)
E
(k)
V1
V2
k=0
0,
otherwise.
=
(4)
relation operators must be chosen with the following concerns

being taken care of.
1) To choose a proper method of calculating computational
verb similarity such that the degree of verb similarity has
a well defined relation to the quantitative and qualitative
changes of the system behaviors.
2) Must be consistent with dynamic experiences of human
beings.
3) If conflictions shall arise when a verb relation operator
is used to handle dynamic experiences, then the conflictions must be resolved by using new verb similarities
and/or by adding new computational verb relations.
As an example of verb relation, let us consider the following
experiences
1.
2.
IF |e(t)| decreases, THEN Kp increases;

IF |e(t)| decreases fast,
3.
THEN Kp increases slowly;

IF |e(t)| decreases very fast,
THEN Kp increases very slowly.
(21)
(5)
(6)
In this example, we have

Vx
Vy
=
=
{decrease, decrease fast, decrease very fast},

{increases, increases slowly,
increases very slowly}.
(22)
Assume that we can choose two verb similarities, Sx (, )

and Sy (, ) such that
Sx (decreases, decreases) > Sx (decreases, decreases fast)
> Sx (decreases, decreases very fast),
Sy (increases, increases) > Sy (increases, increases slowly)
> Sy (increases, increases very slowly).
(23)
Let us assume that in the rule set (21) we choose the first
rule as the reference rule, which sets the basic tune of the
qualitatively invariant property behind the rule set. The second
and the third rules only entail the first rule. Therefore, for verb
similarities Sx and Sy we can choose computational verbs
decrease and increase as the reference verbs, respectively.
Therefore, verb rule set (21) gives a way of associating three
groups of verb phrases, this can be defined by a verb relation
as in Table II. If the verb relation operator (10) is chosen, then
the verb relation is given by Table III.
79
TABLE II
A
VERB RELATION FOR MODELLING THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN TWO KINDS OF DYNAMICS .
PROPORTIONAL GAIN
O NE FOR THE ERROR SIGNAL |e(t)| AND THE OTHER FOR
Kp .
R (1, 1)/(decrease, increase)

R (1, Sy (increase, increase slowly))/(decrease, increase slowly)
R (1, Sy (increase, increase very slowly))/(decrease, increase very slowly)
R (Sx (decrease, decrease fast), 1)/(decrease fast, increase)
R (Sx (decrease, decrease fast), Sy (increase, increase slowly))/(decrease fast, increase slowly)
R (Sx (decrease, decrease fast), Sy (increase, increase very slowly))/(decrease fast, increase very slowly)
R (Sx (decrease, decrease very fast), 1)/(decrease very fast, increase)
R (Sx (decrease, decrease very fast), Sy (increase, increase slowly))/(decrease very fast, increase slowly)
R (Sx (decrease, decrease very fast), Sy (increase, increase very slowly))/(decrease very fast, increase very slowly)
TABLE III
A
VERB RELATION FOR MODELLING THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN TWO KINDS OF DYNAMICS .
PROPORTIONAL GAIN
O NE FOR THE ERROR SIGNAL |e(t)| AND THE OTHER FOR
Kp . T HE VERB RELATION OPERATOR (10)
IS CHOSEN .
1/(decrease, increase)
Sy (increase, increase slowly)/(decrease, increase slowly)
Sy (increase, increase very slowly)/(decrease, increase very slowly)
Sx (decrease, decrease fast)/(decrease fast, increase)
min(Sx (decrease, decrease fast), Sy (increase, increase slowly))/(decrease fast, increase slowly)
min(Sx (decrease, decrease fast), Sy (increase, increase very slowly))/(decrease fast, increase very slowly)
Sx (decrease, decrease very fast)/(decrease very fast, increase)
min(Sx (decrease, decrease very fast), Sy (increase, increase slowly))/(decrease very fast, increase slowly)
min(Sx (decrease, decrease very fast), Sy (increase, increase very slowly))/(decrease very fast, increase very slowly)
If the verbs in each of the two verb sets Vx and Vy

correspond to dynamics with qualitatively the same property, it
is possible to construct a verb relation based on two reference
verbs, Vx0 and Vy0 , and two sets of adverbs
Ax
Ay
{x0 = e, x1 , . . . , xm }, and
{y0 = e, y1 , . . . , yn }
(24)
where e represents the adverb equivalently with the

property
V = e V, computational verb V.
Let us assume that the correspondences between the verbs sets
in (8) and the two adverb sets in (24) are given by
Vxi
Vyj
= xi Vx0 , i = 1, 2, . . . , m;
= yj Vy0 , j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(25)
namely, the verb similarity of two adverbs is calculated by

using the following property
Sx (e, xi ) = Sx (Vx0 , xi Vx0 ).
(30)
Note that the verb similarity of two adverbs only make sense
with respect to the reference verb; namely, in the context of
a given dynamics. However, the expression (30) is not only a
change of representing form, but also provides a constructive
definition of the similarity between adverbs called adverb
similarity.
Adverb similarity. Given a reference verb Vx , the
adverb similarity in context Vx (adverb similarity, for
short) between two adverbs 1 and 2 , Sx (1 , 2 ),
defined by
Sx (1 , 2 )
Sx (1 Vx , 2 Vx ).
(31)
This is an extension of the results reported in [7]. Since

adverbs are transforms or operators acting upon computational verbs, adverb similarities are relations between these
transforms or operators. As shown in [7], adverbs can make
x (xi ) = Sx (Vx0 , xi Vx0 ), i = 0, 1, . . . , m;
y (yj ) = Sy (Vy0 , yi Vy0 ), j = 0, 1, . . . , n. (26) different kinds of actions upon computational verbs. Generally
speaking, the same adverb can function qualitatively different
Without loss of generality, let us assume that
when different kinds of dynamics to be modified. The following reasons contribute to the complexity of adverb similarities.
x (xi ) x (x(i+1) ), i = 0, 1, . . . , m 1; (27)
1) When adverbs modify the parameters of dynamic sysy (yj ) y (y(j+1) ), j = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. (28)
tems, the bifurcation routes can be different. For example, the same adverb can be used at different stages of
It is obvious that in natural languages, the numbers of adverbs
the same bifurcation routes, yet, the perceived effects
for modifying the representation of a dynamical process are
can be significantly different. For example, when we
usually small. Therefore, m and n should not be big numbers.
look along a period-doubling bifurcation route, a period
Let us assume that the verb similarity Sx (Vx0 , xi Vx0 )
1 to period 2 bifurcation can cause a much different
satisfies
perception comparing with a periodic to chaotic bifurSx (Vx0 , xi Vx0 ) = Sx (e Vx0 , xi Vx0 ) Sx (e, xi ); (29)
cation. On the other hand, when we consider a fold
Based on Ax and Ay we can find two similarity functions
defined by
80
bifurcation and a Hopf bifurcation, the same adverb can

cause dramatically different perceptions.
2) Computational verbs are living in time, space and human
cognition. Therefore, adverbs can operate upon different
aspects of computational verbs. The way to deal with a
change in parameter connected to time is different to
that in space. Needless to say, human cognitions make
this issue much more complex.
3) In many cases, we do not know the way adverbs acting
upon computational verbs. For example, consider the
following operators.
TABLE IV
A
VERB RELATION FOR MODELLING THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN TWO
KINDS OF DYNAMICS .
O NE FOR THE ERROR SIGNAL |e(t)| AND THE OTHER

Kp . T HE ADVERB SIMILARITIES ARE USED .
FOR PROPORTIONAL GAIN
1/(e, e)
y (slowly)/(e, slowly)
y (very slowly)/(e, very slowly)
x (fast)/(fast, e)
min(x (fast), y (slowly))/(fast, slowly)
min(x (fast), y (very slowly))/(fast, very slowly)
x (very fast)/(very fast, e)
min(x (very fast), y (slowly))/(very fast, slowly)
min(x (very fast), y (very slowly))/(very fast, very slowly)
very love, often love,

unconditionally love.
(32)
Since today we do not have an operational model for

computational verb love, no method was reported to
define the adverbs in above.
Based on the definition of adverb similarity, the two similarity functions in (26) can be represented in the following
forms.
x (xi ) = Sx (e, xi ), i = 0, 1, . . . , m;
y (yj ) = Sy (e, yi ), j = 0, 1, . . . , n.
(33)
The reader should bear in mind that the equivalence between

(26) and (33) is based on the fact that all elements in Ax
and Ay (see Eq.(24)) should act, respectively, along two ranges
where no bifurcation happens. The similarity in (26) entails
that in (33) in the sense that (26) can only be applied to a
specified dynamics defined by the reference verbs while (33)
can be applied to any dynamics with qualitatively similar properties. From the results in [22] we can see that the dynamics of
controlling a process to asymptotically approach a reference
signal has a qualitatively similar properties along the entire
control route. Therefore, in the design of verb PID controllers,
(33) can be used to reduce the design efforts. Furthermore, the
combination of become with (33) can provide the simplest
form of the relation between the observed dynamics of e(t)
and the dynamics of control actions in a verb PID controller.
Based on the similarity functions (33) the verb relation can
be represented as
R =
R (x (x ), y (y ))/(x , y ).
(34)
(x ,y )Ax Ay
As an example, the verb relation in Table III can be further

generalized into that shown in Table IV with the following
sets of adverbs.
Ax
{e, fast, very fast},
Ay
{e, slowly, very slowly}.
(35)
As a special kind of verb relation, verb implication relations

are of great important in the design of verb PID controllers. If
there is no bifurcation in the entire control range of a class of
PID controllers, then there is a possibility to design a single
design template for the entire class. If this is the case, then
we need to find the way of finding the adverb similarities for
the PID controller design.
After we define the verb implication relation, the verb GMP

can be calculated based on the same method presented in [18].
Let us first consider the following example
IF |e(t)| decreases, THEN Kp increases.
|e(t)| decreases fast
Kp ( increases)
(36)
where is to be found. The verb implication relation, R,

defined by the rule in the first line of (36) is shown in Table IV.
We can find ( increase) by using the following verb
composition[18]
( increase) = (decrease fast) R.
(37)
If the verb implication relation is in the form as in (34) then

the verb composition is in the form
= fast R ,
(38)
which is an adverb composition. In this example, R shown

in Table IV can be written in the following form
R
R (x (x ), y (y ))/(x , y )
=
(x ,y )Ax Ay
= 1/(e, e) + y (slowly)/(e, slowly)

+y (very slowly)/(e, very slowly)
+x (fast)/(fast, e)
+ min(x (fast), y (slowly))/(fast, slowly)
+ min(x (fast), y (very slowly))
/(fast, very slowly)
+x (very fast)/(very fast, e)
+ min(x (very fast), y (slowly))
/(very fast, slowly)
+ min(x (very fast), y (very slowly))
/(very fast, very slowly).
(39)
Hence, we have
= fast R
= x (fast)/e
+ min(x (fast), y (slowly))/slowly
+ min(x (fast), y (very slowly))/(very slowly).
81
It follows from the the experiences in (21) that has the

highest similarity to slowly. Therefore we have
y (slowly) x (fast).
(40)
Similarly, we have
y (verb slowly) x (very fast).
where 1 and 2 are two adverbs corresponding to computational verbs V1 and V2 . The way to calculate (45) is the same
as that for calculating verb composition.
Let us study the following verb generalized modus tollens
(GMP)[18]
(41)
IF |e(t)| decreases, THEN Kp increases.

Kp increases slowly
To perform verb GMP in Eq. (7), the mathematical formula

behind the verb composition are
V2 = V1 R,
Sy (V2 , Vy ) =
|e(t)| ( decreases).
Sx (V1 , Vx ) R (Sx (Vx0 , Vx ), Sy (Vy0 , Vy )),

Vx Vx
Vy Vy
(42)
where and denote an s-norm and a t-norm, respectively.

The result of (42) is the following similarity function
V2 =
Sy (V2 , Vy )/Vy .
(43)
Vy Vy
Observe that the unknown verb V2 is implicitly represented

by the verb similarities between V2 and all verbs in verb set
Vy . If we choose = min, = max and R (, ) the same
as in (10) with = min then steps to implement verb GMP
are listed as follows.
1) For each Vx Vx find the verb similarity Sx (V1 , Vx )
and represent V1 by using the following similarity
function
V1 =
Sx (V1 , Vx )/Vx .
(44)
Vx Vx
(46)
The unknown adverb can be found by using the following

adverb composition
= R slowly
= y (slowly)/e
+ min(x (fast), y (slowly))/fast
+ min(x (very fast), y (slowly))/(very fast).
It follows from the experiences in (21) that has the highest

similarity to fast. Therefore we have
x (fast) y (slowly).
(47)
Similarly, we have
x (very fast) y (verb slowly).
(48)
It follows from Eqs. (40), (41), (47) and (48) that

x (fast)
x (very fast)
= y (slowly)
(2) ,
= y (verb slowly)
(3) ,
(49)
where (2) and (3) are the degrees of similarity between Rule
1 and 2 of (21), and Rule 1 and Rule 3 of (21), respectively.
Sy (V2 , Vy )
Equation (49) shows that the difference between two verb
=
max min(Sx (V1 , Vx ), Sx (Vx0 , Vx ), Sy (Vy0 , Vy ))
Vx Vx
rules for the same dynamics is the same as those for both

antecedences and consequences. It follows from (23) that
= min Sy (Vy0 , Vy ), max min[Sx (V1 , Vx ), Sx (Vx0 , Vx )] ,
2) It follows from (42) that
Vy
Vy
Vx x
1 > (2) > (3) .
We first find
a = max min[Sx (V1 , Vx ), Sx (Vx0 , Vx )]
Vx Vx
as shown in the left part of Fig. 4. is called the firing

level of this verb rule.
3) We can find V2 by using
Sy (V2 , Vy ) = min(Sy (Vy0 , Vy ), a), Vy Vy ,
as shown in the right part of Fig. 4.
On the other hand, we can also perform verb GMP in
Eq. (7) by using adverb composition. Let x1 (xi ) denote
the adverb similarity between 1 and xi , i = 0, 1, . . . , m,
and y2 (yj ), j = 0, 1, . . . , n, denote the adverb similarity
between 2 and yj then the mathematical formula for this
purpose are
2 = 1 R,
y2 (y ) =
x1 (x ) R (x (x ), y (y )),
x Ax
y Ay
(45)
Therefore, the verb relation in Table IV can be simplified as

that listed in Table V. Observe that the reference verb rule for
the verb relation in Table V is the first rule in (21), the other
two rules are only auxiliary rules for constructing the verb
relation. Therefore, Table V is only useful when the verb GMP
or verb GMT are performed with respect to Rule 1 in (21).
If the verb GMP or verb GMT are needed to be performed
with respect to other rule, say, Rule 2 in (21), then the verb
implication relation shall be revised by using Rule 2 as the
reference rule. One example of the resulting verb relation is
shown in Table VI.
Remarks. Therefore, in real applications we usually have a set
of known verbs for the dynamics, then the verb similarities(or
adverb similarities) are constructed for the verbs in both the
antecedent and the consequence of rule. The verb implication
relation of this verb rule is then constructed based on verb
similarities already known. The method of constructing verb
implication relations is only used to demonstrate the mechanism of constructing verb implication relation based on the
qualitative properties of dynamics.
82
Verb similarity
Verb similarity
Vy0
V1
Vx0
V2
0
Vx
Vy
Fig. 4. Illustration of the procedure of verb inference using verb GMP. The horizontal axis representing verb sets x and y . The vertical axis denotes the
degree of verb similarity. The outline of the shadowed region in the right-hand side figure representing the similarity function of V2 .
TABLE V
A VERB RELATION FOR MODELLING THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN TWO
O NE FOR THE ERROR SIGNAL |e(t)| AND THE
Kp . T HE ADVERB SIMILARITIES ARE
USED UNDER CONDITIONS SHOWN IN (49).
KINDS OF DYNAMICS .
a verb similarity function. In many applications, we need to

reconstruct dynamics from verb similarity functions.
OTHER FOR PROPORTIONAL GAIN
1/(e, e)
(2) /(fast, e)
(3) /(v fast, e)
[v =very, 1 > (2)
(2) /(e, slowly)

(2) /(fast, slowly)
(3) /(v fast, slowly)
> (3) .]
R EVISION OF TABLE V
WITH
(3) /(e, v slowly)

(3) /(fast, v slowly)
(3) /(v fast, v slowly)
TABLE VI
RULE 2 IN (21) AS THE REFERENCE RULE .
(2) /(e, e)
(2) /(e, slowly)
(2) /(fast, e)
1/(fast, slowly)
(2) /(v fast, e)
(2) /(v fast, slowly)
[v =very, 1 > (2) .]
(2) /(e, v slowly)

(2) /(fast, v slowly)
(2) /(v fast, v slowly)
D. Verb Inference with Verb Algorithm

A verb algorithm consists of a set of verb IF/THEN rules
which are defined over the same product space and are
connected by the connective ELSE. Corresponding to different
verb relation operator R s, the ELSE can be interpreted as
AND if R (0, ) = 1 or OR if R (0, ) = 0. To generate
control signals we usually consider the following GMP based
on a verb algorithm
(1)
(1)
IF NP1 Vx , THEN NP2 Vy
ELSE
(2)
NP2 Vy
(2)
NP1 Vx ,
ELSE
THEN
IF
..
.
(l)
(l)
IF NP1 Vx , THEN NP2 Vy .
(50)
If we choose the verb relation operator (10), then

l
V2 =
Although verb inference based on verb similarity is only

one of many ways to perform a verb inference3 , this method
is very efficient when the underlying dynamics change their
qualitative behaviors continuously with respect to parameter
changes. Since in this method all verbs are represented by
their verb similarity functions, the resulting verbs are also
represented by verb similarity functions. However, in many
applications such as verb controllers, verb similarity functions
can not be directly used as a result to generate control signal.
Instead, we need to transfer a verb similarity function in
a computational verb. This process is called deverbification.
Since a verb similarity function is defined on a verb set where
each verb should be quantitatively different to each other, there
should be only one point at which the verb similarity takes the
value 1. Therefore, whenever we find a 1 in the similarity
function, say, y (y ) = 1, then = y . We only need
to consider the cases when every value in a verb similarity
function is less than 1. Since the constructing method of verb
similarity functions, the center of area(COA) and center of
sums(COS) methods are not suitable for constructing verbs
from verb similarity functions. Instead, we use mean of
maxima(MOM) method. Assume that there are K maxima
similarity values in an adverb set, then the output adverb is
given by
V0 =
NP1 V1
NP2 V2
E. Reconstruct Computational Verbs from Similarity Functions: Deverbification
V1 Ri
i=1
where Ri is the verb implication relation of the ith verb rule.

One example for a verb algorithm with 3 rules are shown
in Fig. 5. Observe that the final result of the verb GMP is
p Vp
K
p=1
(51)
where V0 is the reference verb, the arithmetic operations to

the computational verbs are defined as the same as those for
verb numbers[16]. This method of constructing verbs require
that all verb similarity functions must be convex. However,
it is not necessary to require all verb similarity functions to
be normal; namely, have maxima at 1. In many occasions,
the verb rules are generated based on mental experiments of
human experts. Therefore, the rule set might only get the
3 For example, in [18] verb inferences were based on collapses of computational verbs.
83
Verb similarity
Verb similarity
1
Vy0
V1
Vx0
Rule 1
Vx
Verb similarity
Vy
Verb similarity
1
Vx1
Vy1
V1
Rule 2
Vx
Verb similarity
Vy
Verb similarity
Vx2
V1
Rule 3
Vy2
Vx
Vy
Verb similarity
Union of
all rules
V2
Vy
Fig. 5. Illustration of the procedure of verb GMP based on a 3-rule verb algorithm. The horizontal axis representing verb sets x and y . The vertical axis
denotes the degree of verb similarity. The outline of the shadowed regions of the last picture denotes the verb similarity function of V2 .
most relevant qualitative outlines of the underlying dynamic

mechanism, the details(quantitative characteristics) might be
very different from what the rule set tells. This results in
p , p = 1, . . . , K, in (51) having very small values. To cope
with this case, in practical applications we usually generalize
(51) into the following form
K
V0 =
p Vp
(52)
p=1
where is a weighting adverb for the result of the entire

rule set.
F. Remarks
A verb implication relation is a set of dynamical knowledge
in the form of natural language statements. For different
dynamic processes the patterns to generate adverbs by verb
implication relations might be in very different forms. Fortunately, natural languages show us that our dynamic experiences can be lumped into finite numbers of clusters of which
each can be described by a verb implication relation. Since in
many cases verb implication relations are closely related to the
parameter spaces of dynamic systems, they are closely related
to the bifurcation of dynamic systems. One should use the
following constraints to find a valid/efficient verb implication
relation.
84
1) A verb implication relation should cover a continuum

where the dynamical behaviors are qualitatively similar;
namely, no bifurcation should happen in the scope of
this verb implication relation.
2) A set of verb implications should be used to cover
all segments along a bifurcation route to ensure the
complete coverage of all dynamic behaviors of the
system.
3) To find verb algorithms from a dynamical system, the
first step is to chunk the dynamics into representative
computational verbs; namely, to find Vx and Vy . One
alternative method is to find a reference verb for each
verb set and find the sets of adverbs. Then we need
to find the verb similarity function for each verb set
or adverb set. Two key issues should be taken care of
in real applications. The first one is the choice of the
verb similarity, which determines the distance between
verbs in the same verb set. The second one is the design
of adverbs, which simplifies the calculation and design
process in many applications.
process of the fuzzy PID controller given in [24]. The fuzzy

gain scheduler tunes the three parameters Kp , Kd and by
using the a set of m fuzzy rules each in the following form
IF e(k) is Ai AND e(k) is Bi ,
THEN Kp is Ci , Kd is Di and = i ,
i = 1, 2, , m.
(56)
where i is a constant, Ai and Bi are fuzzy numbers whose

membership functions are given in Fig. 6, Ci and Di are fuzzy
sets whose membership functions can choose only two values
big or small shown in Fig. 7. The membership functions
in Fig. 7 are given as follows.
big (x) =
small (x) =
1
min 1, ln(1 x) ,
4
1
min 1, ln x , x (0, 1).
4
(57)
All basic building blocks for fuzzy PID controller are now in
place, we are now ready to generalize fuzzy control rules into
verb control rules.
IV. D ESIGN V ERB PID C ONTROLLERS BY G ENERALIZING

F UZZY G AIN S CHEDULERS
(x)
A. Fuzzy Gain Schedulers

Without loss of generality, let us assume that the gains
Kp (k) and Kd (k) can be only scheduled within interval
[Kp , Kp ] and [Kd , Kd ], respectively. While in a fuzzy gain
scheduler the PID parameters are determined by the current
value of e(k) and e(k), in a verb gain scheduler the
PID parameters are determined by the historical values and
the current value of e(i), i = 0, 1, 2, , k. The difference
between fuzzy and verb gain schedulers is the way to tune the
parameters of the controller.
The ranges of Kp and Kd are chosen based on the results
presented in [24] as follows:
Kp = 0.32Ku , Kp = 0.6Ku ,
Kd = 0.08Ku Tu , Kd = 0.15Ku Tu ,
(53)
where Ku and Tu are the gain and the period of oscillation at

the stability limit under P-control[25].4 To avoid clutters we
normalized Kp and Kd within the interval [0, 1] by
Kp =
Kp Kp
Kp Kp
Kd =
Kd Kd
Kd Kd
NB
ZO PS PM
1
PB
Fig. 6. The membership functions of fuzzy numbers modelling Ai and Bi .

In this figure, N and P represent negative and positive, respectively.
S, M and B represent small, medium, and big, respectively. ZO represent
near zero. NB, NM and NS are negative-big, negative-medium,
and negative-small, respectively. Similarly, PB, PM and PS are
positive-big, positive-medium, and positive-small, respectively.
small
NM NS
big
(54)
Kp2
.
(55)
Kd
Since a verb PID controller can be readily generated from a
fuzzy PID controller, it is useful to review briefly the designing
Ki =
4 In [25] K was represented as S which was called ultimate sensitivity

u
u
above which the output of the plant will oscillate with big enough amplitude,
and below which the output of the plant will settle at a given value. In many
case, this is the Hopf bifurcation point[3] with respect to the bifurcation
parameter Ku . In many applications, the verb PID controllers will be applied
without knowing the underlying models of the controlled plant. Therefore,
Ku and Tu are usually found by running the P-controller.
(x)
0.8
And we define the value of Ki indirectly by a parameter

through the following relation[24]:
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Fig. 7.
The membership functions of fuzzy sets small and big for
fp and K
fd .
modelling K
85
B. Generalize Fuzzy Control Rules into Verb Control Rules

Consider the following fuzzy rules for turning PID
controller[24]:
IF e(k) is PB AND e(k) is ZO,
THEN Kp is big, Kd is small, and = 2. (58)
This fuzzy rule is backed by an experience of control engineers. In Fig. 8 a typical time response of the plant is shown.
The control rule (58) is used to handle the situation in the
region 1 shown in Fig. 8 where a big control signal is needed
in order to deduce e(k) quickly. In this case, the PID controller
needs to have a large Kp , a large Ki and a small Kd in order
to produce a large control signal. To make Ki bigger we need
to choose a smaller . To translate the fuzzy rule in (58) into
a verb rule it is easier to study the phase plot shown in Fig. 9.
As clearly shown in the phase plot and the step response in
Fig. 8, the plant only stays in the region 1 for a very short
time interval before it enters the region 2 as shown in the
phase plot. In [24] the fuzzy control rule for region 2 is given
by
Region 2
Region 1
Fig. 8. The step response of the plant. This is a typical time response for
industrial control systems. The solid curve denotes a control process with
positive initial control error while the dashed curve denotes a control process
with negative initial control error.
IF e(k) is PB AND e(k) is NS,
e(t)

Therefore the actions in both fuzzy rules (58) and (59) are the
same. It is readily to use the following verb rule to implement
both fuzzy rules as
B
M
IF e(k) decreases from PB,

It already show the advantage of using verb rules over fuzzy
rules because we can combine two fuzzy rules into a single
verb rule. This is helpful to overcome the rule explosion of
fuzzy PID controllers. However, the drawbacks of verb rule
(60) is that the consequence is still not verbified. In order to
verbify the consequence, we need to construct verb rules based
on the global structure of fuzzy rule space.
It follows from Tables I, II and III in [24] that the fuzzy
rule space of the fuzzy PID controller can be constructed
and shown in Fig. 10. Observe that the fuzzy rule space
works only locally without considering the global behaviors
of the trajectories of the control error e(k). For example,
the following simple fact that the trajectories always move
along clockwise direction is a global observation and can be
readily implemented by verb rules. However, fuzzy rules can
not reflect this global observation because their lack of big
vision. Our target is to translate the fuzzy rule spaces in
Fig. 10 into three sets of verb rules.
1) Constructing Verb Rules for Tuning Kp from Phase
Plots: When human experts look at Fig. 10(a), specially
when our eyes trace the two spiral trajectories, many dynamic
patterns can occur. The design of computational verb rules
is to balance the details of these dynamic patterns and the
global picture of the trajectories go though the phase plot.
In order to make the analysis and design procedure clear,
let us redraw Fig. 10(a) in a continuous fashion shown in
Fig. 11. Observe that in Fig. 11 the boundaries between the
Region 1
ZO
e(t)
Region 2
Fig. 9. The phase plot of the step response of the plant. Verb control rules
are easier to design based on the phase plot. The solid and dashed curves
correspond to those shown in Fig. 8.
big and small values of Kp are redrawn in a qualitative

way based on Fig. 10(a) while many details are deleted to
avoid confusing. The significant difference between Figs. 10(a)
and 11 is that instead of chunking the phase plane; namely,
the (e, e)-plane, by using fuzzy rules, we use verb rules to
chunk the trajectories; namely, the spiral curves. Since both
fuzzy rules and verb rules describe the qualitative behaviors
of the process/plant, the accurate boundaries between chunks
are of minor importance.
In Fig. 11, all chunks along the trajectories are marked by
labels in the form of C0, C1, . . .. The chunk C0 corresponds
to the following verb rule
C0.
IF |e(k)| is leaving big, THEN Kp decreases

slowly from big.
(61)
Since this is the very first verb rule generated from the phase
plot based on static fuzzy knowledge, it is worthwhile to show
86
e(t)
B
M
S
ZO
S
M
B
e(t)
ZO
ZO
S
ZO
e(t)
S
M
B
(a)
(b)
e(t)
B
ZO
S
ZO
S
M
B
e(t)
e(t)
(c)
fp . (b) Configuration of the
Fig. 10. Fuzzy rule space of fuzzy PID controller presented together with phase space. (a) Configuration of the rule set for K
fd . (c) Configuration of the rule set for .
rule set for K
e(t)
following three fuzzy rules

IF e(k) is PB AND e(k) is ZO, THEN Kp is big;
IF e(k) is PB AND e(k) is NS, THEN Kp is big;
M
S
ZO
S
IF e(k) is PB AND e(k) is NM, THEN Kp is big.

(62)
C1
C7
e(t)
C8
C12
C0
C11
C9
C6
C2
C10
C3
C5
C4
ZO
Fig. 11. Chunks of trajectories in phase space for designing computational

verb P-controller.
the detailed design experiences behind it. Comparing the

position of chunk C0 in Fig. 11 with the fuzzy chunks in
Fig. 10(a), the chunk C0 touches the governing regions of the
Take a look at Eq. (62), what do you see? Three isolated rules!
The connection between them, as shown by the trajectories
in the phase plot, is missing in these fuzzy rules. This is
because this connection is generated by dynamics which can
not be properly dealt with noun phrases; namely, fuzzy theory.
However, just imagine that we are travelling along the spiral
trajectory on the phase-plot plane, we know we are leaving
the region where |e(k)| is big and will arrive at the region
where |e(k)| is medium in the near future. We will not stay
in the |e(k)| being big region for too long, therefore, we do
not say that we stay in the |e(k)| being big region though
the entire chunk C0 is in the |e(k)| being big region.
Let us then take a look at what will happen to Kp when
we take a walk along the spiral trajectory in chunk C0. The
rules in (62) only tell us that Kp will be big for all the time.
This is correct if we only look at a small region around us.
However, suppose we take a look at the global tendency in the
87
phase-plot plane, we find the spiral trajectory will eventually

cross the boundary between Kp being big and Kp being
small regions. If we assume that Kp changes continuously
on the phase-plot plane, we will not buy the theory that
Kp changes between big and small impulsively along a
boundary. Instead, it feels more natural to imagine smooth
changes from big to small along the chunks C0, C2 and
C3. Hence, we know when we walk along the chunk C0, Kp
will decrease. The entire chunk C0 is in the big region and
it will take a relatively long time to walk from the start to the
end of the chunk C0 because e(k) is less than medium at
most of time, therefore we know Kp must decrease slowly.
The chunk C2 corresponds to the following verb rule
C2.
IF |e(k)| decreases from big to medium,

THEN Kp decreases fast from big.
(63)
The difference between the chunks C0 and C2 is that the entire

C0 is in the |e(k)| being big region while C2 crosses from the
|e(k)| being big region into the |e(k)| being medium region.
The other difference is that in the chunk C2 the speed e(k)
becomes bigger than that in the the chunk C0. Therefore, the
decrease of Kp is no longer slow.
The chunk C3 corresponds to the following verb rule
C3.
IF |e(k)| decreases from medium to small,

THEN Kp decreases from big to small. (64)
C3 is the first chunk to cross the boundary between Kp being

big and being small.
The chunks C0 to C7 cover the spiral trajectory in half of
its period when it begins at big error. The chunks C8 to C12
cover the spiral trajectory in half of its period when it begins
at medium error. Note that we can also define a series of
such chunks for the case when the spiral trajectory begins at
very big error. Fortunately, in many cases we do not need
to chunk the dynamics in such great details because of the
following reasons.
1) The chunks C0 to C7 already covers the governing
ranges of the detailed chunks. For example, chunks C8
and C9 are covered by chunks C2 and C3. C4 covers
C10, C5 and C6 covers C11 and C12.
2) The calculation of verb rules can tolerate enormous
amount noise and variations.
From the experience of designing verb P-controllers[22], we
know that the rules corresponding to chunks C0 to C7 are
sufficient to design the gain scheduler for the P-component.
Furthermore, the chunk C0 can be readily covered by chunk
C1. Therefore, for designing verb PID controllers, we only
need to implement rules governing chunks C1 to C7. All verb
rules corresponding to chunks C1 to C7 are listed in Table VII.
The canonical forms in become of all rules in Table VII are
listed in Table VIII.
2) Constructing Verb Rules for Tuning Kd from Phase
Plots: Observe that we can get the configuration in Fig. 10(b)
by rotating that in Fig. 10(a) 90-degree clockwise. Therefore,
it is not necessary to construct verb rules from scratch.
Instead, we can take advantage of the relation between both
configurations in Fig. 10(a) and 10(b) for the purpose of

constructing verb rule set for Kd . The verb rule set for tuning
Kd is simply a revision of the rule set in Tables VII and
VIII. The resulting verb rule set for the D-controller is shown
in Tables IX and X. Comparing the results in Tables VIII
and X one can observe that for the chunks C2 to C7 the
corresponding verb rules can be arrived from their counterparts
by exchanging the order of state 1 and state 2 in their
consequences. The verb rule corresponding to the chunk C1
is unchanged.
3) Constructing Verb Rules for Tuning from Phase Plots:
Comparing the configurations in Fig. 10(b) and 10(c) one can
observe that both configurations are similar if we treat the
values that are bigger than 5 as big and less than 2 as small.
Here we choose the same membership functions for Kp and
Kd shown in Fig. 7 to fuzzify , which is given by
=
(65)
where = 2 and = 5 are chosen. By doing so, the rule

sets for Kd and are in the same form. Therefore, we can
simply modify the rule set for Kd into that for as listed in
Tables XI and XII.
Remark. At the first sight of Fig. 10, one might feel it will be
bored to design three sets of verb rules individually. However,
from the procedure in above, one can see that two sets of
verb rules can be easily derived from the first one. Therefore,
we only need to program one rule set and then change the
parameters to arrive at the rest two.
C. Implementing Verb P-controllers
Let us proceed to implement the seven rules listed in
Table VIII, in other words, to implement a verb P-controller.
The method will be used here is different from that used in
[22]. The reason that we implement the rules in Table VIII
instead of those in Table VII is that the rules in Table VIII are
in more generic form and many design methods can be reused
while the rules in Table VII are only valid for the design of the
P-controllers. Therefore, the design methods used in designing
Table VII may not easy to be reused in other cases such as
the design of the D-component and the I-component.
1) Choosing Verb/Adverb Sets: The first thing to implement
the rule sets in Table VIII is to select verb sets Vx and Vy ,
or adverb sets Ax and Ay to cover the entire universe of
dynamics5 that we are interested. In the case of the verb Pcontroller, the universes of dynamics are the dynamics of the
control error e(t) and the normalized proportional gain Kp (t).
Since the dynamics of |e(t)| is chunked into four fuzzy
values big, medium, small and zero, it follows the spiral
trajectories shown in Fig. 11 that the dynamics of |e(t)| can
be chunked into the following computational verbs.
5 The universe of dynamics of a control system is roughly equivalent to all
perceptible dynamics for the control system. Therefore, from the qualitative
theory of dynamical systems, the universe of dynamics is a continuum for
continuous dynamical systems. However, just like in fuzzy controller design,
with finite number of fuzzy sets/numbers we can cover the entire universe
of discourse, in verb controller design, we can cover the entire universe of
dynamics by using finite numbers of verbs and adverbs.
88
TABLE VII
T HE VERB RULES FOR THE CHUNKS C1 TO C7 IN F IG . 11 FOR DESIGNING VERB P- CONTROLLER .
Chunk/Rule
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
Statements of the verb rules

fp increases to big;
IF |e(k)| stays zero, THEN K
fp decreases fast from big;
IF |e(k)| decreases from big to medium, THEN K
fp decreases from big to small;
IF |e(k)| decreases from medium to small, THEN K
f
IF |e(k)| decreases from small to zero, THEN Kp decreases slowly to small;
fp increases slowly from small;
IF |e(k)| increases from zero to small, THEN K
fp increases from small to big;
IF |e(k)| increases from small to medium, THEN K
f
IF |e(k)| increases from medium, THEN Kp increases fast to big.
TABLE VIII
T HE CANONICAL FORMS IN become OF ALL RULES IN TABLE VII.
Chunk/Rule
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
Statements of verb rules in canonical forms in become

fp become(small, big);
IF |e(k)| become(zero, zero), THEN K
fp fast become(big, small);
IF |e(k)| become(big, medium), THEN K
fp become(big, small);
IF |e(k)| become(medium, small), THEN K
fp slowly become(big, small);
IF |e(k)| become(small, zero), THEN K
fp slowly become(small, big);
IF |e(k)| become(zero, small), THEN K
fp become(small, big);
IF |e(k)| become(small, medium), THEN K
fp fast become(small, big).
IF |e(k)| become(medium, big), THEN K
TABLE IX
T HE VERB RULES FOR THE CHUNKS C1 TO C7 IN F IG . 11 FOR DESIGNING VERB D- CONTROLLER .
Chunk/Rule
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7

fd increases to big;
IF |e(k)| stays zero, THEN K
fd increases fast from small;
IF |e(k)| decreases from big to medium, THEN K
fd increases from small to big;
IF |e(k)| decreases from medium to small, THEN K
fd increases slowly to big;
IF |e(k)| decreases from small to zero, THEN K
fd decreases slowly from big;
IF |e(k)| increases from zero to small, THEN K
fd decreases from big to small;
IF |e(k)| increases from small to medium, THEN K
fd decreases fast to small.
IF |e(k)| increases from medium, THEN K
TABLE X
T HE CANONICAL FORMS IN become OF ALL RULES IN TABLE IX.
Chunk/Rule
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
Labels
Ve1
Ve2
Ve3
Ve4
Ve5
Ve6
Ve7

fd become(small, big);
IF |e(k)| become(zero, zero), THEN K
fd fast become(small, big);
IF |e(k)| become(big, medium), THEN K
fd become(small, big);
IF |e(k)| become(medium, small), THEN K
fd slowly become(small,big);
IF |e(k)| become(small, zero), THEN K
fd slowly become(big, small);
IF |e(k)| become(zero, small), THEN K
fd become(big, small);
IF |e(k)| become(small, medium), THEN K
fd fast become(big, small).
IF |e(k)| become(medium, big), THEN K
Computational verbs for the dynamics of |e(t)|

become(big, medium),
become(medium, small),
become(small, zero),
become(zero, small),
become(small, medium),
become(medium, big).
become(zero, zero).
Remark. Sometimes we might need to use bigger if we

only chunk the upper limit of quantities into big. Note
that bigger is different from very big. The reason
that we sometimes do not use very big is that we only
know something bigger than big and yet we do not know
to what degree it is bigger than big. The same thing can
be said concerning the relation between very small and

smaller. Observe that become(zero, zero) is the canonical
form of stay zero. However, stay zero is not the same as
be zero because stay zero may have a past not to be zero.
On the other hand, since the dynamics of Kp (t) is chunked
into two values small and big, the dynamics of Kp (t) can
be chunked into the following computational verbs.
Labels
Vp1
Vp2
Computational verbs for the dynamics of Kp (t)

become(big, small),
become(small, big).
Therefore, the most important issues of implementing computational verbs used in these rules are the implementations
of computational verb become.
89
TABLE XI
T HE VERB RULES FOR THE CHUNKS C1 TO C7 IN F IG . 11 FOR DESIGNING VERB I- CONTROLLER .
Chunk/Rule
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7

IF |e(k)| stays zero, THEN
e increases to big;
IF |e(k)| decreases from big to medium, THEN
e increases fast from small;
IF |e(k)| decreases from medium to small, THEN
e increases from small to big;
IF |e(k)| decreases from small to zero, THEN
e increases slowly to big;
IF |e(k)| increases from zero to small, THEN
e decreases slowly from big;
IF |e(k)| increases from small to medium, THEN
e decreases from big to small;
IF |e(k)| increases from medium, THEN
e decreases fast to small.
TABLE XII
T HE CANONICAL FORMS IN become OF ALL RULES IN TABLE IX.
Chunk/Rule
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7

IF |e(k)| become(zero, zero), THEN
e become(small, big);
IF |e(k)| become(big, medium), THEN
e fast become(small, big);
IF |e(k)| become(medium, small), THEN
e become(small, big);
IF |e(k)| become(small, zero), THEN
e slowly become(small,big);
IF |e(k)| become(zero, small), THEN
e slowly become(big, small);
IF |e(k)| become(small, medium), THEN
e become(big, small);
IF |e(k)| become(medium, big), THEN
e fast become(big, small).
2) Implementing Become(state 1, state 2): As the

canonical form of all verbs used in verb rules, become(state 1, state 2) should be constructed based on
the features of the dynamics of the control system. In the
design of PID controllers, state 1 and state 2 are two
B EINGs.6 Let us assume that the dynamics of become(state
1, state 2) has an outer representation(measurement) x(t),
which can be either |e(t)| or Kp (t). As the method presented in [22], the evolving function of become(state
1, state 2) can be defined based on two waveforms of
membership state 1 (x(t)) and state 2 (x(t)). By doing this
we can contain the range of Ebecome on [0, 1] and therefore
avoid the trouble of coping with the amplitudes of individual
waveforms from time to time. Let us assume that the life span
of the computational verb is Tw , then the evolving function of
become(state 1, state 2) can be defined as
Ebecome(state
=
1,state 2) (t)
state 1 (x(t)), t 0, T2w ,

state 2 (x(t)), t T2w , Tw .
(66)
This evolving function must satisfy the following boundary

conditions in order to be perceptually correct:
1) state 1 (x(0)) state 1 (x( T2w ));
2) state 2 (x( T2w )) state 2 (x(Tw ));
3) state 1 (x(0)) 1 and state 2 (x(Tw )) 1.
state 1 (x( T2w ))
Observe that the values of

and
state 2 (x( T2w )) are not necessarily to be the same though
we usually choose them to be the same to reflect some
continuity of the transient between state 1 and
state 2. The following standard evolving functions are
usually used to implement becomes.
1) Linear cases. If we only know the following parameters:
Tw , state 1 x( T2w ) = a, and state 2 x( T2w ) = b,
6 A detailed discussion on the relation between B EING s and B ECOMING s
can be found in [13]. Also, the one-to-one mappings of B EINGs to nouns and
B ECOMINGs to verbs were studied there.
then the evolving function is given by

Ebecome(state
=
1
Tw
1
Tw
1,state 2) (t)
(Tw 2t + 2ta) ,
t 0, T2w ,
(2t Tw + 2(Tw t)b) , t T2w , Tw .
(67)
2) Quadratic cases. If we know the following parameters:

Tw , state 1 x( T4w ) = a, state 1 x( T2w ) = b,
state 2 x( T2w ) = c, and state 2 x( 3T4w ) = d then
the evolving function is given by
Ebecome(state 1,state 2) (t)
8(12a+b)t2 2Tw (34a+b)t+T 2
w
,
2
Tw
t 0, T2w ,
=
2
2
8(c2d+1)t
2T
(7c12d+5)t+(6c8d+3)T
w
w
2
T
Tw
t 2 , Tw .
(68)
3) Exponential cases. If we only know the following parameters: Tw , state 1 x( T2w )
= a, and
Tw
state 2 x( 2 ) = b, then the evolving function is
given by
Ebecome(state 1,state 2) (t)
exp 2 ln a t ,
t 0, T2w ,
Tw
=
exp 2 ln b (t Tw ) , t Tw , Tw .
Tw
2
(69)
Remarks. Other evolving systems of becomes can be used
for different applications. However, if in applications the
life span Tw is not big, we use simple evolving functions. The factors contribute to the choices of the shapes
of Ebecome(state 1,state 2) are the dynamics of x(t) and the
membership functions state 1 and state 2 . The interactions
between them are very complex and need extensive studies in
90
the future. To show a typical method of determine the shape of

Ebecome(state 1,state 2) let us consider the following example.
Let us assume that state 1 = near one and state 2 =
near zero and assume that
near
one (x)
= x, near
zero (x)
= 1 x, x [0, 1].
(70)
Let the life span be Tw and the dynamics be given

by x(t)
=
et , then the evolving function for
become(near one, near zero) is given by
Ebecome(near
one,near zweo) (t)

,
t 0, T2w ,
t
e , t T2w , Tw
e
1
(71)
3) The balance factor

= 2 min
.
a1
a2
,
b1 + b2 b1 + b2
(75)
4) The entire window.

a1 + a2
.
(76)
b1 + b2
Remarks.
One
might
think
that
to
calculate
S(become, observed) by using the following formula is
much more straightforward.
S(become, observed) =
S(become, observed)
Tw
Ebecome ( ) Eobserved (t Tw + )d
Note that even for this simple case the evolving function of
0
= Tw
. (77)
become can be relatively complicated. Needless to say, in
E
(
)
E
(t
T
+
)d
become
observed
w
many applications we might have no clue about the under0
lying dynamics. Therefore, just as the choice of membership
functions in fuzzy theory and the choice of probability density However, the equation in above fails to work in many ocfunctions in statistics, we sometimes choose evolving func- casions because it does not take care of the fact that either
tions without considering every details of the real thing. the evolving function of become or observed consists of
However, along the evolving process of computational verb two halves generated by different mechanisms; namely, by
theory and physical linguistics, we will gain more and more using different computational nouns. For example, if state
which is generated
insights into this critical issue. This is not only because our 1 is big and the first half of observed,
Tw
by
(x(t))
=
1
for
all
t
[0,
],
then
both a1 and b1
big
2
curiosity but also the need of formalizing natural languages
Tw
can
be
very
closed
to
their
maximum
value
2 . If this is the
into the framework of natural sciences.
case,
independent
of
the
value
of
a
and
b
,
the value given
2
2
3) Calculating Verb Similarities: Let the life span of beby
(77)
should
be
around
0.5.
This
example
shows that the
come(state 1, state 2) be Tw , and an observed waveformula
(77)
can
not
distinguish
well
become(big,
bigger)
form x(t) be recorded, we can construct the evolving function
from
become(big,
small)
and
become(big,
smaller).
The
of a default observing verb observed based on x(t) by
utility
of
balance
factor
can
efficiently
prevent
this
from
state 1 (x( )), t Tw , t T2w ,

happening.
Eobserved ( ) =
(72) For discrete time the verb similarity can be calculated by
state 2 (x( )), t T2w , t ,
undefined,
otherwise,
using samples of both evolving functions. In the examples
where t denotes the current moment. Observe that the life presented later, the reader shall understand the procedure of
time for the observing verb observed is in the past. Also, calculating verb similarity from discrete time series. Observe
the construction of the evolving system of the computational that we can calculate the verb similarities at every point of a
verb observed needs to take advantage of both the noun measured time series x(t) by using the evolving function of
center and the verb center of physical linguistics[18]. If we become as a moving template over a window of fixed length
want to know the verb similarity between observed and Tw . This is the basic technique that we will use to control a
become(state 1, state 2), we need to set the birth system along time.
time of become(state 1, state 2) at the time moment
(t Tw ). In continuous time the most commonly used verb D. Implementing P-controller for a Second-order Plant: Exsimilarities can be calculated by using the following steps.
ample
1) The first half window.
Let us choose the following plant as an example to illustrate
Tw
the
design process of a verb P-controller. A verb P-controller
2
a1
Ebecome ( ) Eobserved (t Tw + )d,
for this plant was previously designed in [22]. Consider the
0
following second-order control system
Tw
2
b1
Ebecome ( ) Eobserved (t Tw + )d.
(73)
y(t) =
e(t) =
2) The second half window.

Tw
a2
Tw
2
Ebecome ( ) Eobserved (t Tw + )d,
Tw
b2
Tw
2
x 1 (t) =
x 2 (t) =
Ebecome ( ) Eobserved (t Tw + )d.

(74)
x2 (t),
2x2 (t) x1 (t) + u(t Ts ),
x1 (t),
r y(t)
(78)
where xi (t), i = 1, 2 are two states, y(t) is the output, u(t)

is the input control signal, r is the reference and Ts is the
sampling period. Observe that the control is delayed. The delay
of control signal is caused by the time period that we need to
calculate the control signal.
91
1) Define Fuzzy Sets: Since the controlled plant must be

asymptotically stable for practical purpose, the initial error
should be big. Therefore, it is safe to consider errors in the
range of [|e(0)|, |e(0)|]. Traditionally we use the membership
functions as in Fig. 6 to equally divide the error range.
However, since e(t) exponentially approach to zero in an
asymptotically stable controlled system, we need to pay more
attention to the region closed to zero because trajectories
stay there longer than regions far away from zero. Based on
this consideration, we choose the supports of the membership
functions as those shown in Fig. 12. Note that the range for
control error is normalized into [1, 1]. The boundaries of
regions shown in Fig. 10 used the supports of fuzzy sets in
Fig. 12. These membership functions are given as follows.
of which the discrete-time form is given by
w k , k 0, w , w Z,
2
w
Ebecome(state1,state2) =
(81)
k
,
k w2 , w , k Z.
w
Note that in the discrete case the life span of become contains
(w + 1) sampling points. If w is even then the first half of the
window will be 1 sampling point longer than the second half
of the window. If w is odd, then both half-windows are of the
same length.
3) Find Verb Similarity Functions: Before we can perform
any verb inference we need to find verb similarity functions
of all verbs in verb set
Ve
P B (x)
P M (x)
P S (x)
ZO (x)
N S (x)
N M (x)
= max (0, 1 + (x 1) |x 1|) ,

= max (0, 1 + (x 0.5) 3|x 0.5|) ,
= max (0, 1 4|x 0.25|) ,
= max (0, 1 4|x|) ,
= max (0, 1 4|x + 0.25|) ,
= max (0, 1 (x + 0.5) 3|x + 0.5|) ,
N B (x) = max (0, 1 (x + 1) |x + 1|) .
and
Vp
(79)
(x)
NB
NM NS ZO PS PM
1
PB
Bigger
0.5
-1
-0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5

Less than zero
0.125
Fig. 12. The membership functions of fuzzy numbers splitting the normalized
range of control error e(k).
Although the membership functions for Kp and Kd shown

in Fig. 7 may not be optimal, for the purpose of comparison,
we use them without revision.
2) Define All Becomes: Here we give the analytic representations of all becomes in computational verbs Ve1 to
Ve7 , Vp1 and Vp2 . For the purpose of implementation, we
would like to choose all becomes independent of the specific
dynamics such that we can program a universal controller
with as few as possible parameters left for the users to adjust.
With this concern, we choose the evolving function of every
become as the piecewise linear function (67) with a = b =
0.5; namely,
Ebecome(state1,state2)
T t
w
, t 0, T2w ,
Tw
=
t
,
t T2w , Tw ,
Tw
{Ve1 , Ve2 , Ve3 , Ve4 , Ve5 , Ve6 , Ve7 }
(80)
{Vp1 , Vp2 }.
Since we need to know the evolving functions of computational verbs before we can calculate verb similarity function,
let us find the evolving functions and the evolving processes
of e(t) and Kp (t) for all verbs in Ve and Vp first.
1) Ve1 =become(big, medium). The evolving function
is given by
T t
P B (|e(t)|) = w
, t 0, T2w ,
T
w
Ebecome =
t

,
t T2w , Tw .
P M (|e(t)|) =
Tw
Note that the corresponding waveform of |e(t)|, e1 (t)
passes points (0, 1), ( T2w , 0.75) and (Tw , 0.5). Therefore
we have the linear interpretation of Ve1 as
t
e1 (t) = 1
, t [0, Tw ] .
(82)
2Tw
2) Ve2 =become(medium, small). The evolving function is given by
T t
P M (|e(t)|) = w
, t 0, T2w ,
Tw
Ebecome =
t
P S (|e(t)|) =
,
t T2w , Tw .
Tw
passes points (0, 0.5), ( T2w , 0.375) and (Tw , 0.25).
Therefore we have
t
e2 (t) = 0.5
, t [0, Tw ] .
(83)
4Tw
3) Ve3 =become(small, zero). The evolving function
is given by
T t
P S (|e(t)|) = w
, t 0, T2w ,
T
w
Ebecome =
t
ZO (|e(t)|) =
,
t T2w , Tw .
Tw
passes points (0, 0.25), ( T2w , 0.125) and (Tw , 0). Therefore we have
t
, t [0, Tw ] .
(84)
e3 (t) = 0.25
4Tw
92
4) Ve4 =become(zero, small). The evolving function

is given by
T t
ZO (|e(t)|) = w
, t 0, T2w ,
T
w
Ebecome =
t
P S (|e(t)|) =
,
t T2w , Tw .
Tw
passes points (0, 0), ( T2w , 0.125) and (Tw , 0.25). Therefore we have
t
, t [0, Tw ] .
(85)
e4 (t) =
4Tw
5) Ve5 =become(small, medium). The evolving function is given by
T t
P S (|e(t)|) = w
, t 0, T2w ,
Tw
Ebecome =
t
P M (|e(t)|) =
,
t T2w , Tw .
Tw
And denote the verb similarity function of verb V with respect

to a verb set V by
VV

passes points (0, 0.5), ( T2w , 0.75) and (Tw , 1). Therefore
we have
t
e6 (t) = 0.5 +
, t [0, Tw ] .
(87)
2Tw
7) Ve7 =become(zero, zero). The evolving function is
given by
T t
Z (|e(t)|) = w
, t 0, T2w ,
Tw
Ebecome =
t
Z (|e(t)|) =
,
t T2w , Tw .
Tw
passes points (0, 0), ( T2w , 0) and (Tw , 0). Therefore we
have
e7 (t) = 0, t [0, Tw ] .
(88)
Remark. We use linear interpretations of ei (t), i = 1, . . . , 7

for Ve1 to Ve7 . Although linear interpretation is the simplest
one, it is only one of infinite many possible interpretations.
For different dynamical contexts, there should be different
optimal interpretations. Therefore, for the design of verb PID
controllers, linear interpretations might not be optimal. This
topic need further study because it is closely connected to the
optimization of the design of verb controllers in general.
To avoid cluster, let us use the notation V1 (V2 ) to denote
the degree of similarity of verb V2 to the reference verb V1 .
(89)
We assume that the canonical forms in become of V1 and V2

are become(state 1a, state 2a) and become(state
1b, state 2b), respectively. Let x1 (t) be an interpretation
of V1 and have the form
f (t), t 0, T2w ,
g(t), t T2w , Tw ,
x1 (t) =
(90)
The degree of similarity V1 (V2 ) can be calculated using the

following steps.
1)
a1

passes points (0, 0.25), ( T2w , 0.375) and (Tw , 0.5).
Therefore we have
t
e5 (t) = 0.25 +
, t [0, Tw ] .
(86)
4Tw
6) Ve6 =become(medium, big). The evolving function
is given by
T t
P M (|e(t)|) = w
, t 0, T2w ,
Tw
Ebecome =
t
P B (|e(t)|) =
,
t T2w , Tw .
Tw
V (Vx )/Vx .
Vx V
Tw
2
min(state
1a (f (t)), state 1b (f (t)))dt,
min(state
2a (g(t)), state 2b (g(t)))dt,
0
Tw
a2
b1
Tw
2
Tw
2
max(state
1a (f (t)), state 1b (f (t)))dt,
max(state
2a (g(t)), state 2b (g(t)))dt,
0
Tw
b2
Tw
2
(91)
2)
= 2 min
a1
a2
,
b1 + b2 b1 + b2
(92)
3)
V1 (V2 ) =
a1 + a2
b1 + b2
(93)
Therefore, the verb similarity functions of all verbs in Ve

can be calculated as follows.
e
1) VVe1
. As an illustrating example, let us calculate
Ve1 (Ve2 ). We use the linear interpretation in Eq. (82)
for verb Ve1 . Then it follows from Eqs. (79), (82) and
(91) that
a1
Tw
2
min(PB (e1 (t)), PM (e1 (t)))dt
0
Tw
2
PM 1
0
Tw
2
t
2Tw
max 0, 1 +
dt
1
3
Tw
2
=
0
t
2Tw
0.5
Tw
t
dt =
,
Tw
8
t
2Tw
0.5
dt
(94)
93
Tw
a2
Tw
PS
Tw
2
t
1
2Tw
dt
Tw
Tw
2
=
b1
5)
min(PM (e1 (t)), PS (e1 (t)))dt
Tw
2
max 0, 1 4
t
2Tw
0.25
0,
dt
Tw
2
max(PB (e1 (t)), PM (e1 (t)))dt
PB 1
0
Tw
2
t
2Tw
t
1
2Tw
Tw
2
t
2Tw
dt
3Tw
t
dt =
,
Tw
8
(96)
Tw
b2
Tw
2
max(PM (e1 (t)), PS (e1 (t)))dt
Tw
Tw
2
PM 1
t
2Tw
dt
Tw
Tw
2
t
0.5
2Tw
t
3Tw
dt =
.
Tw
8
1
Tw
max 0, 1 +
Tw
2
t
2Tw
0.5
dt
1
1
Ve3 +
9
9
+0/Ve5 + 0/Ve6 + 1/Ve7 .
= 0/Ve1 + 0/Ve2 +
= 1/Ve1 + 0/Ve2 + 0/Ve3 + 0/Ve4

1
+0/Ve5 +
Ve6 + 0/Ve7 .
(98)
9
= 0/Ve1 + 1/Ve2 + 0/Ve3 + 0/Ve4
1
Ve5 + 0/Ve6 + 0/Ve7 .
(99)
+
9
a1
b1
a2
0/Ve1 + 0/Ve2 + 1/Ve3 +

+0/Ve5 + 0/Ve6 +
(104)
p
1) Since the symmetry of big and small for Kp (t), Vp1
can be found by the following processes.
p2
Vp1
3)
e
VVe3
Ve4
Remark. If the interpretations are linear, then we can find VV

directly from the membership functions of the states. Since
the choice of the membership functions, we can guarantee
that in each verb similarity function there are only two
kinds of non-zero degrees of verb similarity, one of which
is dominate at 1 while the other is as small as 1/9. It is
counter to our intuition to have a verb similarity 1/9 with the
reversed counterpart. For example, become(big, medium)
has a 1/9 verb similarity to become(medium, big) while has a
0 similarity to become(medium, small). This counter intuition
can be easily solved by expanding the overlap ranges of the
supports of fuzzy sets. It can also be solved by putting more
weights on the trends when the verb similarity is calculated.
This is an attracting topics for further researches.
Assume linear interpretations of Kp (t), the verb similarity
functions of both verb in Vp can be found as follows.
2)
e
VVe2
1
Ve1 + 0/Ve2 + 0/Ve3 + 0/Ve4
9
+0/Ve5 + 1/Ve6 + 0/Ve7 .
(103)
(97)
e
Therefore, we have
= 0, VVe1
(Ve2 ) = 0. Using the
e
same method we can find other elements of VVe1
as
e
VVe1
e
VVe7
dt
max 0, 1 +
e
VVe6
1
Ve2 + 0/Ve3 + 0/Ve4
9
+1/Ve5 + 0/Ve6 + 0/Ve7 .
(102)
0/Ve1 +
7)
0
Tw
2
6)
(95)
e
VVe5
1
9
1
9
Ve7 .
Ve4
1
ln xdx
4
0.5
x
x 1
= ln x +
= 0.0384,
4
4 0.5
0.5
1
= e4 +
ln xdx
4
4
e
x
x 0.5
4
= e + ln x +
= 0.207,
4
4 e4
= 0.0384, b2 = 0.207,
0.0384
= 0.1855,
= 2
2 0.207
a1 + a2
0.0384
=
= 0.1855
b1 + b2
0.207
= 0.0344.
(105)
=
Here we have
(100)
4)
p
Vp1
= 1/Vp1 + 0.0344/Vp2 .
2) From the symmetry of big and small we have

e
VVe4
1
0/Ve1 + 0/Ve2 +
9
+0/Ve5 + 0/Ve6 +
Ve3 + 1/Ve4
1
9
Ve7 .
(101)
p
Vp2
= 0.0344/Vp1 + 1/Vp2 .
Since 0.0344 is small comparing with 1, in practical applications, we can ignore it.
94
4) Implementing Verb Inferences: Now that we have defined all verb similarity functions, we are proceeding to
implement the verb inferences based on verb rules in Table VII
or Table VIII. For each rule, we first find an adverb , called
firing adverb, by comparing the verb similarity between the
verb phrase in its premise and the computational verb observed, which is the verbifying result of |e(k)|. By applying
the adverb to the verb phrase in the consequence of the
verb rule we can calculate the contribution of this rule to the
change of Kp . The finally decision of changing Kp is found
by applying a de-verbification to the contributions from all
rules. Here we choose the following de-verbification
7
Kp (k + 1) = Kp (k) +
i i
(106)
i=0
where i and i are the firing adverb and full contribution for
rule i, respectively. is a weighting factor. The de-verbifying
results of Vp1 and Vp2 are denoted, respectively, by p1 and
p2 and given by
p1
e{10[S(observed,Vp2 )S(observed,Vp1 )]} ,
p2
e{10[S(observed,Vp1 )S(observed,Vp2 )]} .
(107)
Observe that p1 and p2 are two datums for the deverbification of Vp1 and Vp2 . The intuition behind Eq. (107) is
that the dynamics of Kp (t) are spanned by two complementary
verbs; namely, Vp1 and Vp2 . Let us assume that we want the
dynamics of Kp (t) to be the same as Vp1 , then there are two
cases.
1) If at a moment we observe that Kp (t) is more like to
Vp1 , then we do not need to change it too much because
it behaves as expected. This is implemented by setting
p1 1.
2) If at a moment we observe that Kp (t) is more like to
Vp2 , then we need to change it fast into Vp1 because
we are expecting Vp1 . This is implementing by setting
p1 > 1.
In the rules we use two adverbs fast and slowly to modify
the dynamics of Vp1 and Vp2 . The relation between the deverbification of Vp1 and fast Vp1 is given by
fastVp1 = fast p1 .
(108)
Also, the relation between the de-verbification of Vp1 and

slowly Vp1 is given by
slowlyVp1 = slowly p1 .
(109)
The same can be said to Vp1 and two adverbs fast and
slowly.
We calculate the contributions from all rules as follows.
1) Implementing C1: IF |e(k)| become(zero, zero),
THEN Kp become(small, big). The contribution
of this rule is
(1 [S(observed, become(small, big))])
= 1 p2
where () denotes the effect of the de-verbifying block.
2) Implementing C2: IF |e(k)| become(big, medium),

THEN Kp fast become(big, small). The contribution of this rule is
(2 [S(observed, fast become(big, small))])
= 2 fastVp1
= 2 fast p1
where the negative sign reflects the fact of Kp decreasing
with negative changing rate.
3) Implementing C3: IF |e(k)| become(medium,
small), THEN Kp become(big, small). The
contribution of this rule is
(3 [S(observed, become(big, small))])
= 3 p1 .
4) Implementing C4: IF |e(k)| become(small, zero),
THEN Kp slowly become(big, small). The
(4 [S(observed, slowly become(big, small))])
= 4 slowlyVp1
= 4 slowly p1 .
5) Implementing C5: IF |e(k)| become(zero, small),
THEN Kp slowly become(small, big). The contribution of this rule is
(5 [S(observed, slowly become(small, big))])
= 5 slowlyVp2
= 5 slowly p2 .
6) Implementing C6: IF |e(k)| become(small,
medium), THEN Kp become(small, big). The
(6 [S(observed, become(small, big))])
= 6 p2 .
7) Implementing C7: IF |e(k)| become(medium, big),
THEN Kp fast become(small, big). The contribution of this rule is
(7 [S(observed, fast become(small, big))])
= 7 fastVp2
= 7 fast p2 .
5) Simulation Results: The author of [22] used a verb
P-controller to control plant in Eq. (78), here a new verb
P-controller can be designed for controlling this plant.7
The simulation results are shown in Fig. 13. In Fig. 13,
the first row shows the waveform of e(t). In the second
row B (|e(t)|), M (|e(t)|), S (|e(t)|) and Z (|e(t)|) are
shown by solid(black), dashed(blue), dash-dotted(red), and
dotted(black) waveforms, respectively.
7 The design method presented in [22] is more ad hoc while the method
presented here is more systematic. On the other hand, the first method is
relatively lighter and is directly related to our intuition. While the second
method is much heavier and is more formal; namely, mathematical.
20
e(t)
10
0
10
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
B,M,S,Z
0.5
S(.,.)
0.5
S(.,.)
0.5
15
Kp(t),,S(.,.)
In the third row the verb similarities between

observed
|e(k)|
and
|e(k)|
become(zero, zero),
become(medium, small)
are
respectively shown in solid(black), dashed(blue) and dashdotted(red) waveforms. In the fourth row the verb similarities
between observed |e(k)| and |e(k)| become(small, zero),
become(small, medium)
are
respectively shown in solid(black), dashed(blue) and dashdotted(red) waveforms. Since the verb similarity between
observed |e(k)| and |e(k)| become(medium, big) is zero
everywhere, it is not shown.
In the fifth row we show Kp (k) in solid(black) waveform. The waveforms of big (Kp (k)) and small (Kp (k))
are shown in dashed-dotted(blue) and dash(blue), respectively. The amplitudes of the waveforms of big (Kp (k)) and
small (Kp (k)) are enlarged 15 times for the sake of visibility.
The verb similarities between observed Kp (k) and Kp (k)
become(big, small), become(small, big) are respectively
shown in dash-dotted(red) and dashed(red), respectively. For
the purpose of visibility, the amplitudes of the red waveforms
are enlarged 200 times.
The parameters for the simulation are = 0.4(see
Eq. (106)), fast = 5, and slowly = 0.125.
Figure 14 shows the firing adverbs 1 (t), . . . , 7 (t) for
all verb rules in the verb inference process. For comparing
purpose, the waveform of Kp (t) is plotted in dotted(red) in
each row of this figure.
The waveforms of the de-verbifying datums p1 (t) and
p2 (t) are shown in Fig. 15. For comparing purpose, the
verb similarities S(observe, Vp1 ) and S(observe, Vp2 ) are also
shown. Observe that p1 (t) and p2 (t) provide an extra measure to adjust the dynamics of the entire control system. When
the control error is contained within a small range this extra
measure ceases to take effects.
95
10
5
0
Fig. 13.
Control the 2nd-order system (78) using the verb P-controller.
E. Implementing Verb PD-controllers

By adding the rule set in Tables IX and X we can
implement a verb PD-controller. In Fig. 16 the first row
shows the waveform of the control error e(t). In the second
observed
|e(k)|
and
|e(k)|
become(zero, zero),
are
are
The parameters for the simulation are = 0.4, fast = 5,
slowly = 0.125, Kp = 15, and Kp = 2, Kd = 3, and Kd = 1.
Figure 17 shows the firing adverbs 1 (t), . . . , 7 (t) for all
verb rules in the verb inference process for the D-component.
For comparing purpose, the waveform of Kp (t) is plotted in

dotted(red) in each row of this figure.
Figure 18 shows p1 (t), p2 (t), S(obsreved, Vp1 ) and
S(obsreved, Vp2 ).
In Fig. 19, the first row shows waveforms of Kp (k)
in solid(black), big (Kp (k)) and small (Kp (k)) in dasheddotted(blue) and dash(blue), respectively. The amplitudes of
the waveforms of big (Kp (k)) and small (Kp (k)) are enlarged 15 times for the sake of visibility. In the second
row the verb similarities between observed Kp (k) and
Kp (k) become(big, small), become(small, big) are respectively shown in solid(black) and dashed(blue), respectively.
The third row shows waveforms of Kd (k) in solid(black),
big (Kd (k)) and small (Kd (k)) in dashed-dotted(blue) and
dash(blue), respectively. In the last row the verb similarities
between observed Kd (k) and Kd (k) become(big, small),
become(small, big) are respectively shown in solid(black)
and dashed(blue), respectively.
The first row of Fig. 20 shows d1 (t). The second row shows
S(observed, Vd1 ). The second row shows d2 (t). The last row
96
1.5
1(t)
0.5
p1(t)
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
2(t)
1
0
0.5
0.5
1.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.05
2.5
0.04
3(t)
S(observe, Vp1)
0.5
0.5
1.5
0.03
0.02
0.01
2.5
4(t)
0.01
0.5
1.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
1
5(t)
p2(t)
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
1
6(t)
0.05
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
7(t)
0.5
S(observe, Vp2)
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0.01
0.5
1.5
2.5
Fig. 14. Control the 2nd-order system using the verb P-controller. The
evolutions of firing adverbs, 1 (t), . . . , 7 (t), of rules in the verb inference
for the P-component.
shows S(observed, Vd1 ). d1 (t) and d2 (t) are given by

d1
d2
=
=
e{10[S(observed,Vd2 )S(observed,Vd1 )]} ,

e{10[S(observed,Vd1 )S(observed,Vd2 )]}
(110)
where Vd1 = Kd (t) become(big, small) and Vd2 =

Kd (t) become(small, big).
F. Implementing Verb PID-controllers
By adding the rule set in Tables XI and XII we can
implement a verb PID-controller. In Fig. 21 the first row
shows the waveform of the control error e(t). In the second
observed
|e(k)|
and
|e(k)|
become(zero, zero),
are
Fig. 15. Control the 2nd-order system using the verb P-controller. The
evolutions of de-verbification datums p1 and p2 .

are
The parameters for the simulation are = 0.4, fast = 5,
slowly = 0.125, Kp = 15, and Kp = 2, Kd = 3, Kd = 1,
= 5, and = 2.
Figure 22 shows the firing adverbs 1 (t), . . . , 7 (t) for all
verb rules in the verb inference process for the I-component.
For comparing purpose, the waveform of Kp (t) is plotted in
dotted(red) in each row of this figure.
Figure 23 shows g1 (t), g2 (t), S(obsreved, Vg1 ) and
S(obsreved, Vg2 ). g1 (t) and g2 (t) are given by
g1
e{10[S(observed,Vg2 )S(observed,Vg1 )]} ,
g2
e{10[S(observed,Vg1 )S(observed,Vg2 )]}
(111)
where Vg1 = (t) become(big, small) and Vg2 = (t) become(small, big).
In Fig. 24, the first row shows Ki (t). The second row shows
97
1
1(t)
20
e(t)
15
0.5
10
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
2(t)
0.5
1
3(t)
B,M,S,Z
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0
0.2
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
4(t)
0.5
1
0
0.8
0.6
5(t)
S(.,.)
0.5
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
6(t)
0.5
0.8
0
1
0.4
7(t)
S(.,.)
0.6
0.5
0.2
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Fig. 16.
Control the 2nd-order system using the verb PD-controller.
big ((t))(dashed, blue) and small ((t))(solid, black). The

third row shows S(observed, Vg1 ), and the fourth row shows
S(observed, Vg2 ).
V. C ONCLUDING R EMARKS
One of the most powerful potential of humanities is the
accumulation of knowledge and history. The accumulation
of knowledge not only ensure that human society can keep
evolving forward but also ensure its efficiency of solving
engineering problems enhanced generation after generation.
It is critical to reuse design experiences of control engineers
for the purpose of improving the performances of controllers
over time. However, as we always experienced, the loss of
a grand master in a discipline sometimes caused a shock of
the development of the entire discipline. This is because the
intuitions, which normally can not be written in mathematical
formula, of the grand master can not be easily propagated
outside the circle of his/her close friends. To make it even
worse, when dynamic experiences were involved, it is hopeless
to reconstruct the imaginary waveforms and dynamic relations
in the brain of a grand master.
Fig. 17. Control the 2nd-order system using the verb PD-controller. The
for the D-component.
Fortunately, with the help of fuzzy theory we can record the

qualitative representations of adjectives in somebodys mind.
And, make it even better, with the help of computational verb
theory we can record the qualitative representations of adverbs
and verbs in somebodys mind. In other words, fuzzy theory
makes it possible to model B EINGs while computational verb
theory makes it possible to model B ECOMINGs in reasonable
precision such that these experiences can be transferred
among minds with enormous freedoms.
There are a few motivations of the initiative in controllers
based on computational verbs(verb controllers for short).
1) The first one is to make the preservation of dynamic
experiences among control engineers an easier task. We
believe the verb controller is an efficient way to develop
perception-based intelligent controllers.
2) The second one is to generalize the existing fuzzy controllers by introducing dynamic and global insights into
static and local control rules used in fuzzy controllers.
3) The third one is to make a big shift of paradigms in
intelligent control. At first sight, the design process of
98
15
p
(K )
1.5
small
10
big
(K ),
K (t),
p1(t)
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
S(observed, Vp1)
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0.01
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
1.5
2.5
1.5
2.5
1.5
2.5
0.05
S(Kp(t),Vp1),S(Kp(t),Vp2)
0.05
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0.01
t
3
small
(K ),
K (t),
(K )
1.5
big
p2(t)
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1
t
0.6
S(Kd(t),Vd1),S(Kd(t),Vd2)
0.05
S(observed, Vp2)
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0.01
0.5
1.5
2.5
evolutions of p1 (t), p2 (t), S(obsreved, Vp1 ) and S(obsreved, Vp2 ).
verb controllers is rather complicated. Yet, the design

process of verb controllers is rather simple comparing
with many other design method if one can master
the way of transforming her/his own languages into
mathematical formula.
The profound influence of verb controllers to the intelligent
control lays in the fact that the verb control completes the
intelligent control design method based on natural languages.
The earlier efforts along this direction of intelligent control
were fuzzy controllers. The simplicity of designing method
of verb controllers comes with a price; namely, a much more
challenging theory for control community.
Although the comparison between the performances of verb
PID controllers and fuzzy PID controllers were not available at
this time, verb PID controllers are more robust when noise and
distortion present in measured control errors. This is because
verb controllers use trends of control errors to construct control
signals rather than use a few samples of control errors.
R EFERENCES
[1] G. Chen. Conventional and fuzzy PID controllers: An overview. Int. J.
Intell. Control Syst., 1:235246, 1996.
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.5
1
t
waveforms of Kp (t), big (Kp (t)), small (Kp (t)), Kd (t), big (Kd (t)),
and small (Kd (t)).
[2] B.-G. Hu, G.K.I. Mann, and R.G. Gosine. A systematic study of
fuzzy PID controllers: Function-based evaluation approach. IEEE
Transactions on Fuzzy Systems, 9(5):699712, Oct. 2001.
[3] Yuri A. Kuznetsov. Elements of Applied Bifurcation Theory, volume
112 of Applied Mathematical Sciences. Springer Verlag, Berlin ; New
York, 1995.
[4] T. Yang. Verbal paradigmsPart I: Modeling with verbs. Technical
Report Memorandum No. UCB/ERL M97/64, Electronics Research
Laboratory, College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley,
CA 94720, 9 Sept. 1997. page 1-15.
[5] T. Yang. Verbal paradigmsPart II: Computing with verbs. Technical
Report Memorandum No. UCB/ERL M97/66, Electronics Research
Laboratory, College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley,
CA 94720, 18 Sept. 1997. page 1-27.
[6] T. Yang. Computational verb systems: Computing with verbs and
applications. International Journal of General Systems, 28(1):136,
1999.
[7] T. Yang. Computational verb systems: Adverbs and adverbials as
modifiers of verbs. Information Sciences, 121(1-2):3960, Dec. 1999.
[8] T. Yang. Computational verb systems: Modeling with verbs and
applications. Information Sciences, 117(3-4):147175, Aug. 1999.
[9] T. Yang. Computational verb systems: Verb logic. International Journal
of Intelligent Systems, 14(11):10711087, Nov. 1999.
[10] T. Yang. Computational verb systems: A new paradigm for artificial
intelligence. Information SciencesAn International Journal, 124(14):103123, 2000.
[11] T. Yang. Computational verb systems: Verb predictions and their
99
20
200
15
150
10
e(t)
d1(t)
250
100
50
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
x 10
1
0.8
B,M,S,Z
S(observed, Vd1)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
0.5
1.5
2.5
1.5
1
0.8
S(.,.)
d2(t)
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.8
0.4
0.6
S(.,.)
S(observed, Vd2)
0.6
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.5
1.5
2.5
evolutions of d1 (t), d2 (t), S(obsreved, Vd1 ) and S(obsreved, Vd2 ).
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
applications. International Journal of Intelligent Systems, 15(11):1087

1102, Nov. 2000.
T. Yang. Computational verb systems: Verb sets. International Journal
of General Systems, 20(6):941964, 2000.
T. Yang. Advances in Computational Verb Systems. Nova Science
Publishers, Inc., Huntington, NY, May 2001. ISBN 1-56072-971-6.
T. Yang. Computational verb systems: Computing with perceptions of
dynamics. Information Sciences, 134(1-4):167248, Jun. 2001.
T. Yang. Computational verb systems: The paradox of the liar. International Journal of Intelligent Systems, 16(9):10531067, Sept. 2001.
T. Yang. Computational verb systems: Verb numbers. International
Journal of Intelligent Systems, 16(5):655678, May 2001.
T. Yang. Impulsive Control Theory, volume 272 of Lecture Notes in
Control and Information Sciences. Spinger-Verlag, Berlin, Aug. 2001.
ISBN 354042296X.
T. Yang. Computational Verb Theory: From Engineering, Dynamic
Systems to Physical Linguistics, volume 2 of YangSky.com Monographs
in Information Sciences. Yangs Scientific Research Institute, Tucson,
AZ, Oct. 2002. ISBN:0-9721212-1-8.
T. Yang. Computational verb systems: Verbs and dynamic systems.
International Journal of Computational Cognition, 1(3):150, Sept.
2003.
T. Yang. Fuzzy Dynamic Systems and Computational Verbs Represented
by Fuzzy Mathematics, volume 3 of YangSky.com Monographs in Information Sciences. Yangs Scientific Press, Tucson, AZ, Sept. 2003.
ISBN:0-9721212-2-6.
T. Yang. Physical Linguistics: A Measuable Linguistics based on
Computational Verb Theory, Fuzzy Theory and Probability, volume 5
Fig. 21.
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
Control the 2nd-order system using the verb PID-controller.
of YangSky.com Monographs in Information Sciences. Yangs Scientific

Press, Tucson, AZ, Oct. 2004.
T. Yang.
Applications of computational verbs to the design
of P-controllers.
International Journal of Computational
Cognition,
3(2):5260,
June
2005
[available
online
at
http : //www.YangSky.com/ijcc32.htm].
L.A. Zadeh. Fuzzy sets. Inform. and Control, 8:338353, 1965.
Zhen-Yu Zhao, M. Tomizuka, and S. Isaka. Fuzzy gain scheduling of
PID controllers. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics,
23(5):13921398, 1993.
J.G. Ziegler and N.B. Nichols. Optimum settings for automatic controllers. Trans. ASME, 64:759768, 1942.
100
1
1(t)
250
0.5
200
0.5
1.5
2.5
g1(t)
150
100
1
2(t)
50
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
x 10
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
S(observed, Vg1)
3(t)
3
2
1
0
4(t)
0.5
1.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
1
5(t)
g2(t)
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
1
6(t)
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
7(t)
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
Fig. 22. Control the 2nd-order system using the verb PID-controller. The
for the I-component.
S(observed, Vg2)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
Fig. 23. Control the 2nd-order system using the verb PID-controller. The
evolutions of g1 (t), g2 (t), S(obsreved, Vg1 ) and S(obsreved, Vg2 ).
101
120
100
Ki(t)
80
60
40
20
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
15
big(),small()
10
5
0
0
3
S(observed,Vg1)
x 10
3
2
1
0
S(observed,Vg2)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
Fig. 24. Control the 2nd-order system using the verb PID-controller. The evolutions of Ki (t), big ((t)), small ((t)), S((t), Vg1 ), and S((t), Vg2 )
are shown.

Architectures of Computational Verb Controllers: Towards A New Paradigm of Intelligent Control

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Architectures of Computational Verb Controllers: Towards A New Paradigm of Intelligent Control

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

74

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COMPUTATIONAL COGNITION (HTTP://WWW.YANGSKY.COM/YANGIJCC.HTM), VOL. 3, NO. 2, JUNE 2005