Chapter 24 - Main Steps in Fea - A4

Chapter 24 Introduction to Computer Codes Procedures___________________________
240
CHAPTER 24

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER CODES PROCEDURES

The computer code architecture follows the main steps of performing a
Finite Element Analysis. Usually, each computer code has three main
components (or routines): the preprocessor (corresponding to the
preprocessing phase), the processor or solver (corresponding to solving or
solution phase) and the postprocessor (corresponding to the postprocessing
phase). In a condensed form, a typical FEA consists in the following steps:
building the model, applying the loads, obtaining the solution and
withdrawing the results (the term loads has in this context a general
meaning, due to various types of analyses that can be performed).

24.1 THE PREPROCESSING

The preprocessing is the stage dedicated to the virtual model building. Due
to the complexity of data that should be delivered, usually this is the most
time consuming phase of the analysis (at least from the users involvement
point of view).

Before building the virtual model, the FEA user should already have in
mind the final result, in terms of the desired complexity of the model,
acceptable simplified geometry, loads and modeling hypothesis, etc. It is a
matter of experience and engineering judgment to create an adequate model
of the real physical system, in order to be able to draw out the results with
an appropriate refinement and also, to keep the model as simple as possible.

In order to create the virtual model database using the FEA computer code,
the following tasks should be accomplished:

- to choose the appropriate element types that will be used in the model;
- to assign the material properties;
- to define the domain and to provide the associated real constants;
- to apply the boundary conditions;
- to apply the loads *;
- to save the database in a database file.
* The term load may have different meanings, as it was shown before

______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering

241
24.1.1 Element types

When building the model, the main information that should be delivered as
entry data concerns the geometry of the model and the material properties.
According to the geometry of the model and its physical behavior, the user
chooses the appropriate elements out of the element library. Each
commercial computer code has a collection of elements usually called
element library, some of them for general modeling purpose and others for
special use. Some elements (as 2D and 3D solids) have a complete defined
geometry by their nodes position, while other types of elements need an
associated set of real constants in order to be completely defined: the cross
section of truss or beam elements, the thickness of shell elements, the initial
gap for contact elements, diameter and thickness for pipe elements, and so
on. The element type is also chosen according to the physical phenomenon
and the desired solution in terms of the characteristic shape functions and
degrees of freedom: linear, quadratic, etc. Special purpose elements as
contact elements have more available options: point to point, point to
surface, surface to surface and also more behavior options: rigid contact,
elastic contact, sliding contact, etc.

In the same model one or more element types can be used. For each element
type, if the case, the specific real constants should be assigned according to
real dimensions of the members. When using different classes of elements
in the same model (elements connected to each other having different
number of degrees of freedom per node) a special attention should be paid
to boundary conditions or displacement compatibility.

A very important rule is to define from the beginning the physical units for
data entry and results withdrawal. Although for usual materials the
commercial computer codes have assigned values for common material
properties by default, the user should be careful when using those values. A
coherent system of units concerning dimensions and material properties is
of utmost importance, especially for dynamic analyses.

24.1.2 Material properties

Material properties are assigned to elements according to the distribution of
various materials in the model. Usually each material has a user defined
identification number (ID), to which all the assigned properties are referred


242
to. Depending on the analysis type, material properties can be constant
values only (thermal conductivity, Young modulus, etc), or variable
properties associated to nonlinear physical phenomena (a stress strain
relationship, time or load step dependency, temperature-dependent
properties, etc). According to the ID, the delivered material properties are
organized in the computer code database in the material properties table.

24.1.3 Defining the domain - modeling approaches

Usually, the preprocessing routine of a FEA computer code enables the user
to use two different methods when generating the model: solid modeling and
direct generation. With solid modeling the geometry of the model is defined
using simple shape primitives (lines, areas or volumes) which are subjected
to Boolean operations (merge, addition, subtraction, extrusion, etc). After
controlling, by specific commands, the desired size and shape of the
elements, the computer code generates the nodes and elements
automatically. By contrary, with the direct generation, the user defines
every node prescribing its location (in a Cartesian or cylindrical coordinate
system) and then the elements are defined by node connections. Even in this
case some generation procedures are available.

The solid modeling is more appropriate for large and complex models,
especially 3D volumes, for witch nodes and elements generation procedures
are cumbersome. A major advantage is the relative low number of entry data
required (comparing with node coordinates tables or node connection tables
when defining elements). Solid modeling allows geometric operations with
primitives that are not possible with nodes and elements. For some
computer codes, it is the only way to use the design optimization features or
adaptive meshing. Also, geometry modifications of the model are easy to
perform. However, solid modeling has sometimes disadvantages regarding
the computing time or even it can fail under certain circumstances when
generating the mesh. There is no possible control on nodes coordinates,
except some specific location properties (such as belonging to a line, an
area, or to an interval of coordinates).

However, the automatic mesh generation is subjected to some geometrical
conditions. To types of meshes are available: the mapped mesh and the free
mesh, the difference being represented in figure 24.1. The free mesh option
is always possible, accepting a complete or local element degeneration


243
(hexahedral bricks in the 3D space or quadrilateral solids in the 2D space
into triangular prisms, pyramids or triangular solids, respectively). For
mapped meshes, the geometry of the model should provide opposite faces
(in 3D) or lines (in 2D) with similar shape and dimensions. In order to take
advantage as much as possible of mapped meshes, different regions
(volumes or areas) of the model should be meshed separately. An example
is shown in figure 24.2. The 3D model is made by assembling three
different volumes, with two common contact areas. Supposing a prescribed
element size for the whole model, a different number of line divisions occur
for volumes V
1
and V
3
. Each one of these volumes, fulfilling the geometric
requirements, is meshed automatically using the mapped mesh option. As
consequence, to connect the already defined meshes, a free mesh option will
be chosen for volume V
2
.

Fig. 24.1 Solid modeling mapped and free meshing

The direct generation is appropriate for small and/or regular models, where
the geometry allows node definition by coordinates and also the use of
generation procedures. Nodes and elements generation is usually based on
Solid model (volume) to be meshed
into 3D solid finite elements
a. Mapped mesh b. Free mesh


244
repetitive copying of existing patterns of nodes and elements, or on
symmetry reflection. The most important advantage of the method is due to
the complete control over nodes and elements numbering and also over the
position of each node in the mesh. However, the direct generation is more
time consuming in the data preparing phase and cannot be used in model
optimization procedures. Also, the mesh modification is more difficult.

Fig. 24.2 Advantage of regular volumes for mapped meshes. The free mesh is used
for the transition regions.

Furthermore, high performance FEA computer codes enable the alternative
to create solid models by means of various CAD (Computer Assisted
Design) systems and to import them in appropriate file formats (
.iges;
.sat;
3D solid made of 3 volumes
V
3

V
2

V
1

Mapped meshes of volumes V
1
and V
3
Free mesh of volume V
2

Separate volumes


245
etc). The imported items are automatically transformed into lines, areas and
solids, on which usual meshing procedures are applied.

Whatever the chosen modeling method, before going on with the following
step, the nodes of the model should be defined. In a FE model, the boundary
conditions (constrains) and the loads can be applied only at nodes. Even
though, using the solid modeling method, the computer code usually allows
boundary conditions assigned to geometrical features such as areas, lines or
key points. This is only a user facility. In the background, dedicated
subroutines are doing the transfer to the associated nodes. The same remark
is available for distributed loads on lines, areas or even on element faces.
The distributed loads (i.e. an applied pressure) are transferred to nodes as
resultant concentrated forces after a simple evaluation, according to the
elements face area or length. A similar automatic procedure is used for
body load assessment (i.e. own weight or inertia loads).

24.1.4 The boundary conditions

The assigned boundary conditions should be in accordance with the
expected (or desired) behavior of the model. The first important rule when
defining boundary conditions is to provide at least the required number of
constrains in order to avoid singularity of the master equation system
matrix. For a structural or mechanical FEA that means to suppress rigid
body motion, i.e. the boundary conditions should provide the statically
determination of the solid; in a thermal field analysis, at least two different
temperatures should be assigned, and so on.

Boundary conditions can be applied on each node separately or on sets of
nodes after an appropriate node selection. In structural or mechanical FEA,
boundary conditions are the suppressed or prescribed displacements*. The
number of suppressed (or prescribed) degrees of freedom is chosen
according to the desired behavior of the model and with the element types in
the mesh. After accomplishing static determination, it is not necessary to
suppress all available nodal DOF of a peculiar element. To model a hinge at
one end of a beam (which has fixed support capabilities due to the quadratic
shape function) only the displacement components should be suppressed,
the rotations resting free. One can achieve different behaviors of the model
on each direction by using the appropriate boundary conditions.

* In this context these are generalized displacements: displacements and rotations


246
Sometimes the model should emphasize a partial discontinuity of the
physical system. According to the element type used in the model, the
partial discontinuity can occur in some points, along some lines or over
some areas. Thus, for nodes lying in, along or over these items, only a few
of the available DOF should have similar values. Two examples of creating
a partial discontinuity follow.

1. Insertion of a pin-joint (a hinge) in a desired location of a frame
structure modeled with beam elements (which have bending and shear
capabilities); in other words, to insert a point where only adjacent
member displacements are common, while adjacent member rotations
are different and the bending moment yields zero. The firs example is
represented in figure 24.3.

2. Creating a free sliding plane between adjacent regions of a solid body,
with only in-plane movement capabilities. The two adjacent regions
should slide one in respect to the other over a common plane, only
normal stresses being available (they never overlap or detach). This
example can be thought as a frictionless working joint between parts of
a massive structure. The second example is represented in figure 24.4.

Fig. 24.3 Local hinge interrupting the frame continuity
Fx
Fx
Fy
e1
13
5
4
3
2
1
9 8 7 6
12
11 10
14
15
16
e2
e14
e
7
: [7,8]
e
8
: [8,9]
Coincident nodes
e
7
e
8


247
In both cases, to create on purpose a structural discontinuity the appropriate
solution is to define sets of coincident nodes and to couple the desired
degrees of freedom. The coincident nodes are nodes with a different ID
(number in the database) but with the same coordinates. In the first example
two coincident nodes are necessary, one assigned to the left-hand side
member (beam element e
7
) and one to the right-hand side member (beam
element e
8
). In the second example, actually two coincident planes should
be defined. Each of them is the sum of the solid elements faces which are
mutually sliding. Thus, all nodes defining the sliding planes should be
coincident pairs.

Fig. 24.4 Frictionless sliding by coupling the u
x
DOF of coincident nodes

The coupling of degrees of freedom is a peculiar type of boundary
condition. To achieve a hinge behavior in the frame example (a 2D-space
problem) both displacement degrees of freedom u
x
and u
y
of the coincident
nodes should be coupled regardless the orientation of the coordinate system.
For the frictionless working joint example (a 3D problem) the coupling
direction of nodal displacement should be normal to the sliding plane.
x x
y
y
z
z
Sliding plane mesh with pairs of
coincident nodes
Relative displacement capabilities
of sliding parts


248
Consequently, an appropriate coordinate system should be defined before
assigning the coupling direction.

Briefly, coupled nodes will have the same displacements but only along the
selected directions out of all available degrees of freedom. There is no limit
for the number of coincident nodes that can be coupled together
simultaneously (i.e. a 3D hinge connecting n beams).

In case of analyses dedicated to field problems, as thermal conduction (heat
transfer) or seepage phenomena, the boundary conditions should be
expressed in two different ways. Firstly, as prescribed nodal values of the
independent parameters, which are the known temperatures or the known
water head levels, respectively (nodal values). Secondly, as contour
properties regarding the flow direction along the boundaries. In this
context, the meaning of the flow term is heat flux q in thermal conduction
problems or water particles velocity v in the seepage phenomena. In both
cases, the boundary condition should force the flow line to be tangent to
the selected boundary or contour. Hence, the physical interpretation of the
constrain in a thermal field problem is that the boundary is a perfect
insulated limit (through which no heat transfer is possible), while in a
seepage problem the boundary is a watertight limit.

Other boundary conditions for field problems are heat flow rates and
convection.

24.1.5 Applying the loads

Without detailing the procedures of applying loads (the topic will be
discussed later) only few introductory remarks are necessary. First of all, the
most usual meaning of the load term refers to forces applied on a body or
structure within a structural analysis. This interpretation is true but
incomplete. It was stated before that for a finite element model, mechanical
loads can be applied only in nodes, as concentrated forces. Each loaded
node has assigned force components along one or few directions of the
coordinate system, in order to define the total magnitude and orientation of
the force. Usually, the finite element model is also subjected to other loads,
such as body loads or inertia, surface loads (pressures) and thermal effects
due to constrained displacements. In these circumstances, the previous
assertion remains valid, but the computer code has special subroutines


249
which facilitate the transformation of those loads into nodal forces. Using
solid modeling, the user may also assign pressures on lines or areas, which
are automatically transferred to nodes and elements. When using direct
generation, a constant or variable pressure can also be applied on sets of
selected element faces.

Sometimes, the boundary conditions (as prescribed, not null displacements),
are replacing explicit loads in a structural analysis. When a structural model
is not subjected to external forces and pressures, its own weight or
temperature variation, but exhibits local prescribed displacements, the
solution still leads to a deformed shape of the structure, stress and strain
fields, reaction forces, etc.

Moreover, in most thermal field or seepage analyses, loads are only the
boundary conditions.

Another important remark refers to the analysis step (or moment) when
loads are defined. For a so-called static or steady-state analysis, where loads
are constant, applied simultaneously and instantaneously, the loads can be
assigned in the preprocessing phase, being saved in the models database.
By contrary, when the loading conditions are changing during the analysis
due to load or time stepping, the solution phase has more then one step and
the loads are redefined (or modified) during the subsequent phases.

24.2 THE SOLUTION

In the beginning of the solution phase of the analysis, the user has to assign
the appropriate solution options and settings. The computer code options
refer to the following topics:

- the analysis type (static, modal, transient, etc);
- the method to be applied for solving the master equation system,
according to the models characteristics, the acceptable computing time
and the available computer memory;
- the method to be applied when solving a nonlinear problem, i.e. type of
the Newton - Raphson algorithm;
- the load (or time) step definition and the appropriate changes between
load steps;


250
- the convergence norm (or acceptable error) and the maximum number of
equilibrium iterations within a load step.

Once the computer code settings are chosen and the load steps defined (by
interactive commands or using batch files) the solution process may be
started. The results of the solution phase, as nodal DOF values (primary
unknowns) and the derived values (the element solution) are saved in the
results database file. The computing time and the memory requirements
depend on the complexity of the model, number of load steps, computer
performances, etc. Although the solution process is running in the
background, generally the computer code has an output window (or file)
where live information are printed regarding the evolution of the analysis,
as well as warning or error messages.

24.2.1 Load stepping and equilibrium iterations

During a FEA the structure (or the domain) can be subjected to various
loading conditions. The simplest way to apply loads is common to a linear,
static or steady-state analysis, where the loads are applied all at once and at
full intensity. The solution is in this case a single step solution, leading to a
unique set of results (displacements, stress field, temperature field, etc).
Loads, constraints and material properties are unique and constant, while the
characteristic matrices and vectors are calculated only once during the
solution phase.

Sometimes, the interest is focused on the response of the structure when
subjected to loads with various configurations and/or values. Each load
configuration applied on the finite element model becomes a load step. To
perform a FEA with several load steps, the solution phase is repeated for
each load configuration. If all other characteristics of the model remain
constant, only the load vector changes. Consequently, a different set of
results will be stored in the results database for each load step.

In static analyses, the load steps solutions are very useful to emphasize the
influence of various loads applied on a linear-elastic structure (only in this
case the principle of effects superposition is available): own weight,
concentrated loads, distributed loads, prescribed displacement, etc. Each
load is assigned to a load step and the solution phase is repeated for all the
defined load steps. Afterwards, the results are analyzed separately or, they


251
are combined in the postprocessing phase, using algebraic operations and/or
weighting coefficients.

Load steps can be used to specify a transient load history graph. Usually the
time parameter is connected to load stepping, even in static analyses, to
achieve the same computer code representation as for transient or time
history analyses. Because time always increases monotonically, it has also
the advantage of being a consistent counter in all cases.

Sometimes, loads should be applied gradually in order to obtain an accurate
and convergent solution. It is the case of nonlinear static or transient
analyses, when the material properties are changing according to the stress
level. If necessary, each load step can be further divided into sub-steps. The
loads can vary over a load step in a stepped or ramped manner. A different
solution is calculated and saved in the results database file for each step or
sub-step. In nonlinear solutions, inside each load step or sub-step
subsequent solutions are calculated, called equilibrium iterations.

24.2.2 Solution method options

When starting the solution phase, the computer code accomplishes the
following tasks:

- calculates the elements characteristic matrices;
- calculates the load vector;
- solves the global algebraic equation system;
- calculates the elements results.

For each load (or time) step (or sub-step), some or all of the previous tasks
are repeated, depending on the chosen non-linear solution options and on
the changes encountered when proceeding from one load step to another.

Several methods of solving the global equation system are available: the
frontal solution, the sparse direct solution, the Jacobi Conjugate Gradient
solution, etc. Each method has its own advantages, being suitable for a
specific type of analysis. The frontal solution and the sparse direct solution
methods are direct elimination solvers while the Jacobi Conjugate Gradient
solution and other similar methods are iterative solvers.


252
The frontal solution method, after calculating the elements matrices, creates
a complete triangularized matrix by eliminating, element by element, the
DOF which can be expressed in terms of other degrees of freedom. Then,
the nodal DOF solution is calculated by back substitution. The element
solution is calculated using the individual element matrices. In this method
the complete global matrix is not assembled. A specific characteristic of the
frontal solver method is the wave front, which is the instantaneous number
of DOF in the solver triangularization process. Being directly bounded to
node or element numbering, the wave front magnitude affects the computing
time and memory requirements.

The sparse direct solver is based on direct elimination of equations from the
global equation system. Consequently, using this method, the global
stiffness matrix is calculated.

The iterating solution methods, after calculating the element matrices,
assemble the global stiffness matrix. Then the solution is found by iterating
to convergence starting with some initially assigned values.

24.2.3 Solution failures

The solution process may stop before finalizing the computations. The main
cause generating a solution failure is the equation system singularity. The
singularity means an indeterminate or non-unique solution, because of a
negative or zero equation pivot. There are other reasons for solution failures,
too. Usually, the solution process stops due to the following modeling
errors:

- insufficient number of constraints;
- nonlinear elements behavior (due to material properties or large
deflections);
- unconstrained joints due to elements relative position.

The solution process also stops when reaching the maximum default or
prescribed number of iterations without attaining convergence.


253
24.3 THE POSTPROCESSING

Postprocessing represents the third phase of a FEA. In a general acceptance
the postprocessing represents all the available procedures that can be
followed in order to review the results of the solution phase. These results
are saved in the so-called results database file, which itself is organized
according to the analysis option: load (or time) steps, primary and derivative
results, etc. In terms of physical parameters, the results database contains
numerical values of the calculated DOF (primary unknowns of the
problem), as nodal displacements, nodal temperatures or nodal water head
values, or derivative parameters, as stress, heat flow or seepage velocity.

The importance of the postprocessing phase is due to the fact that it enables
the user to know how the boundary conditions and the applied loads affect
the finite elements model, how the mesh refinement responds to the
expected results, how suitable the load steps were chosen, etc.

The numerical values stored in the results database should be analyzed, used
in the design process or even delivered as final results. According to the
computer code performances, the results can be reviewed as:

- lists of numerical values;
- graphical representations in raster or vector mode, showing the
distribution of various parameters over the model (contour plots or
diagrams);
- graphs of parameters evolution over load (time) steps or along a
specified direction across the model;
- animated pictures.

Usually, all these reviewing methods are available on screen and can be
saved as formatted text, graphics or animation files. Printing or plotting
facilities are also available.

It should be emphasized that the postprocessing doesnt means only the use
of a set of tools for results representation. It also means to apply computer
code subroutines in order to combine or to compare different load case
results. The only condition for combining load cases in order to define new
ones is to obtain the results on the same finite element model and to fulfill
the physical requirements (the requirements for effect superposition). A


254
typical example is that of a structural linear-elastic FEA with a few number
of load cases (each one representing a load step). The database file stores the
results for all the performed load steps. Afterwards, according to the load
combination hypotheses, these values can be subjected to algebraic
operations (with or without the use of weighting coefficients). The result of
each combination becomes a new load case that can be represented in the
before mentioned fashions.

A civil engineering frame structure is subjected to gravity
(permanent load), wind and earthquake. Accepting for each
load an equivalent static distribution and the material
behavior in linear-elastic state, each load can be applied
separately. The results database file will contain three
sets of results (primary and derived variables as nodal
displacements, stress components, etc.), actually the load
cases LC1, LC2 and LC3, which are independent one to each
other. During postprocessing, new load cases can be
defined, by summation of the permanent load effects to each
of the other two.

LC4 = a
1
LC1 + a
2
LC2 (permanent load + wind load)
LC5 = a
1
LC1 + a
3
L C3 (permanent load + earthquake load)
LC6 = a
4
LC1 + a
5
L C2 + a
6
L C3

(permanent load + wind load +
earthquake load)

The weighting (or safety) coefficients a
i
are usually given
by specific design codes.

24.3.1Lists of numerical values

The lists of numerical values are organized in tabular form according to the
users selected items. Some variables, as displacement, temperature or
reaction forces, are associated to nodes while derived parameters, as stress
or heat flux, are characterizing the elements. However, such derived
parameters can also be listed in nodes, using weighted average values. A
nodal stress value can be calculated as the mean value of stresses evaluated
in the elements converging in that node, weighted by the elements length,
surface or volume.


255
In structural analyses, for the constrained nodes, the list of reaction forces
and bending moment components is also available as well as their sum, in
order to provide an easy equilibrium check with the overall load*.

Computation tools are also associated with result lists, such as force and
bending moment summation over a set of selected nodes. Generally, to
avoid large tables that are cumbersome to read (a model can have thousands
of nodes), the results should be listed after a previous and appropriate node
or element selection. The header of the results table should contain the load
(time) step number, the node or element number column and the columns of
desired parameters (displacement components, stress components, heat flux
components, etc). Usually, the maximum and minimum values of each
parameter are listed at the bottom of the column, indicating the node or
element number where the extreme value occurs.

Table 24.1. List of nodal displacements

LOAD STEP= 10 SUBSTEP= 1
TIME= 10.000 LOAD CASE= 0

NODE UX UY UZ USUM
1 -0.37322 -2.7211 0.0000 2.7466
2 -0.35412 -2.6703 0.0000 2.6937
3 -0.36313 -2.7068 0.0000 2.7311
4 -0.34078 -2.6409 -2.4109 3.5921
5 -0.35071 -2.6626 -1.2575 2.9654
6 -0.35827 -2.7002 -2.1451 3.4671
7 -0.34903 -2.6814 -2.2820 3.5382

16 0.0000 -2.7412 0.0000 2.7412
17 0.0000 -2.7364 -1.1229 2.9578
18 -0.18687 -2.7362 0.0000 2.7426
19 -0.18501 -2.7314 -1.1233 2.9591
20 0.0000 -2.6875 0.0000 2.6875
MAXIMUM ABSOLUTE VALUES
NODE 1 16 4 4
VALUE -0.37322 -2.7412 -2.4109 3.5921

* The presence of constraint equations or DOF coupling can induce either an
actual or apparent loss of equilibrium. This is due to the fact that the reaction
force at the constrained DOF that belongs to a constraint equation does not
include the force passing through that equation. This is a reason not to constrain
a DOF that belongs to a constraint equation or a coupled pair.


256
The tabular data are saved in normal text (ASCII) format, to provide easy
editing and exporting to another computer code environment (
.xls files,
.dbf files, etc). Two examples are presented in tables 24.1 and 24.2.

Table 24.2. List of nodal reaction forces and bending moments

PRINT F REACTION SOLUTIONS PER NODE

LOAD STEP= 1 SUBSTEP= 1
TIME= 1.0000 LOAD CASE= 0

NODE FX FY MZ
1 680.34 27994. 0.19794E+06
14 -1942.5 60697. 0.48114E+06
27 -2396.5 60536. 0.54242E+06
40 -4341.3 30772. 0.75514E+06
--------------------------------------

TOTAL VALUES
VALUE -8000.0 0.18000E+06 0.19766E+07

24.3.2 Contour plots and diagrams

A contour plot is the graphical representation of a single parameter
distribution over the finite element model (or over a selected region). It is
probably the most suggestive way to review the results. In such a
representation the nodal or element results are sorted in ascending order.
Then, they are drawn as isolines in the vector mode representation, or as
graduate colored areas in the raster mode representation. Each isoline is the
path of a constant value of the represented parameter and each colored area
corresponds to a predefined interval of the parameters value. Either the
isoline positions or the extent of colored areas are computed by
interpolation. Labels and colors are assigned to each line or interval, while
the correspondence to the numerical values is made by an attached legend.

The number of contours used in the representation may be the computer
codes default value or a user defined one. The number of contours is
usually associated to the available output resolution (on screen or at
printing) and to the desired refinement of the results presentation. The
contour values can be uniformly distributed by default between their


257
extremes (in this case, it is called an equal interval plot) or, they can be user
defined contour values (a non-uniform plot distribution).

Non uniform contours can sometimes be more appropriate for the
representation, emphasizing gradients or extreme values. Anyway, the same
results database can lead to various graphical representations according to
the users option. In the following figures two contour plot examples are
shown, in raster and vector mode representations. Figures 24.5.a and 24.5.b
are based on the same results database file*.

Fig. 24.5 Contour plots the distribution of horizontal displacement (cm)

b. Vector mode
a. Raster mode
* The model is dedicated to a deep excavation analysis; the excavation is
performed under the protection of molded walls and an internal bracing system.


258
Another group of results is made of line-shape element features, used in
structural analyses, such as the axial force, the shear force, the bending
moment, the torsion moment and their corresponding stress values. These
features, as element results database components, are appropriate for
diagram representations. Consequently, the computer code facilities should
contain the diagrams representation option. An example of results obtained
on a 2D frame structure is presented in figure 24.6.

Fig. 24.6 Diagram representations on a frame structure model


259
A very useful graphical representation is the deformed shape of the
structure. Without any associated numerical values, the deformed shape
drawing is the most intuitive way to compare the expected structural
behavior with the analysis results. The deformation scale used in the
graphical representation is set by default in order to render evident the
displacement tendency, regardless its value (usually the maximum
displacement equals a fixed ratio of the maximum dimension of the model).
The drawn deformed shape can overlap the undeformed (initial) shape of the
structure. An example, concerning the previous frame structure is shown in
figure 24.7.

Fig. 24.7 Deformed shape of the frame structure

The same graphical subroutine is used for representing the vibration modes
(vibration shapes) calculated via a modal analysis. Each vibration mode
corresponds to a load step result. The vibration shape is in this case the
result of normalized displacements corresponding to the natural frequency.
The first vibration modes determined using the 3D finite element model of
the main block of a buttress dam, by performing a modal analysis, are
represented in figure 24.8.

24.3.3 Graphs

Two types of graphs are available during postprocessing. The first one
applies to multiple load steps analyses or to transient analyses. This
graphical representation shows the results evolution over load steps or time,
using all load step results in the database. Whatever the interesting
parameter is (the displacement, the stress, the temperature or any other
primary or derived unknown), the graph represents its evolution at a single
specified item of the model (node or element). With a convenient scaling, a
few parameters can be represented in the same graph.


260

Fig. 24.8 First vibration modes of a buttress dam (single block 3D model)

The second type of graph is based on the results of a single load step
analysis or a selected load step out of a multiple load step database. Such a
graph shows the evolution of one or few selected parameters along a
predefined geometrical path. Usually, the path is defined by node location or
by the coordinates of the path vertexes. As an example, the vertical,
horizontal and shear stress distributions, along a path defined by a straight
line connecting two nodes, are shown in figure 24.9. The stress values are
calculated during a static analysis, used for calibrating the finite element
model. The nodes are selected as midpoints of the upstream and
1
st
vibration mode 2
nd
vibration mode
3
rd
vibration mode 4
th
vibration mode


261
downstream faces of the dam block, close to the foundation line, at the
elevation represented in the figure.

Fig. 24.9 Graph of stress distribution along the defined path

The same computer code subroutines can be used to review the nonlinear
material property relationships or to examine the correlation between any
two items concerning the analysis.

Node 2623 Node 234

[
K
P
a
]


262
24.3.4 Animation pictures

The powerful computer codes dedicated to FEA are usually outfitted with a
postprocessing subroutine for animating any type of display. Animation is a
very intuitive tool for interpreting the numerical results. The basic procedure
is to capture a sequence of images, frame by frame, and to save them as a
video file (
.avi,
.mpeg or another file format). Such files are then

reviewed by loading them in any computer code view-player. The number
of frames between the extreme positions of the structure (and consequently
the smoothness of movement) should be correlated to the computer graphics
performances.

The deformed shape of the structure corresponding to a static analysis and
the natural vibration shapes of each expanded vibration mode are unlabeled
animations (without assigned numerical values). Contour plots can be
attached to the animated deformed shapes in order to reveal the evolution of
displacements, stresses or other parameters.

Chapter 24 - Main Steps in Fea - A4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 24 - Main Steps in Fea - A4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 24 Introduction to Computer Codes Procedures___________________________

.mpeg or another file format). Such files are then

You might also like