Ta-hui Tsung-kao and Kung-an Ch'an

By Chun-Fang Yu
Journal of Chinese Philosophy V. 6 (1979) pp. 211-2!
"1979 #y $. %ei&el Pu#lishing Co
p 211 Ta-hui Tsung-kao ( ) (1089-1163) was a monk belonging to the Lin-chi school of Ch'an
u!!hism" #e was the 1$th gene%ation hei% of the Lin-chi line" #e em&hasi'e!( like all t%ue Ch'an maste%s
befo%e him( the &%imac) of the enlightenment e*&e%ience" #owe+e%( unlike man) othe% Ch'an maste%s( he
insiste! u&on the e*clusi+e use of the so-calle! ,&ublic cases, (Ch" kung-an( -" koan) in Ch'an
me!itation an! o&&ose! the &%actice of .uiet-sitting( fo% he belie+e! that the latte% was con!uci+e to lifeless
em&tiness an! &assi+e esca&ism" #e calle! the teache%s of .uiet-sitting he%etical an! %efe%%e! to thei% Ch'an
&%actice as the ,he%etical Ch'an of silent illumination, (mo-chao hsieh-ch'an) an! his own school
came to be known as the ,Ch'an of kung-an int%os&ection, (k'an-hua ch'an)"
/e+e%al schola%s 011 ha+e suggeste! that Ta-hui was a seminal figu%e in the !e+elo&ment of Ch'an
u!!hism( a +iew also sha%e! b) Chinese u!!hists since Ta-hui's time" #is im&o%tance un!oubte!l) lies
mainl) in his successful c%eation of an ,o%tho!o*, teaching on the use of kung-an in Ch'an me!itation( which
hel! swa) !u%ing the succee!ing centu%ies in China an! to some e*tent in -a&an as well th%ough the
acti+ities of the Tokugawa 2en maste% #akuin( who also belonge! to the same Lin-chi t%a!ition"
) the ele+enth an! twelfth centu%ies( the time of Ta-hui( Ch'an u!!hism ha! come a long wa) f%om its
obscu%e beginnings as one among man) g%ou&s of me!itation teache%s who taught wa)s to achie+e s&i%itual
awakening" 3e can .uickl) summa%i'e its ea%l) !e+elo&ment" 4fte% Ch'an u!!hism was fi%st int%o!uce! into
China b) the 5n!ian monk( o!hi!ha%ma( in the ea%l) &a%t of the 6th centu%)( it gaine! inc%easing influence
!u%ing the ne*t two hun!%e! )ea%s until it s&lit into two main schools( the 6o%the%n an! /outhe%n schools(
afte% the 7ifth 8at%ia%ch #ung-9en"
) the mi!!le of the ninth centu%)( the /outhe%n /chool of Ch'an ha! won the !a)" This school %ega%!e! #ui-
neng (638-:13) as the /i*th 8at%ia%ch an! the legitimate hei% to the Ch'an teachings b%ought to China b)
o!hi!ha%ma" p 212 The 6o%the%n /chool( which claime! the famous &%iest /hen-hsiu as its lea!e%( came to
&%ominence befo%e the /outhe%n /chool( but it was unable to hol! out against the latte%"021 5t was f%om the
/outhe%n /chool that all late% Ch'an sects we%e to t%ace thei% line of !escent" The e*act !ate when the fi+e
Ch'an sects o% the ,7i+e #ouses'' (wu-chia) came to be gene%all) %ecogni'e! cannot be asce%taine!" The
te%m( howe+e%( a&&ea%s to ha+e been in use !u%ing the late% &e%io! of the 7i+e ;)nasties (90:-960)( not
long afte% the !eath of 7a-)en (88<-98<)( the foun!e% of the last of the ,7i+e #ouses,"031 3hile all of them
t%ace! thei% lineages !i%ectl) to #ui-neng( it was %eall) #ui-neng's !isci&les( 6an-)u #uai-9ang (6::-:==)
an! Ch'ing-)uan #sing-ssu (!" :=0)( an! es&eciall) thei% famous hei%s( >a-tsu Tao-i (:09-:88) an! /hih-t'ou
#si-ch'ien (:00-:90)( who we%e the %eal foun!e%s of the late% sects"041
>an) legen!s g%ew u& a%oun! >a-tsu an! /hih-t'ou" oth &%o!uce! man) !isci&les( an! thei% schools
!e+elo&e! into flou%ishing establishments? in!ee!( all the famous maste%s of the late T'ang !)nast) !e%i+e!
f%om them" 4n often .uote! &assage !esc%ibes thei% fame@ ,in Aiangsi( the maste% was Tao-chi 0>a-tsu1? in
#unan the maste% was /hih-t'ou" 8eo&le went back an! fo%th between them all the time( an! those who
ne+e% met these two g%eat maste%s we%e com&letel) igno%ant", Thei% connection with the /i*th 8at%ia%ch is
obscu%e" but the%e is no !oubt that the) a!o&te! him as thei% 8at%ia%ch"[5]
The Lin-chi an! Auei-)ang sects we%e t%ace! to >a-tsu( while the Ts'ao-tung( Bun-men an! 7a-)en sects
we%e t%ace! to /hih-t'ou" 4lthough these fi+e sects we%e all still acti+e b) the beginning of the twelfth
centu%)( the Lin-chi an! Bun-men occu&ie! a !ominant &osition" Cm&e%o% #ui-tsung of the 6o%the%n /ung(
who( %eigne! f%om 1101 to 11$<( summa%i'e! the situation of the Ch'an sects in his time in a &%eface he
w%ote fo% #su ch'uan-teng-lu( a se.uel to the T%ansmission of the lam& (Ching-te ch'uan-teng-lu)"
4fte% 6an-)u an! Ch'ing-)uan 0Ch'an u!!hism1 has been !i+i!e! into fi+e sects (wu-tsung)" Cach
!e+elo&e! its own t%a!ition an! taught acco%!ing to the !iffe%ences in the lea%ne%s' talents" 4lthough the)
!iffe% in &a%ticula% em&hases( thei% goal is still the same"""" These sects ha+e benefite! sentient beings an!
enable! man) &eo&le to %each enlightenment" Cach has s&%ea! wi!e in its influence an! &ut fo%th lu*u%iant
foliage( but the two sects of Bun-men an! Lin-chi now !ominate the whole wo%l!"[6]
The Lin-chi sect continue! to &la) a !ominant %ole !u%ing the /outhe%n /ung( but the Bun-men sect was
su&&lante! b) Ts'ao-tung which fi%st eme%ge! in im&o%tance !u%ing the /outhe%n /ung an! achie+e! a
&osition of &%ominence b) the en! of the !)nast)"[7] #owe+e%( within Lin-chi itself( the%e was a s&lit at the
en! of the tenth centu%)" The !i%ect hei% of Lin-chi in the se+enth p 21 gene%ation left two !istinguishe!
!isci&les( each of whom establishe! his own line of t%ansmission@ Bang-ch'i 7ang-hui (99$-10=9) establishe!
the Bang-Ch'i line an! #uang-lung #ui-nan (100$-1069) establishe! the #uang-lung line" The
#uang-lung line ne+e% &%o!uce! an) maste% of g%eat statu%e an! !ie! out soon afte% the twelfth centu%)" The
Bang-ch'i line continue! to %ise in influence an! came to combine all the &%e+iousl) se&a%ate schools of Ch'an
teaching that ha! a%isen afte% the /i*th 8at%ia%ch( with the e*ce&tion of the Ts'ao-tung school"
4lthough the%e we%e such !i+isions( stu!ents of Ch'an coul! a&&a%entl) wo%k un!e% maste%s of !iffe%ent
schools( t%ansfe% f%om one monaste%) to anothe%( an! ha! access to %eco%!e! sa)ings of fo%me% maste%s of
all the fi+e sects" Ta-hui( in his t%aining( se%+e! as a goo! e*am&le of the stu!ents' f%ee!om of choice an!
the coo&e%ation between %i+al schools of Ch'an" 4cco%!ing to his biog%a&he%s([8] Ta-hui was a nati+e of
#suan-chou in mo!e%n 4nhwei &%o+ince" The famil) fo%tune was al%ea!) in !ecline when he was bo%n an! a
fi%e wi&e! out e+e%)thing when Ta-hui was ten )ea%s ol!" 4t thi%teen he ente%e! the local school an! al%ea!)
felt the att%action of u!!hism (,#ow much bette% to stu!) the t%anscen!ental ;ha%ma than to %ea! secula%
books,")[9] #e %ecei+e! the &%ece&ts fo% a monk at the age of se+enteen an! sta%te! to %ea! the %eco%!e!
sa)ings of ea%lie% Ch'an maste%s" #e was &a%ticula%l) fon! of the sa)ings of Bun-men" 4t fi%st he stu!ie!
un!e% a teache% of the Ts'ao-tung school an! maste%e! the essentials of the ,7i+e Danks (wu-wei &'ien-
cheng), [10] in two )ea%s" #owe+e%( belie+ing that the%e was mo%e to Ch'an than !ialectical
subtleties( at twent)-one he went o+e% to Chan-t'ang 3en-chun( a maste% belonging to the #uang-lung
b%anch of the Lin-chi /chool" 5n the ne*t few )ea%s he became +e%) knowle!geable about Ch'an u!!hism in
an intellectual manne%( but faile! to ha+e an) &e%sonal e*&e%ience of enlightenment" 3hen Ta-hui was
twent)-si* )ea%s ol!( Chan-t'ang calle! him o+e% one !a) an! sai! to him( ,Bou can talk about Ch'an +e%)
well? )ou can .uote the sa)ings of fo%me% maste%s an! w%ite commenta%ies on them" Bou a%e elo.uent in
gi+ing se%mons an! .uick with the e*changes !u%ing inte%+iews" ut the%e is one thing which )ou still !o not
know," 3hen Ta-hui aske! what it was( the maste% answe%e!(,3hat )ou !o not ha+e is the awakening"
Thus( when 5 talk with )ou in m) %oom( )ou ha+e Ch'an" ut as soon as )ou lea+e the %oom( )ou lose it"
3hen )ou a%e awake an! attenti+e( )ou ha+e Ch'an" ut as soon as )ou fall aslee&( )ou lose it" 5f )ou
continue like this( how can )ou e+e% con.ue% life an! !eathE, Ta-hui p.21' ag%ee!( sa)ing that he himself ha!
been agoni'e! o+e% this fo% a long time"[11] Fnl) the enlightenment e*&e%ience can sol+e the %i!!le of life
an! !eath" Gnless one conf%onts one's mo%talit)( a &e%son will not ha+e the necessa%) !ete%mination to
achie+e enlightenment" 4s we shall see late%( this was to be a cent%al theme in Ta-hui's se%mons an! lette%s"
efo%e Chan-t'ang's !eath( the maste% tol! Ta-hui that the onl) &e%son who coul! hel& him to %each his goal
was Buan-wu A'o-ch'in (1063-113<)( a maste% belonging to the Bang-ch'i b%anch of the Lin-chi
/chool H the same Buan-wu whose commenta%ies on the sa)ings of fo%me% maste%s we%e to be com&ile!
into the 8i-)en lu (The Deco%! of the lue Cliff) one of the most celeb%ate! Ch'an classics" Ia%ious
things inte%+ene!( an! it was not until ten )ea%s late%( when Ta-hui was thi%t)-si* )ea%s ol!( that he finall)
ha! an o&&o%tunit) to become a stu!ent of Buan-wu( who was then the abbot of a g%eat monaste%)( the
T'ien-ning 3an-shou-ssu in the no%the%n /ung ca&ital of 8ien-liang" 4cco%!ing to Ta-hui's testimon)( he ha!
b) then become almost !es&ai%e! of e+e% attaining awakening( an! +owe! to himself that this was to be his
last e*&e%iment with Ch'an me!itation"
5 will gi+e this maste% nine summe%s as the limit" 5f his teaching !oes not !iffe% f%om othe% maste%s an! if he
gi+es me his a&&%o+al easil)( 5 will then w%ite a t%eatise !enouncing Ch'an u!!hism" 5nstea! of ta*ing m)
s&i%it an! wasting &%ecious time on it( 5 will !e+ote m)self to a suut%a o% a t%eatise an! culti+ate +i%tue so
that 5 can be %ebo%n again as a u!!hist"[12]
#a+ing ma!e u& his min!( he th%ew himself into intense st%uggle" #e was tol! to wo%k on the koan ,The Cast
>ountain walks o+e% the wate%''" #e ma!e fo%t)-nine attem&ts to answe% it( but was %ebuke! each time"
7inall) on the thi%teenth !a) of the fifth month in the )ea% 11$<( he e*&e%ience! a b%eak-th%ough" #e
%ecalle! the g%eat e+ent this wa)@
>aste% Buan-wu ascen!e! the high seat in the lectu%e hall at the %e.uest of >a!ame Chang A'ang-kuo" #e
sai!( ,Fnce a monk aske! Bun-men this .uestion( 'whe%e !o all the u!!has come f%omE' Bun-men
answe%e!" 'The Cast >ountain walks o+e% the wate%' (Tung-shan shuei sheng hsing)" !"#$% ut if 5 we%e
he( 5 woul! ha+e gi+en a !iffe%ent answe%" '3he%e !o all the u!!has come f%omE' '4s the f%ag%ant b%ee'e
comes f%om the south( a slight coolness natu%all) sti%s in the &alace &a+ilion"' 3hen 5 hea%! this( all of a
su!!en the%e was no mo%e befo%e an! afte%" Time sto&&e!" 5 cease! to feel an) !istu%bance in m) min!( an!
%emaine! in a state of utte% calmness"[13]
3hile the fi%st answe% still im&lie! a !ichotom) between motion an! %est( Bu-wu st%esse! the unit) of the
two" 4&&a%entl)( this %ema%k ha! enough p.21! suggesti+e &owe% to enable Ta-hui to achie+e a new state of
consciousness" #owe+e%( the maste% %ega%!e! Ta-hui's %eali'ation as still im&e%fect" #e sai! to Ta-hui( ,5t is
in!ee! not eas) to a%%i+e at )ou% &%esent state of min!" ut unfo%tunatel)( )ou ha+e onl) !ie! but a%e not
)et %ebo%n" Bou% g%eatest &%oblem is that )ou !o not !oubt wo%!s enough (&u-i )u-chu shih-wei ta-&ing)" &
'()*+,- ;on't )ou %emembe% this sa)ingE '3hen )ou let go )ou% hol! on the &%eci&ice( )ou become
the maste% of )ou% own fate? to !ie an! afte%wa%! come to life again( no one can then !ecei+e )ou", Ta-hui
was then assigne! the koan( ,To be an! not to be - it is like a wiste%ia leaning on a t%ee'' ()u-chu wei-chu 9u
t'eng i chu) .)/)*0123 an! tol! to wo%k on it" #e ha! to see the maste% th%ee o% fou% times a !a) to
%e&o%t on his un!e%stan!ing" ut as soon as he sta%te! to sa) something( the maste% woul! at once sa) it
was w%ong" This continue! fo% half a )ea%" C+entuall)( Ta-hui ha! anothe% enlightenment e*&e%ience u&on
hea%ing Buan-wu's !iscussion of this koan" Let Ta-hui tell the sto%) in his own wo%!s"
Fne !a) while 5 was ha+ing su&&e% in the abbot's .ua%te%s( 5 0was so abso%be! in the koan that 51 9ust hel!
the cho&sticks an! fo%got to eat" The maste% %ema%ke! to a b)stan!e% that m) &%og%ess in Ch'an was as
slow as the g%owth of the #uang-)ang &lant 0u*us m)c%o&h)lla( a &lant which allege!l) g%ows onl) one
inch e+e%) )ea%1" 5 then tol! him b) a simile what &osition 5 was in" ,5 am like a !og who stan!s b) a &ot of
boiling fat@ he cannot lick it howe+e% ba!l) he wants to( no% can he go awa) f%om it though he ma) wish to
.uit", The maste% sai!( ,This is e*actl) the case" 0The koan1 is %eall) a +a9%a cage an! a seat of tho%ns to
)ou", 5 then sai! to him" ,3hen )ou we%e with )ou% teache%( 3u-tsu( )ou aske! him about the same koan(
an! what was his answe%E, The maste% at fi%st %efuse! to sa) an)thing" ut 5 insiste!( sa)ing( ,3hen )ou
aske! him about it( )ou we%e not alone( but with an assembl)" 5 am su%e that the%e a%e &eo&le who know all
about it", The maste% then sai!? ,5 ask him( 'To be an! not to be H it is like a wiste%ia leaning on a t%ee"
3hat is the meaning of itE' 3u-tsu %e&lie!( 'Bou cannot &aint it( )ou cannot sketch it( howe+e% much )ou
t%)"' 5 fu%the% sai!( '3hat if the t%ee su!!enl) b%eaks !own an! the wiste%ia !iesE' 3u-tsu sai!( 'Bou a%e
following the wo%!s'",[14]
Ta-hui claime! that as soon as he hea%! this( he saw the whole &oint of the koan most clea%l)" #is maste%
teste! him fu%the% with a few othe% koans all of which Ta-hui successfull) answe%e! one b) one" Buan-wu
%ecogni'e! him as a t%ue hei% to the Lin-chi t%a!ition" >an) )ea%s late%( when he ga+e a se%mon to his
!isci&les( he woul! %ecall the )ea%s of s&i%itual st%uggle in this wa)@
The%e is no language to !esc%ibe Ch'an" Fne must achie+e his un!e%stan!ing th%ough an enlightenment
e*&e%ience" /ince 5 was se+enteen )ea%s ol! 5 ha! been sei'e! with !oubt conce%ning this matte%" 4fte% 5
st%uggle! fo% se+enteen )ea%s 5 finall) coul! %est" efo%e p.216 5 achie+e! enlightenment 5 often thought to
m)self@ 5 am now al%ea!) of such an! such an age" efo%e 5 was bo%n on this ea%th( whe%e was 5E >) min!
was &itch-black an! ha! no i!ea whe%e 5 came f%om" /ince 5 !i! not know m) o%igin( this was what
u!!hism calle!( ,Life is a g%eat matte%, (sheng ta)" 4 3hen 5 !ie in the futu%e( whe%e shall 5 goE 3hen 5
thought about this( m) min! was also totall) !a%k an! ha! no i!ea whe%e 5 woul! go f%om he%e" /ince 5 !i!
not know m) !estin)( this was what u!!hism calle!( ,;eath is a g%eat matte%, (ssu ta) 5 ,C*istence is
im&e%manent an! life en!s .uickl)" Life an! ;eath is a J%eat >atte%,"[15]
4gain( we fin! the c%ucial facto%s in Ta-hui's s&i%itual st%uggle we%e the e*istential conf%ontation with his
mo%talit) an! the bu%ning nee! to sol+e the g%eat m)ste%) of samsa%a" 4fte% his enlightenment( his fame
s&%ea! fa% an! wi!e" Jent%) officials +ie! fo% the o&&o%tunit) to stu!) un!e% him" The >iniste% of the Dight(
Lu /hun( &%esente! him with a &u%&le %obe an! the hono%ific title( 7o-9ih( ''The /un of u!!hism," #owe+e%(
this was a +e%) t%oublesome time fo% the nation" The +e%) ne*t )ea%( 11$6( the 6u-chen Ta%ta%s ca&tu%e!
both Cm&e%o%s #ui-tsung an! Chin-tsung togethe% with some th%ee thousan! membe%s of the %o)al famil)"
The ca&ital was mo+e! to the /outh( an! the /outhe%n /ung !)nast) began"
Ta-hui s&ent the ne*t se+e%al )ea%s t%a+elling wi!el) in southe%n China" #e continue! to ca%%) out the wo%k
of t%aining both monks an! la)men" #e also sta%te! the se+e%e c%iticism of the ,Ch'an of silent illumination,(
a &%eoccu&ation which laste! th%oughout his life" 5n the )ea% 113:( when Ta-hui was fo%t)-nine )ea%s ol!(
u&on the %ecommen!ation of the 8%ime >iniste%( Chang Chun( one of his most intimate !isci&les" Ta-hui was
a&&ointe! the abbot of Ching-shan monaste%) in Lin-an( (&%esent !a) #angchow)( the /outhe%n /ung
ca&ital" This was the fi%st time that he hea!e! a monaste%)( ha+ing %efuse! othe% offe%s &%e+iousl)" #e now
became the acknowle!ge! lea!e% of u!!hism" 3ithin two )ea%s( the sangha g%ew to two thousan! in
numbe%" >e!itation semeste%s often !%ew c%ow!s of o+e% se+enteen hun!%e!" 4mong his la) followe%s( the%e
we%e man) officials hol!ing high &ositions" #owe+e%( his +e%) fame an! %e&utation a&&a%entl) sowe! the
see!s fo% a fall he was to suffe% late% on" 4cco%!ing to the anal)sis of one followe%@
/ince his teaching is b%oa!( he att%acts multitu!es of &eo&le" #owe+e%( +e%) few &eo&le can li+e u& to his
st%ict stan!a%!s" /ince his inst%uction is to the &oint( those who become enlightene! lo+e him !ea%l)" ut(
the%e a%e also &eo&le who become f%ightene! an! !isconce%te! b) his loft) talk" 5 know that the%e is gossi&(
!efamation an! sus&icion ci%culating about the maste% an! cannot feel but en%age! about this"[16] p.217
The imme!iate cause of Ta-hui's !ownfall was that one of his followe%s( Chang Chiu-cheng( a +ice-&%esi!ent
belonging to a &a%t) of cou%tie%s a!+ocating wa%( offen!e! Ch'in #ui( the lea!e% of the &eace &a%t)"
[17] ecause of Chang's %elationshi& to Ta-hui( Ta-hui was &unishe! along with his !isci&le fo% the latte%'s
a!+ocacies" #e was !e&%i+e! of his o%!ination ce%tificate an! monk's %obe an! was e*ile! to #eng-chou
(&%esent !a) #unan) in the )ea% 11=1" Ten )ea%s late%( at the age of si*t)-two( he was t%ansfe%%e! to >ei-
chou (&%esent !a) Auangtung)( a &lace famous fo% &lagues an! othe% hostile elements" 4ll these )ea%s(
!es&ite !e&%i+ation an! &h)sical !ange%( he was followe! b) faithful !isci&les" #e also won new con+e%ts
f%om among the gent%) an! the common &eo&le whe%e+e% he went" 8a%!on finall) came in 11<< when Ta-hui
was si*t)-se+en )ea%s ol!" #e was gi+en back his monk's %obe an!( at se+ent)( %etu%ne! to his fo%me%
monaste%) at Ching-shan whe%e he continue! to t%ain &eo&le in Ch'an me!itation until his !eath fi+e )ea%s
late%" F+e% the cou%se of his long life( Ta-hui ha! e*&e%ience! &ublic a!ulation as well as official
con!emnation( he was bef%ien!e! b) famous cou%tie%s( but he also s&ent fifteen )ea%s be)on! the &ale of
ci+ili'ation" #owe+e%( Ta-hui a&&ea%e! to ha+e acce&te! both fame an! !isfa+o% with e.uanimit)" >o%e
significantl)( he ne+e% ga+e u& his acti+e in+ol+ement with the li+es of his followe%s" Chang Chun( the same
!isci&le who %ecommen!e! Ta-hui to hea! Ching-shan monaste%)( once cha%acte%i'e! the maste% in the
following wa)( an! 5 think it was not fa% f%om the ma%k" ,#e has the will of a lo)al sub9ect an! the hea%t of a
com&assionate bo!hisatt+a" Gnlike the #ina)ana Ks%aa+akas an! &%at)eka-bu!!has( he is not ti%e! of
samsa%a an! he !oes not selfishl) !esi%e ni%+ana,"[18]
Ta-hui w%ote onl) one wo%k( a collection of koans of fo%me% Ch'an maste%s( entitle!@ Cheng-fa )en-tsang 6
78 (T%ue ;ha%ma C)e)" #e also com&ile! with a fellow monk name! Ta-kuei( a wo%k entitle!( Ch'an-lin &ao-
hsun 9:; (T%easu%e! Teachings of the Ch 'an >onastic T%a!ition) in which he collecte! the inst%uctions of
fo%me% abbots of Ch'an monaste%ies on the +i%tues an! i!eals of monastic life" #is se%mons an! lette%s we%e
collecte! b) his !isci&les into thi%t) chuan with the title@ Ta-hui 8'u-chueh Ch'an-shih )u-lu (T" 1998)"
4s Ta-hui's enlightenment account ma!e clea%( the use of koan as a me!itation !e+ice &la)e! a cent%al %ole
in his achie+ing enlightenment" #e was fi%st gi+en Bun-men's ,Cast mountain walks o+e% the wate%, an!
late%( ,To be o% not to be H it is like the wiste%ia leaning on a t%ee," C+en though Ta-hui achie+e! a new
insight each time onl) afte% hea%ing his own maste%'s %es&onse p 21( to the koans( it was un!e%stoo! that he
himself ha! al%ea!) s&ent a long time st%uggling to make sense out of these &u''ling &h%ases" 3e can also
assume that when Ta-hui sai! that he un!e%stoo! the koan( he !i! not mean an intellectual un!e%stan!ing"
The use of koan as a me!itation !e+ice sta%te! %athe% late in Ch'an histo%)" The fi%st two hun!%e! )ea%s(
f%om the time of o!hi!ha%ma to #ui-neng( the /i*th 8at%ia%ch( the%e we%e no koan e*e%cises( no shouting(
kicking o% beating as wa)s to in!uce enlightenment" ;u%ing the eighth an! ninth centu%ies koan was likewise
not use! consciousl) o% s)stematicall)" Ch'an maste%s woul! use e+e%)!a) e+ents( homel) e*am&les o% non-
+e%bal ''bo!) language'' such as a sla&( a blow( a kick( a shout o% a %oa%ing laughte% to answe% !isci&les'
.uestions about ,the meaning of Ch'an(, o% ,the &u%&ose of o!hi!ha%ma's coming to the east'' H t)&ical
.uestions about the ultimate %ealit)" /ometimes the) might .uote an anec!ote o% a sa)ing of an ea%lie%
maste% to hel& them b%ing home a &oint" #owe+e%( the%e was no com&ilation of %eco%!e! koans in e*istence(
no% !i! the) use such koans %egula%l)" These maste%s c%eate! man) koans unselfconsciousl)( but the)
themsel+es !i! not gi+e an) s&ecific koan to thei% !isci&les as a me!itation assignment"
ut b) the ele+enth centu%)( koans of ea%lie% maste%s we%e eage%l) collecte! an! some maste%s sta%te! to
c%eate thei% own as well" The most famous e*am&le of com&ilations of the fi%st t)&e is The T%ansmission of
the Lam&[19] com&ile! b) Tao-)uan in 100= an! consists of mo%e than a thousan! koans %anging f%om the
ancient &at%ia%chs an! maste%s to the !isci&les of 7a-)en in the tenth centu%)" 4n ea%l) e*am&le of the
secon! t)&e koan collection is the %eco%!e! sa)ings of the Lin-chi maste% 7en-)ang (9=:- 10$=)" The%e a%e
th%ee hun!%e! koans foun! in th%ee collections" The fi%st collection consists of ol! koans( fo% each of which
7en-)ang w%ote a +e%se summa%i'ing the gene%al meaning of the koan in &oetical language" The secon!
consists of koans he himself ha! ma!e an! fo% which he su&&lie! his own answe%? the thi%! is ma!e u& of
ol! koans( togethe% with his alte%nate answe%s to them" These th%ee collections became the mo!els fo% late%
lite%a%) &%o!uction of a simila% kin!"[20] The %eason fo% this new em&hasis on koan collections was !ue to
an inte%nal c%isis" 4fte% the &e%secution of u!!hism in 8=<( within fift) )ea%s a most illust%ious gene%ation of
Ch'an maste%s !ie! one b) one" (Auei-shan( 8<3? #uang-&o( 8<<? Te-shan( 86<? Lin-chi( 866? Tung-shan(
869? Bang-shan( 891? Ts'ao-shan( 900)" The gol!en age of Ch'an now &asse! awa)" Ch'an u!!hism( unlike
T'ien-t'ai an! #ua-)en which &%i'e! sc%i&tu%al knowle!ge( p.219 o% 8u%e Lan! which em&hasi'e! &iet)( ha!
alwa)s &lace! the most im&o%tant st%ess on &e%sonal %eligious e*&e%ience@ namel)( the e*&e%ience of
enlightenment" Cnlightenment coul! not be taught b) wo%!s o% conce&ts" Fn the cont%a%)( wo%!s an!
conce&ts woul! in+ol+e a &e%son in !isc%imination an! intellectuali'ation which woul! lea! him fa%the% awa)
f%om the %eali'ation" The i!eal con!ition fo% enlightenment was to wo%k un!e% a maste% who was al%ea!)
enlightene!" Th%ough his skillful hints an! me%ciless &%o!!ing( one coul! be fo%ce! to b%eak th%ough his
customa%) mo!e of thinking an! acting to a new mo!e of being" ) the tenth centu%)( with the !eath of
g%eat maste%s( a keen nee! was felt to fin! a new wa) of t%aining !isci&les" 5f t%ue maste%s coul! not alwa)s
be foun! to se%+e as ,mi!-wi+es, in the mi%acle of self-t%ansfo%mation calle! the ,enlightenment(, was the%e
&e%ha&s a substitute( an alte%nati+eE The alte%nati+e was the koan" 5t was ho&e! that th%ough the collection
of ea%lie% koans( an! th%ough the concent%ate! me!itation on these koans" the o%iginal e*&e%ience of
enlightenment coul! be %e-enacte!" /u'uki thought this !e+elo&ment in!is&ensable fo% the su%+i+al of Ch'an
afte% the &assing of those cha%ismatic lea!e%s of T'ang"[21] #owe+e%( as we shall see( this em&hasis on
koan e*e%cise was in!ee! a !ouble-e!ge! swo%!" 5t coul! g%ant mo%e life to Ch'an( but if han!le! w%ongl)( it
coul! also kill its +e%) life"

6ow what is a koanE 4 goo! !efinition of this +e%) im&o%tant te%m was gi+en b) Chung-feng >ing-&en =>?
@ (1$63-13$3)( a Buan monk following Ta-hui's t%a!ition" #e sai!(
Aung-an ma) be com&a%e! to the case %eco%!s of the &ublic law cou%t" Aung( o% ,&ublic,( is the single t%ack
followe! b) all sages an! wo%th) men alike( the highest &%inci&le which se%+es as a %oa! fo% the whole wo%l!"
4n( o% ,%eco%!s,( a%e the o%tho!o* w%itings which %eco%! what the sages an! wo%th) men %ega%! as
&%inci&les""" The koans !o not %e&%esent the &%i+ate o&inion of a single man( but %athe%( the highest &%inci&le
%ecei+e! alike b) us an! b) the hun!%e!s an! thousan!s of bo!hisatt+as of the th%ee %ealms an! the ten
!i%ections" This &%inci&le acco%!s with the s&i%itual sou%ce( tallies with the m)ste%ious meaning( !est%o)s
bi%th-an!-!eath( an! t%anscen!s the &assions" 5t cannot be un!e%stoo! b) logic? it cannot be t%ansmitte! in
wo%!s? it cannot be e*&laine! in w%iting? it cannot be measu%e! b) %eason" 5t is like a &oisone! !%um that
kills all who hea% it( o% like a g%eat fi%e that consumes all who come nea% it"""" the koans a%e something that
can be use! onl) b) men with enlightene! min!s who wish to &%o+e thei% un!e%stan!ing" The) a%e ce%tainl)
not inten!e! to be use! me%el) to inc%ease one's lo%e an! &%o+i!e to&ics fo% i!le !iscussion" The so-calle!
+ene%able maste%s of 2en a%e the chief officials of the &ublic law cou%ts of the monastic communit)( as it
we%e( an! thei% collections of sa)ings a%e the case %eco%!s of &oints that ha+e been +igo%ousl) a!+ocate!"
Fccasionall) men of fo%me% times( in the inte%+als when the) we%e not p.22) teaching( in s&a%e moments
when thei% !oo%s we%e close!( woul! take u& these case %eco%!s an! a%%ange them( gi+e thei% 9u!gment on
them( com&ose +e%ses of &%aise on them an! w%ite thei% own answe%s to them" /u%el) the) !i! not !o this
9ust to show off thei% e%u!ition an! cont%a!ict the wo%th) men of ol!" Dathe%( the) !i! it because the) coul!
not bea% to think that the g%eat ;ha%ma might become co%%u&t" The%efo%e the) stoo&e! to using e*&e!ient
means in o%!e% to o&en u& the wis!om e)e of the men of late% gene%ations( ho&ing the%eb) to make it
&ossible fo% them to attain the un!e%stan!ing of the g%eat ;ha%ma fo% themsel+es in the same wa)"[22]
4s use! b) Ch'an u!!hists( a koan alwa)s %efe%s to a !ialogue o% an e+ent that took &lace between a Ch'an
maste% an! his stu!ent" 5n a sense( all the sto%ies about Ch'an maste%s( both sho%t an! long( a%e koans" 4s
a mo!em stu!ent of Ch'an !efine! it( ,5n sho%t( koan means a 2en sto%)( a 2en situation( o% a 2en &%oblem,"
[23] 5n /ung China( howe+e%( Ch'an monks sel!om em&lo)e! the te%m koan? instea!( the) like! to use
,hua-t'ou, A an! %efe%%e! the me!itation on a koan as ,ts'an hua-t'ou , o% ,k'an hua-t'ou ''" 4 The%e a%e
+a%ious wa)s to inte%&%et this +e%) %ich Ch'an te%minolog)" Taken lite%all)( ,hua''means ''s&eech,( ,a %ema%k,
o% ,a sentence,( an! ,t'ou, means eithe% the beginning o% the en!ing of something" Combine! togethe%( hua-
t'ou thus means( ,the en! o% the beginning of a sentence," 3hile koan %efe%s to the whole situation o%
e+ent( hua-t'ou means s&ecificall) the c%itical wo%!s o% &oints of the situation"[24] The !istinction between
a koan an! a hua-t'ou ma) be illust%ate! b) the following famous e*change between the T'ang maste% Chao-
chou an! a monk( one of the fa+o%ite koans of Ta-hui
4 monk aske! maste% Chao-chou" ,;oes a !og ha+e the u!!ha-natu%eE, Chao-chou answe%e!( ,wu',
(meaning ,6oL,)
The enti%e !ialogue is calle! a koan( but a Ch'an &%actitione% who me!itates on this shoul! not think of both
the .uestion an! answe%" 5nstea!( he shoul! concent%ate whole-hea%te!l) on the c%)&tic wo%! ,3u, H this is
his hua-t'ou"
4 hua-t'ou ma) also be %ega%!e! as an inci&ient thought which( when sub9ecte! to &%o&e% sc%utini'ation will
%e+eal the natu%e of human consciousness" 6an #uai-chin e*&lains it this wa)@
5n the contem&o%a%) i!iomatic /hanghai !ialect( if )ou want to ask someone( ,3hat is )ou% &%oblemE, o%
,3hat !o )ou wantE,( )ou sa)( ,3hat is )ou% hua-t'ouE, 3hene+e% a thought sta%ts to fo%m( this is the
beginning of a sentence" ut what a%e the o%igin an! whe%eabouts of an inci&ient thoughtE This is in!ee! a
g%eat &%oblem" To fin! out the sou%ce of this thought H this is hua-t'ou" 5t is the beginning of a &h%ase( a
&%oblem" To wo%k on a hua-t'ou is the metho! of !welling u&on the o%igin an! %oot sou%ce of this &h%ase"
This ,!welling u&on, inclu!es the combine! effo%t of stu!)ing( guessing( e*&e%iencing( obse%+ation(
contem&lation an! .uiet !elibe%ation of the hua-t'ou[25] p.221
5!eall)( a hua-t'ou lea!s the me!itato% back to the base of his consciousness an! enables him to !isco+e%
the %eal natu%e of this consciousness th%ough a tho%ough e*amination of an i!ea" The ke) wo%! he%e is
,!welling, (ti( chu)" BCD Fne must !well u&on his koan( as Ta-hui ha! to !o( with intense concent%ation
an! abso%&tion to the e*clusion of all othe% inte%ests( &u%suits an! &%eoccu&ations" 5n this %es&ect( a koan
se%+es a function simila% to that of a mant%a( a man!ala( o% othe% !e+ices use! in what 6a%an9o calls
,concent%ati+e o% abso%&ti+e me!itation,"[26] #e%e the me!itato% acti+el) focuses his enti%e attention on a
single ob9ect( soun!( o% i!ea an! %eaches a new le+el of consciousness as a %esult of this concent%ation an!
%est%iction of his awa%eness" 5t is +e%) !iffe%ent both in a&&%oach an! techni.ue f%om the t)&e of me!itation
6a%an9o calls ,the negati+e wa),[27] of which the e*e%cise in min!fulness of the The%a+a!a t%a!ition an!
the .uiet-sitting of the Ts'ao-tung Ch'an a%e goo! e*am&les" 5n this case( the me!itato% %elin.uishes an)
acti+e cont%ol but %emains awa%e of e+e%)thing in a state of &assi+it) an! %ece&ti+it)" #e %ela*es his
concent%ation an! e*&an!s the !omain of his attention"
This ,!welling u&on,( howe+e%( is not the same as ,thinking about," 5n fact( the !welling u&on of a koan is
the e*act o&&osite of ou% o%!ina%) !iscu%si+e( %atiocinati+e thinking &%ocesses" 7o% how is one se%iousl) to
think about Chao-chou's ,3u,E /u%el) it makes no ,sense," The enti%e e*change between the !isci&le an!
Chao-chou( 9ust as the othe% e*changes Ta-hui mentions( is unintelligible an! cannot be thought about o%
un!e%stoo! %ationall) no matte% how ha%! one t%ies" 4ctuall)( the +e%) o&a.ueness to %eason an! the
stubbo%n %efusal to be ,figu%e! out'' a%e int%insic featu%es of koans an! constitute thei% effecti+eness as
me!itati+e !e+ices"
5 think one useful wa) to un!e%stan! a koan o% hua-t'ou is to %ega%! it as an o&ening we!ge fo% the su!!en
an! intuiti+e a&&%ehension of a new %ealit)" 5ts effecti+eness is tie! in with its abilit) to c%eate in the
me!itato% a sense of ,!oubt, (i-ching) EFG an! the accom&an)ing feelings of bewil!e%ment( f%ust%ation(
an*iet)( an! ange%" 5f the me!itato% takes his koan se%iousl)( we can e*&ect that he will be im&elle! to
,sol+e, his koan b) the st%ong sense of u%genc) this &ainfull) !is.uieting ,!oubt, &%o!uces" 5n actual
&%actice the%e we%e &%obabl) few monks who coul! sustain thei% effo%t without constant &%o!!ing f%om thei%
teache%s" Thus Ta-hui was chastise! b) his maste% that he !i! not ,!oubt wo%!s 0his hua-t'ou1 enough,"
Ch'an maste%s ha+e alwa)s %ecogni'e! the c%ucial %ole this sense of !oubt &la)s in the mechanics of
enlightenment" /ome si* hun!%e! )ea%s afte% Ta-hui( the p.222 -a&anese Din'ai maste% #akuin %ega%!e! the
,J%eat ;oubt, as the in!is&ensable !%i+ing fo%ce behin! e+e%) enlightenment e*&e%ience" ,Fnce the J%eat
;oubt a%ises( out of a hun!%e! who &%actice( one hun!%e! will achie+e b%eakth%ough''"[28]

ut how !oes a hua-t'ou gene%ate !oubtE 5 think a hua-t'ou can !o so because it wo%ks as a shock( a
su%&%ise( which b%eaches the me!itato%'s taken-fo%-g%ante! e*&ectancies" 5t is in this sense that 5 call a hua-
t'ou an o&ening we!ge" To begin with( we know that hua-t'ou was use! in t%a!itional +e%nacula% no+els an!
&la)s to mean an ,o&ening statement, (e.ui+alent to the mo!em e*&%ession ,kai-ch'ang-&ai," E F
G [29] The s&eake% !eli+e%s a sho%t o&ening s&eech( sets u& the &%o&e% !%amatic situation an! &%o+i!es the
occasion fo% the unfol!ing of the succee!ing e+ents" 5n the case of a koan( howe+e%( what follows is not a
%ational se.uence of statements o% e+ents( as one woul! o%!ina%il) e*&ect( but b) a totall) un%elate! an!
sometimes illogical statement( such as ,The Cast >ountain walks o+e% the wate%," The me!itato% is thus
ma!e a st%ange%" #e is est%ange! f%om the familia% wo%l! of %easonableness an! becomes +ulne%able to
t%ansfo%mation"
>) un!e%stan!ing of this function of hua-t'ou is &a%tl) ins&i%e! b) the wo%ks of &henomenological
sociologists an! ethnometho!ologists( &a%ticula%l) those of /chut' an! Ja%finkel"[30] /chut' w%ote about
the +a%ious ,finite &%o+inces of meaning, which a%e constitute! b) !iffe%ent sets of e*&e%iences" #owe+e%( it
is the ''%ealit) of ou% e+e%)!a) life''( that which 3illiam -ames calle! the ,subuni+e%se, of senses( of &h)sical
things( that is the ,&a%amount %ealit), fo% /chut' an! othe% thinke%s of this school"
7amilia% scenes of e+e%)!a) acti+ities( t%eate! b) membe%s as the ''natu%al facts of life, a%e massi+e facts of
the membe%'s !ail) e*istence both as a %eal wo%l! an! as the &%o!uct of acti+ities in a %eal wo%l!" The)
fu%nish the ,fi*,( the ,this is it, to which the waking state %etu%ns one( an! a%e the &oints of !e&a%tu%e an!
%etu%n fo% e+e%) mo!ification of the wo%l! of !ail) life that is achie+e! in &la)( !%eaming( t%ance( theat%e(
scientific theo%i'ing( o% high ce%emon)"[31]
The %ealit) of this common sense wo%l! is sociall) const%ucte! an! not something ,out the%e,"[32] >embe%s
of a societ) %outinel) const%uct an! maintain the %ealit) of e+e%)!a) life b) !%awing u&on thei% ,backg%oun!
e*&ectancies, as the) inte%act with each othe%" ut these backg%oun! e*&ectancies a%e alwa)s so taken fo%
g%ante! b) membe%s that thei% +e%) e*istence is not %ecogni'e!" Fne of the main inte%est of
ethnometho!ological school is to %e+eal them an! to %e!isco+e% the common sense wo%l! of p.22 e+e%)!a)
life" 5n o%!e% to make this %e!isco+e%)( a &e%son must become ,eithe% a st%ange% to the 'life as usual'
cha%acte% of e+e%)!a) scenes( o% become est%ange! f%om them,"[33] Ja%finkel tells us that &%oce!u%all) he
woul! sta%t with familia% scenes an! ask what coul! be !one to ,make t%ouble," #e !e+ise! +a%ious ,nast)
su%&%ises, to facilitate this %e!isco+e%)" The) functione!( as state! b) Ja%finkel( ,to &%o!uce an! sustain
bewil!e%ment( conste%nation an! confusion( to &%o!uce the sociall) st%uctu%e! effects of an*iet)( shame(
guilt an! in!ignation? an! to &%o!uce !iso%gani'e! inte%action,"[34] Fne celeb%ate! e*&e%iment soun!s
almost like a koan in %e+e%se@ 4 stu!ent was g%eete! b) ,#i( how a%e )ouE, 5nstea! of gi+ing the customa%)(
,7ine,( he was inst%ucte! to take the .uestion lite%all) an! answe%( ,#ow am 5 in %ega%! to whatE >) health(
m) finances( m) school-wo%k( m) &eace of min!( m) E,[35] The e*t%eme %ationalit) of this answe% is
uncalle! fo%( an! it !efies the %ules of con+e%sation"[36] The othe%'s assum&tions a%e %u!el) an!
unce%emoniousl) &ushe! asi!e" /ince this e*change took &lace in an o%!ina%) setting (not in a me!itation
hall) whe%e the sub9ect was ina!e.uatel) &%e&a%e!( it is no won!e% that the chee%ful g%eete% walke! awa) in
a huff"0371

4 Ch'an maste% is( of cou%se( not an ethnometho!ologist" 4n ethnometho!ologist is &%ima%il) inte%este! in
%e!isco+e%ing how the sense of the %ealit) of e+e%)!a) life is sociall) const%ucte!" 4 Ch'an maste% has a fa%
mo%e ambitious an! %a!ical task to &e%fo%m" #e has %eali'e! that the t%ue natu%e of things is sun)a an! out
of com&assion he now hel&s his !isci&les to attain the same %eali'ation" Bet how is this total an!
fun!amental t%ansfo%mation &ossibleE >an is a c%eatu%e of habit" #e is use! to seeing the wo%l!( othe%s an!
himself in a ce%tain wa)" #is wo%l! +iew is sha&e! b) s)mbols (language( conce&ts( beliefs H what u!!hism
calls ,+iews,( t%sti)" #e thinks this is the onl) %ight wa) to see the wo%l! an! tenaciousl) clings to it" 5n this
+iew( e+e%)thing in the wo%l! is ,%eal,@ &e%manent( substanti+e( an!( b) an! la%ge( &leasant" Bet u!!hism
belie+es othe%wise" 4n enlightene! Ch'an maste% sees the wo%l! as sun)a@ things a%ise out of !e&en!ent co-
o%igination( the%e is no !iffe%ence between self an! othe%s( ni%+ana is telesco&e! into samsa%a"
Fne !oes not gi+e u& his habitual +iew easil) o% willingl)" 7o% ,this %ealit) seems to us to be the natu%al one(
an! we a%e not %ea!) to aban!on ou% attitu!e towa%! it without ha+ing e*&e%ience! a s&ecific shock which
com&els us to b%eak th%ough the limits of this 'finite &%o+ince of meaning' an! to shift the accent of %ealit) to
anothe% one,"[38] 5 woul! suggest then p.22' that a hua-t'ou &%o!uces the ''shock, which enables the
me!itato% to ,lea&'' into enlightenment" Ji+en the setting in which it is use! an! the ,backg%oun!
e*&ectancies, of the maste%s an! !isci&les who use it( the hua-t'ou gene%ates shock b) a skillful
mani&ulation of language an! c%eates a clea%ing o% an o&ening fo% the on%ush of a new %ealit)" Ch'an
u!!hism %ega%!s conce&tuali'ation( !isc%imination an! %atiocination as the g%eatest &%oblem ba%%ing man
f%om t%ue wis!om an! %ega%!s thei% non-&%o!uction as enlightenment" The most c%ucial ste&( then( is to
change the habitual( se.uential( linea% wa) of thinking to its o&&osite@ a non-habitual" non-se.uential( an!
non-linea% wa) of thinking" Like all m)stical e*&e%iences( the Ch'an enlightenment e*&e%ience is !ifficult to
!esc%ibe in wo%!s" ut it ma) hel& if we look at Ch'an enlightenment as a ,+e%tical o%gani'ation of
conce&ts''[39] i"e"" 4n enhance! ca&acit) fo% simultaneous &e%ce&tions o% un!e%stan!ings( as o&&ose! to
the no%mal mo!e of se.uential (i"e" ho%i'ontal) o%gani'ation of cognition" Thus whole sets of %elationshi&s
ma) be simultaneousl) g%as&e! - an e*&e%ience not t%anslatable into language which !eals in the o%!e%l)
succession of single conce&ts,"[40]
Fne is he%e %emin!e! of the simultaneous establishment of the !ouble t%uth o% the non-obst%uction of li
H an! shih I o% shih an! shih H e*&%essions often foun! in Ch'an lite%atu%e" To use t%a!itional u!!hist
te%ms( the enlightenment e*&e%ience in+ol+es the t%ansfo%mation of the sub9ect-ob9ect !ichotomous
consciousness into the non-!ual wis!om of sun)ata" 6ow since logical an! %ational language is al%ea!)
ine*t%icabl) boun! u& with the &%ocess ofK conce&tual thinking( language itself must be abuse! in o%!e% to
be !isabuse! of its associations" Aoan o% hua-t'ou is the answe%" 5t is a new language( a language which is
%eall) non-language" 5t %efuses to be un!e%stoo!( an!( as Ta-hui woul! &ut it( is totall) !e+oi! of taste an!
fla+o%" 6o won!e% >ing-&en calle! it the &oison !%um an! the g%eat fi%e which kills whoe+e% comes in contact
with it" The koan becomes an o&ening we!ge in a &e%son as soon as it makes him sto& in his t%acks an!
c%eates in him !oubt( ange% an! f%ust%ation" The &%actitione% can no longe% %emain com&lacent an! li+e his
life matte%-of-fact" The &%ocess of e%osion an! !est%uction of his habituate! +iew of the wo%l! will en! onl)
with the enlightenment e*&e%ience" #e will then be able to look at the wo%l! with a new &e%s&ecti+e" The
Ch'an meta&ho% of !eath an! %ebi%th is an a&t !esc%i&tion of this %ite of &assage"
Ta-hui calle! the enlightenment the %eali'ation of the !ee& )et luminous (chan-9an) JK >in!" p.22!
3hen )ou stabili'e the acti+ities of the !iscu%si+e min! an! consciousness( when not e+en one thought sti%s(
this is the t%ue enlightenment" 3ith this co%%ect state of min!( )ou can function f%eel) !u%ing the twent)-
fou% hou%s of the !a)" /melling flowe%s( tasting foo!( sitting still o% walking a%oun! H whethe% )ou a%e
engage! in acti+it) o% not( )ou% min! is alwa)s b%ight an! un!istu%be!" Bou a%e natu%all) f%ee f%om !isto%te!
+iews" Thus )ou% min! is alwa)s &u%e whethe% )ou ha+e thought o% not" The%efo%e( when )ou act( this is the
function ()ung) L of this !ee& an! luminous >in!( an! when )ou %est( this is then the essence (t'i) M of the
same >in!" C+en though the%e is a !iffe%ence between essence an! function( 'the >in! is still the one an!
the same"[41]
Ta-hui is he%e st%essing the fun!amental im&o%tance of achie+ing the state of no-min! in the Ch'an t%a!ition(
the onl) wa) to %e+eal the t%ue natu%e of the >in!" 7o% fea% of being misun!e%stoo!( he constantl) wa%ne!
&eo&le against e.uating no-min! with &assi+it) an! insentienc)" #e sa)s@
6o-min! !oes not mean the unconsciousness of woo! o% tile" 5t means that when )ou come into contact
with e*te%nal ob9ects( )ou% min! is immo+able an! !oes not get attache! to an)thing" The%e is total f%ee!om
an! non-obst%uction" Bou a%e not !efile! b) an)thing" Fn the othe% han!( )ou shoul! not abi!e in non-
!efilement eithe%" 3hile )ou +iew the bo!) an! the min! as a !%eam an! an illusion( )ou ne+e%theless !o
not abi!e in the em&tiness of !%eams an! illusions" 3hen )ou %each this state( )ou ha+e then %eall)
achie+e! no-min!"[42]
5t is in this connection that he c%itici'e! me%cilessl) the em&hasis on .uiet sitting &ut fo%wa%! b) some Ch'an
teache%s( fo% it woul! b%ee! &assi+it) an! !elusion" This &assage is fai%l) %e&%esentati+e of his +iews on .uiet
sitting@
5n %ecent )ea%s( he%etical teache%s s&%ang u& within the sangha like wil! wee!s( an! blin!e! the e)es of
nume%ous sentient beings" 3hen one !oes not use the koans of the ancients in me!itation( he will be like a
blin! man without a walking stick an! cannot a!+ance e+en one ste& """" 0/ome &eo&le1 think that u!!ha
;ha%ma an! Ch'an culti+ation a%e not !e&en!ent u&on w%itten wo%!s" The%efo%e the) !enig%ate! all koans as
%ea!)-ma!e" The) 9ust sit in a ghostl) ca+e on a !a%k mountain afte% thei% meals" The) call this &%actice
,silent illumination,( ,!)ing the g%eat !eath,( ,the state befo%e the bi%th of one's &a%ents", The) sit the%e
until calluses a&&ea% on thei% bottoms( )et the) still !o not !a%e to mo+e" Fn the cont%a%)( the) %ega%! this
as the g%a!ual matu%ation of thei% effo%t"[43]
Fn the othe% han!( the%e we%e also othe% t)&es of he%etical teache%s who onl) ha! an intellectual
un!e%stan!ing of koans"
6owa!a)s the%e a%e &eo&le who ha+e ne+e% &e%sonall) e*&e%ience! enlightenment( but onl) know how to
&la) intellectual t%icks" efo%e the) ascen! the high seat in the mo%ning( the) woul! sta) u& all night(
memo%i'ing two &h%ases f%om this &am&hlet 0koan collection1 an! two &h%ases f%om that one" 4fte% &asting
them togethe% the) &"$$6 &%esent the en! &%o!uct like a bou.uet" The) can talk with g%eat fluenc)( but
&eo&le with clea% e)esight know this is a %i!iculous &a%o!)"[44]
The &assi+it) b%e! b) .uiet sitting woul! lea! to !%owsiness (hun-ch'en) NO an! the intellectual g%as&ing
afte% the ,meaning'' of a koan intensifies the ten!enc) towa%! conce&tuali'ation (tiao-chu) PB H two foes
e.uall) !ea!l) in the life of a Ch'an &%actitione%"[45] #ow is one to &%ocee! then in Ch'an me!itationE
4cco%!ing to Ta-hui( the onl) effecti+e wa) to a+oi! these two !ange%s an! to %eali'e one's t%ue min! was b)
intensi+e concent%ation u&on a koan" 4s he &ut it( if one faile! to use koan( then he woul! be like a blin!
man without a walking stick@ unable to take e+en one ste&"
4 few &s)chological con!itions must be met befo%e a &e%son can successfull) take u& koan me!itation" Ta-
hui st%esse! that one shoul! ha+e faith in the metho!( shoul! e*istentiall) feel the u%genc) of the task" ,5n
one's !ail) acti+ities( one shoul! 0mentall)1 &aste the wo%!s 'life' an! '!eath' on one's fo%ehea! an! feel as if
one owes someone a million st%ings of cash an! the !ebto% is %ight outsi!e the !oo% asking fo% &a)ment,"
[46]
Fne must stick to one's commitment an!( mo%eo+e%( must alwa)s be one's own maste%" Ta-hui sometimes
woul! use the h)&e%bolical image%) of ,someone's hea! on fi%e, to un!e%line the sense of u%genc)" Fn the
othe% han!( he also cautione! against o+e%eage%ness" ,5f )ou hu%%)( )ou will onl) be !ela)e!" 6o% shoul! )ou
be too la*( fo% then )ou will become la')" The wo%k shoul! be ca%%ie! out as a musician a!9usts the st%ings
of his ha%& H neithe% too tightl) no% too loosel)"[47] Clsewhe%e( he com&a%e! the managing of the min! to
the a%t of he%!ing a cow@ one shoul! not neglect it no% shoul! one &e%&etuall) ho+e% o+e% it"[48] This
%esembles what >encius sa)s conce%ning the wo%k of accumulating %ighteousness@ one shoul! neithe% fo%get
about it no% hel& it to g%ow" 5t is inte%esting that Ta-hui shoul! choose musicians an! cowhe%!s as e*em&la%s
fo% Ch'an monks" The) a%e( of cou%se( %eminiscent of those a%tisans in Chuang T'u who a%e natu%all) in tune
with the %h)thm of Tao"

C+en though hun!%e!s of koans we%e a+ailable in his time( Ta-hui seeme! to use onl) a few in his
inst%uction" 5n this %es&ect he was in &e%fect ag%eement with his own teache%( Buan-wu( as well as othe%
Ch'an maste%s who insiste! that it was th%ough the tho%ough &enet%ation into a few koans o% e+en into onl)
one that enlightenment was to be attaine!" Ta-hui alwa)s ca%%ie! a bamboo comb when he taught his
stu!ents" #e woul! sa) to them@ p.227
5f )ou call this a bamboo comb( )ou a%e w%ong" 5f )ou !on't call this a bamboo comb( )ou a%e w%ong also
(huan-tso chu-&i tse ch'u( &u-huan-tso chu-&i tse &ei)" QRSTUV*&QRSTUW ;on't sa) an)thing( but
also !on't %emain silent" Bou must not think( )ou must not guess" Bou a%e not allowe! to get u& an! lea+e
the %oom" 6othing )ou !o is a&&%o&%iate" 5f )ou want to g%ab the bamboo comb( go ahea!( g%ab it" 5 will
then use m) fist an! !eman! )ou to make a statement" 5f )ou want me to &ut !own m) fist( that is all %ight
too" ut then 5 ask )ou to make a statement about the whole wo%l!" 6ow( can )ou also take that awa)E
Fnce a monk com&a%e! me to an official who aske! fo% mo%e things afte% he ha! confiscate! someone's
enti%e &%o&e%t)" 5 like this com&a%ison +e%) much" 5n!ee! 5 want )ou to han! o+e% e+e%)thing" 3hen )ou
ha+e nowhe%e to go( )ou will sim&l) ha+e to !ie" Th%owing )ou%self into the %i+e% o% 9um&ing into fi%e( )ou
will !ie when )ou a%e %ea!) to !ie" Fnl) afte% )ou ha+e t%ul) !ie! will )ou g%a!uall) come to life again"[49]
The bamboo comb( like the stick use! b) Te-shan( is a +isual hau-t'ou which se%+es to cut off conce&tual
thinking an! +e%bal !efinition" 5t sto&s all mental acti+ities f%om e+olution an! !e+elo&ment" 5t %e+eals the
o%iginal >in! of non-!isc%imination an! non-!ualit)"

5n his lette%s an! talks a!!%esse! to la) followe%s( Ta-hui ten!s mo%e towa%! using %ea!)-ma!e koans of
famous T'ang maste%s" Fne of the most f%e.uentl) %ecommen!e! koan is Chao-chou's ,3u," Ta-hui tol! his
followe%s to concent%ate on this ,3u, all the time" The) !i! not ha+e to go to a .uiet &lace" Fn the cont%a%)(
the) shoul! concent%ate on this ,3u, in the mi!st of !ail) acti+ities@ while eating an! !%inking( when
ca%%)ing out official !uties o% fulfilling social obligations( in the &%i+ac) of thei% houses o% in the &ublic e)e of
f%ien!s an! ac.uaintances( in se%+ing thei% &a%ents o% stu!)ing Confucian classics H all these acti+ities coul!
be t%eate! as the &%o&e% occasions fo% the concent%ation on ,3u," 4ll of these tasks offe% the best
o&&o%tunities to wo%k on the hua-t'ou( to !well constantl) on it an! finall) to gain an awakening f%om it"
[50] Ta-hui com&a%e! this ''3u, to a !ea!l) wea&on which coul! sol+e the enigma of life an! !eath" ut in
o%!e% to benefit f%om it( a &e%son must be willing to make a since%e commitment an! let it &enet%ate into
e+e%) &a%t of his life" 5n his lette% to Ch'en Li-9en( a la) followe%( he sa)s(
8lease concent%ate on the feeling of !oubt an! !o not gi+e it u& whethe% walking( stan!ing( sitting o% l)ing
!own" This one wo%! ,3u, is no othe% than the knife which can clea% awa) this g%eat !oubt of life an! !eath"
The han!le of this knife is %ight in )ou% own han!" 6o one else can take hol! of it fo% )ou( but )ou must !o it
)ou%self" 5f )ou a%e willing to la) !own )ou% life( )ou will be able to begin the task" #owe+e%( if )ou a%e not
willing to la) !own )ou% life( )ou shoul! concent%ate on the feeling of !oubt an! !o not let it sli& b)"[51]
Ta-hui wa%ne! his !isci&les against making mistakes in ca%%)ing out the wo%k p.22( of ,k'an hua-t'ou ,(i"e"(
koan me!itation)" Two most commonl) committe! mistakes a%e eithe% to t%) to intellectuall) un!e%stan! the
koan o% to fall into a state of a&ath)"
3hen )ou me!itate on ,3u,( )ou must not guess at its meaning no% t%) to inte%&%et it" Bou must not fall into
em&tiness an! t%an.uilit) (k'ung-chi) XY( but )ou also shoul! not consciousl) ho&e fo% enlightenment" ;o
not s&eculate about what &at%ia%chs an! teache%s ha! sai! conce%ning it" ;o not fall into la'iness an!
become negligent" Fn the cont%a%)( )ou shoul! alwa)s !well on this hua-t'ou whethe% walking( sta)ing(
sitting o% l)ing !own" 3hen )ou become %eall) &%oficient in )ou% effo%t( )ou will be unable to talk about it o%
think about it" Bou% min! becomes %estless an! )ou will feel as if )ou we%e chewing an i%on stick (9u chiao
sheng-t'ieh-chueh)( 0Z4[\ totall) tasteless" ut !o not become !iscou%age!( fo% this is e*actl) the time
fo% the goo! news"[52]
5t is +e%) clea% that Ta-hui +alue! highl) the effecti+eness of t%a!itional koans as a tool in Ch'an me!itation"
#owe+e%( the%e is some e+i!ence that he also felt that enlightenment coul! be b%ought about e+en without
the use of koans" The%e ma) be at least two %easons wh) he felt this wa)" 4 koan is basicall) an e*&e!ient
!e+ice fo% the in!ucement of enlightenment( but it shoul! ne+e% be confuse! with enlightenment" 4 !e+ice(
an) !e+ice( is alwa)s &otentiall) sub9ect to %eification" The !ange% is es&eciall) g%eat in a %eligious t%a!ition"
The finge% &ointing to the moon can be so easil) mistaken fo% the moon itself( be the finge% sc%i&tu%es(
images( %ituals( o% koans" /ince the feeling of !oubt is the c%ucial t%ansitional &oint in one's t%ansfo%mation(
it is &e%cei+able that one can sei'e whate+e% one is !ee&l) in+ol+e! with at the moment an! c%eate an
occasion fo% the gene%ation of ,!oubt," Thus( !ail) tasks an! o%!ina%) e*&e%iences sometimes wo%k the
same wa) as a hua-t'ou" C*t%eme emotions an! unusual e*&e%iences will( of cou%se( ha+e mo%e
effecti+eness" 3ang Ts'ao( a membe% of the #an-lin 4ca!em)( tol! Ta-hui about the sa! news of the !eath
ofK his )oung son" Ta-hui w%ote to the be%ea+e! fathe% this %e&l)@
-ust now in the mi!st of )ou% suffe%ing( &lease ca%efull) e*amine an! in+estigate the %eal o%igin of this
feeling of &ain" 3hen )ou cannot fin! it then ask )ou%self whe%e it comes f%om" 4sk )ou%self if it is e*istent
o% non-e*istent( %eal o% illuso%)" 4fte% &e%sistent in+estigation( )ou% min! will fin! nowhe%e to %est" 5f )ou
feel like %emembe%ing )ou% son( go ahea! an! !o so? if )ou feel like c%)ing( then c%)" 3hen )ou ha+e !one
with %ememb%ance an! tea%s( when the linge%ing t%aces of lo+e an! affection in )ou% ala)a consciousness
ha+e com&letel) !isa&&ea%e!( then 9ust like ice tu%ns into wate%( )ou will %etu%n to )ou% o%iginal self@ no
suffe%ing( no %ememb%ance( neithe% g%ief no% 9o)" Bou can ente% the wo%l! but %emain t%anscen!ent to it"
0Bou will %eali'e that1 the wo%l!l) teaching is no !iffe%ent f%om the u!!ha ;ha%ma( an! the u!!ha ;ha%ma
is p.229 no !iffe%ent f%om the wo%l!l) teaching" The tie between the fathe% an! the chil! is a natu%al one" #ow
can a fathe% sto& feeling &ain an! longing when his son !iesE 5f )ou t%) to sto& )ou%self b) fo%ce( if )ou !on't
!a%e to c%) when )ou want to c%) an! !on't !a%e to think about him when )ou want to think about him( )ou
a%e t%)ing to !isobe) the hea+enl) &%inci&le (t'ien-li) ]H an! to !est%o) )ou% hea+enl) natu%e (t'ien-hsing ]
^)" 5t is like someone who t%ies to sto& a noise b) %aising his +oice o% e*tinguish the fi%e b) &ou%ing oil o+e%
it" 3hen )ou a%e t%ouble! b) feelings( )ou shoul! not %ega%! them as e*te%nal things( no% shoul! )ou igno%e
them" >aste% Bung-chia sai!( ,u!!ha natu%e is no othe% than the %eal natu%e of igno%ance( ;ha%maka)a is
no othe% than the em&t) bo!) of illuso%) t%ansfo%mation," 3hen )ou achie+e this %eali'ation( e+en if )ou t%)
to think about )ou% son o% want to feel so%%ow o+e% his !eath( )ou woul! not be able to" To +iew things this
wa) is co%%ect" Fthe%wise( it is he%etical" [53]
5t is significant that this lette% was a!!%esse! to a la) !isci&le fo% it was to his la) followe%s that Ta-hui felt
&a%ticula%l) the nee! to 9ustif) u!!hist me!itation" Ta-hui belie+e! fi%ml) in the com&atibilit) of u!!hism
an! Confucianism" #e belie+e! that la) &eo&le coul! %eali'e the t%ue natu%e of things (shih-hsiang) _
` without !est%o)ing the +ali!it) of this wo%l! (shih-chien-hsiang)" ab` This is the case because acco%!ing
to Ta-hui( both Confucianism an! u!!hist teachings a%e base! on the same luminous >in!( an! all sages(
Confucius( Lao T'u o% u!!ha( want men to achie+e %ecognition an! %eali'ation of the ,co%%ect min!,
(cheng-hsin)" c 4s he &ut it( ,the min! of bo!hi (&'u-ti-hsin) dDc is 9ust anothe% name fo% the min! of
lo)alt) an! %ighteousness (chung-)i-hsin)" efc [54] 4s soon as one achie+es enlightenment( acco%!ing to
Ta-hui( the non-!ual natu%e of %ealit) will floo! one's consciousness" This insight both e.uali'es an!
eliminates all mun!ane !istinctions an! g%ants total f%ee!om an! autonom) to the &e%son who so
e*&e%iences it" Ta-hui !esc%ibe! this state to a Confucian schola%@
5f one achie+es a genuine b%eakth%ough( then 0one %eali'es that 1 a Confucian is no !iffe%ent f%om a
u!!hist( an! a u!!hist is no !iffe%ent f%om a Confucian? a monk is no !iffe%ent f%om a la)man( an! a
la)man is no !iffe%ent f%om a monk? an o%!ina%) man is no !iffe%ent f%om a sage( an! a sage is no !iffe%ent
f%om an o%!ina%) man" 05n fact1 5 am )ou an! )ou a%e 5? #ea+en is ea%th an! ea%th is #ea+en? wa+es a%e the
same as wate%( an! wate% is no !iffe%ent f%om wa+es" Aumis an! %ich butte% a%e but one taste? b%acelets an!
hai%&ins a%e all melte! f%om gol! """3hen )ou %each this state( )ou a%e in cont%ol of e+e%)thing"[55]
The basis fo% Ta-hui's s)nthesis of all teachings( as can be seen f%om this %e&%esentati+e &assage( clea%l) lies
in the &%imac) of s&i%itual %eali'ation" #is +ision of the mutual f%ee!om an! mutual &enet%ation of all
teachings !e%i+es p.2) f%om his un!e%stan!ing of the Ch'an life as a wa) of !)namic action an! is a %esult of
his own life e*&e%iences" Ta-hui's em&hasis on the e*&e%ience of enlightenment( his st%ess on koan
me!itation an! finall)( his +iew of the com&atibilit) of the th%ee teachings continue! to influence Ch'an
monks of late% gene%ations" Chung-feng >ing-&en of the Buan( Ch'u-shih 7an-ch'i( ghij A'ung-ku Ching-
lung(, Xkl an! #an-shan Te-ch'ing m"n of the >ing a%e but some outstan!ing e*am&les"[56]
NOTE
1 " ;" T" /u'uki( Cssa)s in 2en u!!hism( /econ! /e%ies (Lon!on( Di!e% an! Com&an)( 19:0)( &&" 18-
1=<? >iu%a M /asaki( 2en ;ust (6"B"? #a%cou%t( %ace an! 3o%l!( 5nc" 1966)( &" 13? #ein%ich ;umoulin /" -"
4 #isto%) of 2en u!!hism (oston( eacon 8%ess" 1963)( &&" 1$3 -- 136? Ja%ma C" C" Chang( The 8%actice
of 2en (6" B" #a%&e% M Dow" 19<9)( &&" 6$-118" Ta-hui's lette%s in th%ee chuan ha+e been t%anslate! into
-a&anese b) 4%aki Aengo( ;aie sho (Tok)o( 1969)" iog%a&h) an! stu!) of Ta-hui a&&ea% in &&" $=<-$68"
2 " Conce%ning the ea%l) histo%) of Ch'an u!!hism( see 8hili& " Bam&olsk)( The &latfo%m /ut%a of the
/i*th 8at%ia%ch (6"B" Columbia Gni+e%sit) 8%ess( 196:)( &&" 1-<:"
3 " ;umoulin( 4 #isto%) Ff 2en u!!hism( &" 106"
4 " 7o% a !iscussion of these Ch'an maste%s( see Bam&olsk)( The 8latfo%m /ut%a( &&" <3 << an! ;umoulin(
&&" 96- 99"
5 " Bam&olsk)( The 8latfo%m /ut%a( &&" <=-<<"
6 " #ui-ts'ung's &%eface to Chu-ting's #su ch'uan-teng-lu( cite! b) 5wai #i%osato( 6isshi ukk)oshi %onko
(Tok)o" The To)o unko( 19<:)( &" =60"
7 " 5bi!"( &"=61"
8 " The basic sou%ce fo% Ta-hui's life is Ta-hui 8u-chueh Ch'an-shih nien-&u (ch%onological biog%a&h) of Ta-
hui)( com&ile! b) Ta-hui's !isci&le( Tsu-)ung" The%e is also an insc%i&tion w%itten b) Chang Chun( ,Ta-hui
8'u-chueh Ch'an-shih t'a-ming,( inclu!e! in Ta-hui 8'u-chueh Ch'an-shih )u-lu T=:( &&" 836-83:" Chih-)ueh
lu( com&ile! b) Chu -u-chi of the >ing( also contains some a!!itional info%mation not foun! in the abo+e(
chuan 31 (Iol" =( &&" $09:-$106 of the Tai&ei %e&%int e!ition)"
9 " 6ien-&'u( un!e% Ch'ing-kuo 1st )ea%( &" 36"
10 " The !oct%ine of the 7i+e Danks( ,the !ialectic of enlightenment, is a cha%acte%istic featu%e of the
Ts'ao-tung school" 7o% a b%ief !iscussion( see ;umoulin( &&" 11$-118" 7o% a !etaile! !iscussion( see Gi
#aku9o( 2enshushi kenk)u( Iol" 55 (Tok)o( 19=3)( &&"$<3-3$0"
11 " 6ien-&u( un!e% Cheng-ho =th )ea%( &" 8a-b"
12 " 5bi!"( un!e% #suan-ho 6th )ea%( &" 1:b"
13 " 5bi!"( un!e% #suan-ho :th )ea%( &" 18a"
14 " 5bi!"( &" 18a- b" cf" /u'uki( Cssa)s in 2en u!!hism( /econ! /e%ies( &&" $9-31"
15 " Ta-hui 8'u-Chueh Ch'an-shih )u-lu( chuan 16( T=:( &" 8:8c"
p.21
16 " 6ien-&'u( un!e% /hao-hsing 11th )ea%( &&" 39b-=0a"
17 " 4cco%!ing to anothe% sto%)( Ta-hui himself was the !i%ect cause fo% this catast%o&he" 5n o%!e% to
celeb%ate Chang Chiu-ch'eng's !ee& un!e%stan!ing of u!!hism( Ta-hui ga+e a s&ecial lectu%e at his
monaste%) on Ching-shan !u%ing which he ma!e %efe%ence to the ,ow of ;i+ine 4%m, (shen-&i-kung) op
q as a figu%e of s&eech" #owe+e%( at that time the%e was un%est at the bo%!e%s an! this +e%) wea&on was
un!e% !iscussion fo% &ossible a!o&tion in the cam&aign" Ch'in #ui thought that Ta-hui was &u%&osel)
%i!iculing the cou%t an! the%efo%e laici'e! him an! banishe! him to #eng-chou" /hih-shih chi-ku-lueh( chuan
=" T=9 &" 889" 6ien-&'u ( un!e% /hao-hsing 11th )ea%( &&" =0b-=1a"
18 " 6ien-&'u( un!e% /hao-hsing $6th )ea%( &" <$b"
19 " /elections f%om this wo%k ha+e been t%anslate! b) Chang Chung-)uan( F%iginal Teachings of Ch'an
u!!hism (6ew Bo%k( Dan!om #ouse( 1969)"
20 " >iu%a M /asaki( 2en ;ust( &&" 3<<-3<6"
21 " /u'uki( Cssa)s in 2en u!!hism( /econ! /e%ies( &&" 90-93"
22 " Chung-feng #o-shang kuang-lu( .uote! in t%anslation b) >iu%a M /asaki" 2en ;ust( &&" =-6"
23 " Ja%ma C" C" Chang( The 8%actice of 2en (6"B" 8e%ennial Lib%a%)( 19<9)( &" :1"
24 " 5bi!"
25 " 6an #uai-chin( Ch'an )u tao kai-lun" (Tai&ei( 1968) &&" :: -:8"
26 " Clau!io 6a%an9o an! Dobe%t F%nstein( Fn the 8s)cholog) of >e!itation (6ew Bo%k( The Iiking 8%ess(
19:1)" &&" 19-:="
27 " 5bi!"( &&":<-89"
28 " ;umoulin( 4 #isto%) of 2en u!!hism( &" $<8"
29 " Lu Ch'an-an( #siao-shuo t''u-)u hui-shih (/hanghai( Chung-hua ooksto%e( 196=)( &" 6<0" Lu .uotes
a &assage f%om the /hih-t'ou chi (;%eam of the De! Chambe%) in which the te%m occu%s"
30 " 5 am in!ebte! to /i!ne) L" J%eenblatt fo% fi%st int%o!ucing me to the lite%atu%e of ethnometho!olog)
an! then !iscussing with me the +a%ious issues in+ol+e!" The classical theo%etical fo%mulation about
,multi&le %ealities, an! the &%ocess of t%ansition f%om one %ealit) to anothe% th%ough ,shock, an! ,lea&, is
gi+en b) 4lf%e! /chut' in 4lf%e! /chut'( Collecte! 8a&e%s( Iol" 5@ The 8%oblem of /ocial Dealit) (The #ague@
>a%itinus 6i9hoff( 196$)( &&" $0:-$<9" 4lf%e! /chut'( Fn 8henomenolog) an! /ocial Delations( e!ite! with
an int%o!uction b) #elmut D" 3agne% (Chicago( Gni+e%sit) of Chicago 8%ess( 19:0)( &&" $=<-$6$" #a%ol!
Ja%finkel( /tu!ies in Cthnometho!olog) (6" -" 8%entice-#all( 5nc"( 196:)( Cha&te% $ ,/tu!ies of the Doutine
J%oun!s of C+e%)-!a) 4cti+ities,( &&" 3<-:<" 5 %ecogni'e that the%e a%e basic &hiloso&hical !iffe%ences
between Ch'an u!!hism an! &henomenolog) an! ethnometho!olog)" >) aim in b%inging in these mate%ials
is to focus on the simila%it) of the ,techni.ues, use! b) a Ch'an monk an! an ethnometho!ologist to effect
some so%t of t%ansfo%mation( be it enlightenment o% a new awa%eness of the ,%ealit) of e+e%)!a) life," 5t
goes without sa)ing that 5 am not he%e com&a%ing the contents o% the conse.uences of these
t%ansfo%mations"
31 " Ja%finkel( &" 3<"
32 " This +iew is most elo.uentl) a%ticulate! b) 8ete% L" e%ge% an! Thomas Luckmann in The /ocial
Const%uction of Dealit)( 4 T%eatise in the /ociolog) of Anowle!ge (6ew Bo%k( ;ouble!a) M Com&an)( 5nc"(
196:)"
33 " Ja%finkel(&"3:"
34 " 5bi!"( &&" 3:-38"
p.22
35 " 5bi!"( &" =="
36 " Fne cent%al %ule of con+e%sation( whethe% it is the summons-answe% se.uence o% a .uestion-answe%
&ai%( is what /chegloff calls( ,con!itional %ele+ance," oth koans an! e*changes like this one fail to fulfill this
%e.ui%ement( fo% the answe% in eithe% case is in one wa) o% anothe% not %ele+ant to the .uestion" Cmmanuel
4" /chegloff( ,6otes on a Con+e%sational 8%actice@ 7o%mulating 8lace,( in ;a+i! /u!now( e!" /tu!ies in /ocial
5nte%action (6"B" The 7%ee 8%ess( 19:$)( &&" :<-119" /ee also ,/e.uencing in Con+e%sational F&enings,( in
4me%ican 4nth%o&ologist( LNN( 6( ;ecembe%( 1968( &&" 10:<-9<"
37 " 4 face-to-face inte%action( 9ust as a con+e%sation( e*hibits ce%tain featu%es an! o&e%ates acco%!ing to
ce%tain necessa%) %ules" Jeo%ge 8sathas an! 7%ances 3aksle% !etaile! these in thei% stu!) an! then
conclu!e( ,7o% face to face inte%action to continue( all the %e.ui%e! featu%es must %emain &%esent an! be
continuall) +ali!ate!" " " Fne ma) !elibe%atel) act to !istu%b the othe%( as in the case of Ja%finkel's 'nast)
su%&%ises'( which calls into .uestion the othe%'s taken-fo%-g%ante! assum&tions" 5f the othe% is unable o% not
&e%mitte! to %eestablish those featu%es that a%e necessa%) to inte%act( then the %elationshi& ma) be
te%minate!," Jeo%ge 8sathas an! 7%ances 3aksle%( ,Cssential 7eatu%es of 7ace-to-7ace 5nte%action,( in
8henomenological /ociolog)@ 5ssues an! 4&&lications( e!ite! b) Jeo%ge 8sathas (6ew Bo%k( -ohn 3ile) M
/ons( 19:3)( &" 1:3"
38 " 4lf%e! /chut'( Fn 8henomenolog) an! /ocial Delations" &" $<=" /chut' mentions !iffe%ent t)&es of
,shock, which +a%) in intensit) an! natu%e( the !iscussion of which occu%s on &&" $<=-$<<"
39 " 4%thu% ;eikman( ,;eautomati'ation of the >)stical C*&e%ience,( 8s)chiat%) $9 (1966)( &" 3$="
40 " -ulian >" ;a+i!son( 'The 8h)siolog) of >e!itation an! >)stical /tates of Consciousness,( 8e%s&ecti+e
in iolog) an! >e!icine( Iol" 19( 6o" 3( /&%ing 19:6( &" 3:0"
41 " ;aie sho( &" 80"
42 " Ta-hui )u-lu( chuan 19( T=:( &&" 890c-891a"
43 " 5bi!"( &" 890a"
44 " 5bi!"( chuan 13( T=:( &" 863b-c"
45 " ;aie sho( &" <:"
46 " Ta-hui )u-lu( chuan $=( &" =:( &" 910c"
47 " ;aie sho( &" $0:? cf" Chang( The 8%actice of 2en( &&" 91 -9$"
48 " Ta-hui )u-lu( chuan 19( T=:( &" 890a-b"
49 " 5bi!"( chuan 16( T=:( &" 8:9c"
50 " 5bi!"( chuan $1( T=:( &&" 8=9c-900a"
51 " ;aie sho( &" 6<"
52 " Ta-hui )u-lu( chuan $0( T=:( &&" 901c-90$a"
53 " ;aie sho( &" 1$$"
54 " Ta-hui )u-lu( chuan $$( T=:( &" 91$a"
55 " ;aie sho( &" 1=<"
56 " The inst%uctions on koan me!itation b) Chung-feng( 7an-ch'i an! A'ung-ku can be foun! in Ch'an-
kuan ts'e-chin( rst e!ite! b) Chu-hung" This book has been t%anslate! into -a&anese b) 7u9i)oshi -ikai
an! &ublishe! as Iol" 19 in the 2en no go%oku se%ies (Tok)o( 19:0)"