Wind Power

Introduction
1
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

WIND POWER

Alexandre Challet
Stefan Golling
Benoit Suhr
Tobias Vogel
Katharina Winter

850504 - *130
801230 - *159
850609 - *191
830914 - *870
850112 - *142

Division of Energy Engineering
Joakim Lundgren

[t1]
Introduction

2
Preface

In the cause of the global warming and the discussion about the raising CO
2
emissions
the sustainable energy systems become more and more important.
Especially the use of wind energy increased drastically during the last two years all over
the world. At the same time arose a discussion about the technical, economical and
environmental advantage and disadvantage of wind energy.
In regard to this we choose on- and offshore wind energy as a topic for our second
assignment during the class Sustainable Energy Systems which we hear in our first
period of our exchange studies. This choice was motivated by the will to know more
about this particular and new developed energy source. Therefore special thanks goes
to our teacher Joakim Lundgren who supported us in every task and pressured us to
start immediately with the work on the project. After a month of research it is easier to
figure out the difficulties and the advantages linked to this technology. If for economical
reasons, this technology still not be valuable yet, it was for all of us a great experience
to know more about this ecological energy.

Introduction

3
Summary

The growth of the world population is enormous. The consumption of energy increases
also a lot. The fossil resources run out and it is of highest interest to find sustainable
energy systems to satisfy the energy consumption and save the last resources. Also
the global warming has to be stopped which is direct linked to the energy production.
This report gives an overview about the sustainable energy Wind power.
It is described the history of wind mills. The use in the past and the standard and use
today because the use of wind has changed. Also the report gives information about the
wind basics. In example it answers the question how the wind is developed, what are
the different kinds of wind, what was the wind speed in the past, how the wind and the
output could be in the future and where are good locations for wind parks.
The physical and technical part describes the transformation of wind power in electricity.
As well it gives a detailed description of different kinds of wind mills and its construction.
Inter alia this part shows the energy output against different sizes of wind mills, wind
speed and air density. The economic part shows the costs of wind power plants and
who is interested in such projects to spend money to this not very common energy
generation until now. Also the environmental impact of wind power plants was checked.
The influence is a lot of less than the public discussions let assume.
The aim of this report is to show that the wind power is an alternative to generate
energy in regions with winds. In those areas wind blows nearly all the time and it would
be a dissipation not using this power.
In conclusion wind power is an alternative for the future. It becomes more and more
cost-efficient and also the technique of the plants improves a lot which means a high
power output.

Introduction

4
CONTENTS

1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
2 History of wind power development. ........................................................................ 4
2.1 Early history ...................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Wind Power's Beginnings (1000 B.C. - 1300 A.D.) .................................... 4
2.1.2 Windmills in the Western World (1300 - 1875 A.D.)................................... 4
2.2 20
th
century development.................................................................................. 5
2.2.1 European Development ............................................................................. 6
2.3 The World Market Catches Up.......................................................................... 7
2.4 World wind capacity .......................................................................................... 8
3 Wind basics............................................................................................................ 11
3.1 Wind generation.............................................................................................. 11
3.2 Coriolis Force.................................................................................................. 12
3.3 Global Winds................................................................................................... 12
3.4 Local winds ..................................................................................................... 13
3.4.1 Sea Breezes ............................................................................................ 13
3.4.2 Mountain valley winds........................................................................... 15
3.4.3 Down slope wind...................................................................................... 15
3.5 Wind development in correlation to the climate change.................................. 15
3.6 Wind Index ................................................................................................... 16
3.7 Wind power in regions..................................................................................... 19
3.8 Temporary wind variation................................................................................ 25
3.9 Wind power in the future ................................................................................. 26
4 The global wind energy outlook scenario ............................................................... 28
5 Physical and technical background of wind power ................................................. 34
5.1 The Power in the wind and the power output of turbines ................................ 34
5.1.1 Power of wind depending on the wind speed........................................... 35
5.1.2 Power of wind depending on the rotor diameter....................................... 36
5.1.3 Power of wind depending on the air density. ........................................... 37
5.1.4 The power output of wind turbines........................................................... 38
5.2 Wind statistics as indicator for areas to build wind turbines ............................ 40
5.3 Development in size and power output of wind turbines ................................. 43
Introduction

5
5.4 Different kind of wind turbines, advantages and disadvantages ..................... 44
5.4.1 Vertical axis wind turbines. ...................................................................... 44
5.4.2 Horizontal axis wind turbines ................................................................... 46
5.5 Parts of wind turbines...................................................................................... 47
5.6 Number of blades on wind turbines................................................................. 49
5.7 Different kind of power regulation ................................................................... 50
5.8 Design of rotor blades..................................................................................... 52
5.8.1 Aero dynamical profile of rotor blades...................................................... 52
5.8.2 The tip of rotor blades.............................................................................. 53
5.8.3 Materials used for blades......................................................................... 54
5.9 Wind turbines and their orientation to the wind ............................................... 55
5.10 Different kind of wind turbine towers ............................................................... 56
5.11 Foundations of wind turbines .......................................................................... 58
5.11.1 Onshore................................................................................................... 58
5.11.2 Offshore................................................................................................... 58
5.12 Electricity production in a wind turbine............................................................ 62
5.12.1 Synchronous generator............................................................................ 62
5.12.2 Asynchronous generators ........................................................................ 63
5.12.3 Wind turbines without gear ...................................................................... 65
5.12.4 Grid connection........................................................................................ 65
5.12.5 Alternative production scenarios.............................................................. 66
6 Wind energy economic plan................................................................................... 67
6.1 The costs of wind energy ................................................................................ 68
6.2 The financing of wind power plants................................................................. 71
6.3 Investors in wind turbines................................................................................ 73
6.4 Middelgrunden: The steps of an offshore wind power farm............................. 76
6.5 Butte du tlgraphe: A French project in wind energy..................................... 79
6.6 Simonsberg: one of the first german wind power farm.................................... 81
7 Environmental Impact............................................................................................. 83
7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 83
7.2 Possible Environmental Impact During Installation of a Wind farm................. 83
7.2.1 Possible Environmental Impact Due to Connecting the
Wind Farm to the Grid.............................................................................. 84
7.3 Possible Environmental Impact by Normal Wind Farm Operation .................. 85
Introduction

6
7.3.1 Disturbance of Water ............................................................................... 85
7.3.2 Landscape ............................................................................................... 85
7.3.3 Sound from Wind Turbines ...................................................................... 87
7.3.4 Infrasonic ................................................................................................. 89
7.3.5 Shadow casting........................................................................................ 89
7.3.6 Impact of Cable Links .............................................................................. 90
7.3.7 Disturbance of the Seabed ...................................................................... 91
7.3.8 Contamination of the Environment by Materials....................................... 91
7.3.9 Effects on sea dweller.............................................................................. 91
7.3.10 Effects on birds ........................................................................................ 92
7.4 Possible Environmental Impact by Maintenance Operation............................ 93
7.4.1 Possible Environmental Impact During Dismantling of the
Wind Turbines .......................................................................................... 93
7.4.2 Position of the environmental and conservation organizations ................ 93
8 Possibilities of CO
2
- reduction by usage of offshore wind energy ......................... 94
9 Discussion.............................................................................................................. 96
10 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 100
11 Bibliography ......................................................................................................... 102
Appendixes.................................................................................................................. 111
I) Derivation of the power of wind formula................................................................ 111
II) Proof of Betz law ................................................................................................. 112

Introduction

1
1 Introduction
The background of this report is the consumption of energy in the world. The world
energy consumption is increasing dramatically also grows the population very fast and
more and more people want to have energy and a higher living standard.

Figure 1: Development of the world population [1I]

Figure 2: World energy consumption 1972 to 2005 [2I]

China has already the one child family but when you have a look on the population
trend of China even the powerful government is not able to stop it. At the moment the
per capita consumption of energy in countries with an enormous economic boom like
China is only about 1/3 comparing to countries of the industrialized world. This
consumption will assimilate to the western world consumption. Consequently the
resources run out in the near future. It is very important to search for new kinds of
energy generation. At the moment there are a lot of very good appendages. Some
Introduction

2
examples for renewable and sustainable energy systems are Biomass, Geothermal,
Hydro power, Solar power, Wave energy and Wind power.
Also a big problem is the CO
2
emission which also increases with the production of
more energy. CO
2
is mostly responsible for the Green House Effect. Most of the
sustainable energy systems can help to reduce CO
2
emission. In example wind power
can save 822 and 606 g CO
2
/ kWh. [19k*]
Wind power in combination with other renewable energy systems is able to satisfy the
energy demand. Wind is a source which exists all the time. There are fluctuations in the
wind and the generation of energy with wind power is not in every region efficient but on
the globe are a lot of areas with very good winds. In example at the coastline of the
Northern Sea in Europe are areas with a great potential. It is possible to substitute some
older power plants with wind power plants to save the fossil resources.

In a combination of renewable energy systems it would be possible to replace
conventional power plants. But this would be only possible if large regions, for example
Europe, work together. The production of energy out of wind, water or sun is not in all
areas over the world in the same way possible. On a lot of coastlines are wind farms
productive all over the year, in some regions the production of solar energy is more
useful because of the regional weather conditions. In other regions is water power the
best way of energy production. With a optimized grid in Europe it is maybe possible to
share the electricity all over Europe and with this to cover the energy consumption.

The objectives of this report are to describe the wind power as a sustainable energy
system. The reader shall get more knowledge about the History, the Wind basics,
Technique, Economic and Environmental impact. With these information it should be
possible to make own minds about wind power and decide if wind power has potential in
the future for a far cleaner generation of energy.

This report starts with a review of the history of wind energy in the last centuries. Where
and when started the mankind trying to use the power of the wind? What are the
machines looking like in the regions where they are developed? What are the main
fields the machines are used for in all this times? What is the today installed wind
energy capacity?
Another part in this report is the wind by itself. What is wind and what is the reason for
wind? In every region of the world are different kind of wind to observe and also it is to
Introduction

3
divide into winds on the coast and in the inland or the mountains. Is it possible to use
the wind in every region in the same way? The world will face a change in the wind
development caused by the climate change, offers this change the possibility to make
new regions accessible for wind power? Are with the climate change nowadays wind
power regions able to produce wind energy in the same way like today?
As everyone can see and feel is the wind not in every season and also not in every time
of the day in the same speed available. Are this fluctuations advantages or not?
With the development of wind turbines was it consequential that the turbines get more
efficient and with this it was possible to replace older turbines in sites which were used
since long time to produce wind energy, to show how this Repowering works and looks
like is an example in this report included.
The fifth chapter includes the physical and technical background of wind energy. It
would give an overview on the energy the wind is providing and which details influence
the energy we can produce out of wind. Another point is that an operating company,
which plans a wind turbine or a wind farm, needs to know where a profitable area for
such a cost intensive project is. This is possible by the use of regional wind statistics
which were explained here.
Due to the development of wind turbines the world has seen two different groups of
wind turbines. This report tries to show why one of them is nowadays dominating the
market.
The technical background included in this report shows the main parts of nowadays
wind turbines. In short explanations it will show how a wind turbine is constructed and in
which ways it is regulated to work in the optimum. The large parts of wind turbines
which were also the most expensive parts are more detailed described. As a summary
this chapter wants to show how is the energy in the wind is transformed into a for us
useful energy.
This report also wants to answer the questions about the costs of wind energy,
economical questions are the basis of decisions in the market. What costs wind energy
and who is financing wind farms? In three examples for todays wind parks in three
different countries are answers shown.
The detractors of wind energy are often arguing with the environmental impact in the
landscape and the wildlife. Main topics of them are the noise produced by turbines and
also the shadows produced by high towers and the rotating blades. This report tries to
give answers to this topics and will show the impact into the environment.
History of wind power development.

4
2 History of wind power development.

This part will present a history of wind power development from the first use of wind
before Christ in the windmill to the new turbine. It will present the wind power not as an
electricity producer but as a great energy.
The historical part is mainly based on two references The illustrated history of wind
development [2ac] and the Danish wind industry association [1ac].

2.1 Early history
2.1.1 Wind Power's Beginnings (1000 B.C. - 1300 A.D.)
The first windmills were developed to automate the tasks of grain-grinding and water-
pumping and the earliest-known design is the vertical axis system developed in Persia
about 500-900 A.D. The first use was apparently water
pumping, but the exact method of water transport is not
known because no drawings or designs (only verbal
accounts) are available. Vertical-axis windmills were also
used in China, which is often claimed as their birthplace.
While the belief that the windmill was invented in China
more than 2000 years ago is widespread and may be
accurate, the earliest actual documentation of a Chinese
windmill was in 1219 A.D. by the Chinese statesman
Yehlu Chhu-Tshai. [2ac]

2.1.2 Windmills in the Western World (1300 - 1875 A.D.)
The first windmills that appear in Western Europe were those with the horizontal-axis
configuration. The reason for the sudden evolution from the vertical-axis Persian design
approach is unknown, but the fact that European water wheels also had a horizontal-
axis configuration, and apparently served as the technological model for the early
windmills, may provide part of the answer. These mills used wooden cog-and-ring gears
Figure 2.1: Alford, Five
Sail Mill 1955,
Lincolnshire [10ac]

5
to translate the motion of the horizontal shaft to vertical movement to turn a grindstone.
This gear was apparently adapted for use on post mills from the horizontal-axis water
wheel developed by Vitruvius.
The process of perfecting the windmill sail, making incremental improvements in
efficiency, took 500 years. By the time the process was completed, windmill sails had all
the major features recognized by modern designers as being crucial to the performance
of modern wind turbine blades, including:
Camber along the leading edge,
Placement of the blade spar at the quarter chord position (25% of the way back
from the leading edge toward the trailing edge),
Centre of gravity at the same 1/4 chord position, and 4) nonlinear twist of the
blade from root to tip (Drees, 1977).
These mills were the "electrical motor" of pre-industrial Europe. Applications were
diverse, ranging from the common waterwheel, irrigation, or drainage pumping using a
scoop wheel (single or tandem), grain-grinding (again, using single or multiple stones),
saw-milling of timber, and the processing of other commodities such as spices, cocoa,
paints and dyes, and tobacco. [2ac]
2.2 20
th
century development
The most obvious influence on 20th century wind
power was the increasing use of electricity. The first
use of a large windmill to generate electricity was a
system built in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1888 by Charles
F. Brush. The Brush machine (shown in figure 2.2)
was a post mill with a multiple-bladed "picket-fence"
rotor 17 meters in diameter, featuring a large tail
hinged to turn the rotor out of the wind. It was the
first windmill to incorporate a step-up gearbox (with a
ratio of 50:1) in order to turn a direct current
generator at its required operational speed (in this
case, 500 RPM). [1ac]
Figure 2.2: A steel-bladed
water pumping windmill in
the American Midwest (late
1800's) [1ac]

6
Despite its relative success in operating for 20 years, the Brush windmill demonstrated
the limitations of the low-speed, high-solidity rotor for electricity production applications.
The 12 kilowatts produced by its 17-meter rotor pales beside the 70-100 kilowatts
produced by a comparably-sized, modern, lift-type rotor.
In 1891, the Dane Poul La Cour developed the first electrical output wind machine to
incorporate the aerodynamic design principles (low-solidity, four-bladed rotors
incorporating primitive airfoil shapes) used in the best European tower mills. The higher
speed of the La Cour rotor made these mills quite practical for electricity generation. By
the close of World War I, the use of 25 kilowatt electrical output machines had spread
throughout Denmark, but cheaper and larger fossil-fuel steam plants soon put the
operators of these mills out of business. [1ac]
2.2.1 European Development
European developments continued after World War II, when temporary shortages of
fossil fuels led to higher energy costs. As in the United States, the primary application
for these systems was interconnection to the electric power grid.
In Denmark, the 200 kW Gedser Mill wind turbine operated
successfully until the early 1960s, when declining fossil-
fuel prices once again made wind energy made
uncompetitive with steam-powered generating plants. This
machine featured a three-bladed upwind rotor with fixed
pitch blades that used mechanical windmill technology
augmented with an airframe support structure. The design
was much less mechanically complex than the Smith-
Putnam design. In fact, it was not that far removed from
Poul La Cour's 1920-era windmill (a fact that worked to its
advantage). [2ac]
Post war activity in Denmark and Germany largely dictated
the two major horizontal-axis design approaches that
would emerge when attention returned to wind turbine development in the early 1970s.
The Danes refined the simple, fixed pitch, Gedser Mill design, utilizing advanced
materials, improved aerodynamic design, and aerodynamic controls to reduce some of
Figure 2.3: An airframe
holding together the
three blades of the
" Gedser Mollen [1ac]

7
its shortcomings. The engineering innovations of the light-weight, higher efficiency
German machines, such as a teeter hinge at the rotor hub, were used later by U.S.
designers.
The development of modern vertical-axis rotors was begun in France by G.J.M.
Darrieus in the 1920s. Of the several rotors Darrieus designed, the most important one
is a rotor comprising slender, curved, airfoil-section blades attached at the top and
bottom of a rotating vertical tube. Major development work on this concept did not begin
until the concept was reinvented in the late 1960s by two Canadian researchers. [1ac]
2.3 The World Market Catches Up
In northern Europe and Asia, wind turbine installations increased steadily through the
1980s and 90s. The higher cost of electricity and excellent wind resources in northern
Europe created a small, but stable, market for
single, cooperative-owned wind turbines and
small clusters of machines. After 1990, most
market activity shifted to Europe and Asia. The
installation of over 10,000 megawatts of
European wind capacity has helped support a
thriving private wind turbine development and
manufacturing industry. [2ac]

And from 1995 as the next figure show, wind power capacity is growing really fast. In
eleven years, the total wind power energy production has been multiply by 15. Every
Year the installed capacity nearly beat the record of the year before. In 2005, the market
grew by 41% which is the record. [3ac]
This development shows that the global wind energy industry is responding fast to the
challenge of manufacturing at the required level, and manages to deliver sustained
growth.
Figure 2.4: The worlds most
productive wind farm is Nysted Wind
Park in the southern part of the
Baltic Sea. [11ac]

8

Figure 2.5: Global cumulative installed capacity [3ac]
2.4 World wind capacity
The wind energy market boom really fast and 2006 was one of the record years. All the
continent and above all North America, Europe and more recently Asia (As we can see
in the figure , that shows the annual installed capacity by continent) are installing more
and more wind power installations.

Figure 2.6: Annual installed capacity 2003 to 2006 [3ac]


9
In 2006, the countries with the highest total installed capacity are Germany (20,621
MW), Spain (11,615 MW), the USA (11,603 MW), India (6,270 MW) and Denmark
(3,136). Thirteen countries around the world can now be counted among those with
over 1000 MW of wind capacity, with France and Canada reaching this threshold in
2006. [3ac]
According to GWEC [3ac], in terms of new installed capacity in 2006, the US continued
to lead compared to the past years with 2,454 MW, followed by Germany (2,233 MW),
India (1,840 MW), Spain (1,587 MW), China (1,347 MW) and France (810 MW). This
development shows that new players such as France and China are gaining ground.
But we can see in the next figure that almost 85% of the world total capacity is produced
by only ten countries.

Figure 2.7: Cumulative installed capacity GWEC [3ac]

Europe is still leading the market with 48,545 MW of installed capacity at the end of
2006, representing 65% of the global total. In 2006, the European wind capacity grew
by 19%, producing approximately 100 TWh of electricity, equal to 3.3% of total EU
electricity consumption in an average wind year. [4ac]


10
Asia, with the leadership of India and China, is becoming a strong wind power market
which grow really fast do. Indeed, Asia has experienced the strongest increase in
installed capacity outside of Europe, with an addition of 3,679 MW, taking the continent
over 10,600 MW. In 2006, the continent grew by 53% and accounted for 24% of new
installations.
The strongest market here remains India with over 1,840 MW of new installed capacity,
which takes its total figure up to 6,270 MW. China more than doubled its total installed
capacity by installing 1,347 MW of wind energy in 2006, a 70% increase from last years
figure. This brings China up to 2,604 MW of capacity, making it the sixth largest market
world wide. The Chinese market was boosted by the countrys new Renewable Energy
Law, which entered into force on 1 January 2006. [3ac]

Wind basics

11
3 Wind basics
3.1 Wind generation
To appreciate the potential of wind power it is very important knowing the cause of the
wind generation. In origin the sun is responsible for the development of wind.
Every year the sun beams 1,5x10
18
kilowatt hours (kWh) in shape of light and thermal to
the earth. This means every second 47 billions kWh. In the year 2003 was consumed
16 million GWh electricity on the earth. This means that the sun delivers in six hours as
much energy as the consumption in one year is. [1T]
Figure 3.1 shows the thermal allocation on the earth.

Figure 3.1: Thermal allocation on the earth [2T]

As you can see on the picture the thermal is not evenly spread. The regions around
equator, at 0 latitude are heated more by the sun than the rest of the globe. The hot
areas are indicated in the warm colours, red, orange and yellow in this infrared picture
of the sea surface temperatures (from NASA satellite, NOAA-7 in July 1984). [2T]
Reasons for these disparity are:
Spherical shape of the earth
The unequal thermal capacity of the ground (continents are faster heated than
the oceans)
The temperature decrease with the height
Time of day
The weather for example the impact of clouds
Wetness of the air
Wind basics

12
For a certain wetness of the air, the warmer the air the lighter it is. The hot air rise into
the sky until 10 km altitude and will spread to the north and south. If the globe didnt
rotate the air would simply arrive at the North Pole and the South Pole, sink down, and
return to the equator. [1T]
3.2 Coriolis Force
The rotation of the globe causes the Coriolis Effect which has a big impact on the
direction of the wind on the earth. This effect is the apparent deflection of moving
objects from a straight path when they are viewed from a rotating frame of references.
In the northern hemisphere the deflection of wind moving along the surface of the earth
is to the right and to the left of the direction of travel in the southern hemisphere. [3T]
3.3 Global Winds
In every hemisphere are three different regions of wind as you can see in the following
figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Different regions of wind [4T]

In the tropical latitude between the equator and the 30. latitude there is located the
Hadly - Circulation. The hot air rises at the equator and streams to the poles under the
impact of the rotation of the globe and the Coriolis Force. At the 30. latitude the air sink
down and moves back to the equator as Passatwinds . Also under the impact of the
Coriolis Force the wind deflects to the West.
In the moderate latitude between the 30. and the 60. latitude is located the Rosby
Circulation . In this area dominate powerful winds from the West.
Between the 60. altitude and the poles dominate winds from the East. [4T]
Wind basics

13
3.4 Local winds
Global winds are important in determining prevailing winds in a given area. But local
climate conditions may wield an influence on the most common wind directions. Local
wind are always superimposed upon the larger scale wind systems. The sum of global
and local effects influence the wind direction in an area. When larger scale winds are
light, local winds may dominate the wind patterns. [5T]
There are three most important kinds of local compensation winds. This local winds are
affected by temperature differences as well as by the ground surface.
3.4.1 Sea Breezes
Land masses are heated by the sun more quickly than the sea in the daytime. The
following graphs describe the development of Sea Breezes.

1. The air pressure is even tempered. There are no
pressure differences between the sea and the coast.

2. The coast is heated by the sun more than the sea.
The capacity of water is bigger than the capacity of
land. The density of warm air is lower than the
density of cold air and the temperature difference
causes a pressure difference.

Coast
Coast
Sea
Cold Warm
Sea
Wind basics

14
3. This pressure difference is not stabile and causes
an air movement. The air moves from the land to the
sea. In the altitude the pressure difference is bigger
and also the air movement is more powerful.

4. This air movement generate a deficient air above
the ground and an overpressure above the sea. Near
to the ground the wind moves from the sea to the
land and in higher air films from the land to the sea.

5. On the ground the air moves from the sea to the
land and warm up, goes up and moves back to the
sea. This warm air cool down over the sea. The more
powerful the sun, the stronger is this wind. This cycle
ends when the sun intensity gets lower at the end of
the day.

6. At night this cycle moves backwards. The air cool
down above the coast and warm up above the sea.
Because of the lower difference of temperature at
night the cycle is a lot of weaker than by day. This air
movement is an daily phenomenon and very
important for wind power energy because for a
constant energy production is this stabile wind
necessary.
Figure 3.3: Development
of Sea Breezes [6T]
Sea
Coast
Sea
Sea
Coast
Coast
High-pressure Low-pressure
Sea
Coast
Wind basics

15
3.4.2 Mountain valley winds
Also in the mountains are a lot wind phenomenon. Those regions display interesting
weather patterns. After sunrise the mountain sides warm up and the wind moves uphill.
At morning the valley wind becomes stronger. During the night the air near to the
mountain sides cool more down than the air in the same altitude but in free atmosphere.
Consequently develop cold down winds on the mountain side.
The following graphics in figure 3.4 show this effect. The left picture is at lunch time and
the right picture during the night.

Figure 3.4: Mountain valley winds [6T]
3.4.3 Down slope wind
This kind of wind develop when air mass overflow mountains.
Wind flowing down the leeward sides of mountains can be quite powerful: Examples are
the Foehn in the Alps in Europe, the Chinook in the Rocky Mountains and the Zonda in
the Andes.
This mountain winds are strong but often there is less space in the valleys for wind
parks and also the altitude above the sea level is problem because of the low density of
the air. [5T]
3.5 Wind development in correlation to the climate change
The climate change is a problem for the whole earth. A lot of things changed and the
weather is not as stable like it was in the past. Every year are more and more
catastrophes with gale force winds, hurricanes and tornados which destroy houses
and cities. For the use of the wind power it is of high interest knowing something about
the development of wind. Especially the trend of the average wind speed which is
important for the generation of energy.

Wind basics

16
3.6 Wind Index
The Wind Index is a statistical, monthly mean which describes the relationship
between the notified proceeds in kilo-Watt-hours (kWh) of wind power plants of one
region in one month to the average proceeds over a long time of this wind power plant
in the region.
The aim of this index is helping the operating company estimate the result of each
month of there wind energy plant without the big influence of the changing wind.
Consequently it is easier for them to compare with other plants and find faster technical
problems of there plants. Also it can be used to analyse the development of the wind.
The index is a percentage which is true for each region and one month. 100 % is the
mean wind speed of the last 30 years. For example there is an index about 63 % in a
region for a certain month. This means that this month is 37 % behind an average
month. [7T]
Each following graphic shows the Wind Index over one year in Germany from 1993 to
2006. The red zones are the area with the strongest winds while the blue zones have
the weakest winds.

Wind basics

17

Figure 3.5: Wind Index Germany [8T]

It is obvious that the mean wind speed is not constant. Towards the more windstorms
the mean wind speed decreased in the last years. Also the northern coastline is affected
were the most wind parks are located.
A wind speed of 4 m/s in 10 m high above the ground is necessary for an economic use
of wind power plant. This condition is achieved every year on the coastline of Germany.
[9T]

A general statement is:
The weather is chaotic so it is not possible to make a detailed outlook for a long
time
From the view of climate scientist since 1990 the wind is to describe as normal
Simulations of the climate showing no big changes of the wind for the future
Long term meteorological data show that mean wind speeds over a period of 15
years have high fluctuations (see following graphic)
Wind basics

18
The following graphic 3.6 shows the development of the World-Wind-Atlas-Index
(WWA-Index) of the period of 54 years in Germany. The WWA-Index includes data of
wind speeds which were converted in kilo Watt (kW).

= Mean of years

Figure 3.6: WWA Index [10T]
The fluctuation of wind is also very good to see.
The following figure 3.7 shows the wind energy offer in Germany.

Figure 3.7: Wind energy offer Germany [11T]
Coastline, Islands Low mountain range North German lowlands
North German lowlands, forested
Wind basics

19
The graph describes the different areas of Germany. The green line is for the coast line,
the red for the low mountain range, the purple for the northern lowlands and the blue
line for the forested lowlands. Its quite similar to other European countries because the
most wind is at the coast line.
Possibly the climate change has an impact on the development of the wind. But this is
not clear at the moment and also the opinions of the scientist differ.

3.7 Wind power in regions
For a high efficient of wind parks it is also very important choosing regions with a high
average wind speed. In the following maps wind speeds are calculated at 80 m, the hub
height of modern, 77-m diameter, and 1500 kW turbines. Since relatively few
observations are available at 80 m, the Least Square extrapolation technique is utilized
and revised here to obtain estimates of wind speeds at 80 m given observed wind
speeds at 10 m (widely available) and a network of sounding stations. Tower data from
the Kennedy Space Centre (Florida) were used to validate the results. Globally, ~13%
of all reporting stations experience annual mean wind speeds 6.9 m/s at 80 m (i.e.,
wind power class 3 or greater) and can therefore be considered suitable for low-cost
wind power generation. This estimate is believed to be conservative. Of all continents,
North America has the largest number of stations in class 3 (453) and Antarctica has
the largest percent (60%). Areas with great potential are found in Northern Europe
along the North Sea, the southern tip of the South American continent, the island of
Tasmania in Australia, the Great Lakes region, and the north-eastern and north-western
coasts of North America. The global average 10-m wind speed over the ocean from
measurements is 6.64 m/s (class 6); that over land was 3.28 m/s (class 1). The
calculated 80-m values are 8.60 m/s (class 6) and 4.54 m/s (class 1) over ocean and
land, respectively. Over land, daytime wind speed averages obtained from soundings
(4.96 m/s) are slightly larger than nighttime ones (4.85 m/s); nighttime wind speeds
increase, on average, above daytime speeds above 120 m. Assuming that statistics
generated from all stations analyzed here are representative of the global distribution of
winds, global wind power generated at locations with mean annual wind speeds 6.9
m/s at 80 m is found to be ~72 TW (~54,000 Mtoe) for the year 2000. Even if only ~20%
of this power could be captured, it could satisfy 100% of the worlds energy demand for
all purposes (6995-10177 Mtoe) and over seven times the worlds electricity needs
Wind basics

20
(1.6-1.8 TW). Several practical barriers need to be overcome to fully realize this
potential. [12T]
The following maps give an overview about the mean 80 m wind speeds of the world in
the year 2000. Each coloured point on the maps is a measure point.

Europe

Wind basics

21
North America

South America

Wind basics

22
Australia

Asia

Wind basics

23
Africa

Figure 3.8: Maps of wind speeds world wide []
Wind basics

24
Especially is considered the western part of Europe which its coastline on the northern
sea. There is a great potential for wind energy. The figure shows the mean wind
resource at 50 (45) m above ground level

Figure 3.9: Wind resources Europe [13T]

Figure 3.10: Wind resources description [13T]

This wind map was originally published as part of the European Wind Atlas. The data
for Norway, Sweden and Finland are from a later study, and are calculated for 45 m
height above ground level and assume an open plan. The other areas are calculated for
50 m height.
Wind basics

25
The purple zones are the areas with the strongest winds while the blue zones have
weakest winds. The power of wind in the regions depends on i.e. obstacles to the wind,
speed up effect or varying roughness of the terrain. The map gives just an overview for
the whole region. Actual local differences in the terrain will mean that the picture will be
much more complicated. [13T]

3.8 Temporary wind variation
Wind power is an infinite resource. There is an enormous potential which just have to be
used. The kinetic energy of air mass has power of 3000 TW. But only a small part is
useable of this energy. Most of the air mass are in higher air films than the wind mills
can reach. Also the winds in the middle of oceans cant be used. A other part of the
wind potential on the mainland is to slow that it could be used.
The irregular fluctuations is characteristic for wind. The fluctuations depends on
seasons, global and regional conditions.
The figure 3.11 shows the fluctuations of the wind during one year in Denmark. In
temperate areas the summer winds are weaker than the winter winds. The variation is
described with the Wind Energy Index which means that 100 is the average.

Figure 3.11: Seasonal variation in wind energy [14T]
Wind basics

26
This fluctuation isnt a disadvantage because the energy consumption in the winter
season is a lot of more than in the summer month. The wind delivers the energy
especially during the time when it is needed.
Also there are diurnal (day and night) variations of the wind. In most locations around
the globe it is more windy during the daytime than at night. This variation is influenced
of the temperature differences between the sea surface and the land surface tend to be
larger during the day than at night. The wind is also more turbulent and change direction
more frequently during the day than at night. Most of the wind energy is produced
during the daytime, since electricity consumption is higher than at night. This fact is also
an advantage from the point of view of wind turbine owners.
The graph 3.12 shows the wind speed at Beldringe, Denmark varias by 3 hours
intervals the clock.

Figure 3.12: Variation of wind during one day [15T]

3.9 Wind power in the future
Studies about the world wide wind offer affirm that wind will be available in great
dimensions. Less wind will not limit the development of the use of wind energy.
With the further development of the wind power plants the energy production gets more
and more efficient. A great potential is in offshore wind parks. The European Wind
Energy Association (EWEA) calculate that during this decade 10.000 Megawatt
Offshore Power will be installed in Europe. Until 2020 it is supposed to 70.000 MW. At
the moment there are 300 plants on the coasts of Denmark, Sweden, Great Britain and
Ireland with together 600 MW. [16T]
Wind basics

27
Repowering
Repowering is also relevant for the future. It means to displace old plant with new and
more powerful plants. The aim is a better use of the available locations, which means
increasing the installed power at a reduce of number of plants. The reasons for
repowering are:
Less wind energy plants means a nicer natural scenery
More wind-generated electricity at the same area
Higher efficiency by lower costs: the newer plants use the wind offer much better
Better optic: the rotation speed of the new plants is slower and fit in better in the
landscape

The following two pictures 3.13 show the wind park Simonsberg, Schleswig-Holstein in
Germany before and after the change of old plants with new ones. Originally the wind
park had 13 plants, 11 plants were exchanged with three modern 5 Megawatt
machines. Consequently the total power increases from 5.5 MW to 15 MW. [17T]

Figure 3.13: Repowered wind park [17T]

Repowering is a great opportunity for making the wind power plant more efficient. But
there are big conflicts with legal requirements. Because of distance regulations and
height limitation the big energy potential cant often be used. In example in Germany
every year is loosed at least 45 billion kWh. This means the same energy like the hydro
power and wind energy generated together. [18T]
The global wind energy outlook scenario

28
4 The global wind energy outlook scenario
This study of Green Peace checks the future potential of wind energy until the year
2005. Three different scenarios are outlined for the future growth of wind energy around
the world. The most conservative Reference scenario is based on the projection in the
latest (2005) World Energy Outlook report from the International Energy Agency (IEA).
This projects the growth of all renewables, including wind power, up to 2030. The IEA
assessment has then been extended up to 2050 using input from the DLR study.
The Moderate scenario takes into account all policy measures to support renewable
energy either under way or planned around the world. It also assumes that the targets
set by many countries for either renewables or wind energy are successfully
implemented. The assumption here is that the success achieved in Europe in meeting
the goals for wind energy implementation set by the European Union will be repeated
globally.
The most ambitious scenario, the Advanced version, follows a similar development
path to that outlined in the series of Wind Force 10 and 12 reports produced since 1999
by the European Wind Energy Association (EWEA), the Global Wind Energy Council
(GWEC) and Greenpeace. These examined how feasible it would be for 10%, and later
12%, of the worlds electricity to come from wind power by 2020. The assumption here
is that all policy options in favour of renewable energy, along the lines of this reports
recommendations, have been selected, and the political will is there to carry them out.
[20T]

Figure 4.1: Global wind energy outlook scenarios 2006 [20T]


29
The results show that wind energy can make a big contribution to the energy
consumption in the next 30 to 50 years. All of these three Scenarios consider that in the
growing markets South America, China and Asian-/ Pacific- Area wind power plants will
be installed.
The graphics show the regional break down of the wind power capacity of the three
scenarios in the year 2030. In Figure 4.2 it is quite easy to see that Europe would
continue to dominate the world market under the least ambitious Reference scenario
followed by North America and China.
Regional break down: Reference scenario 2030 [GW]
186
12
94
10 7 9
25
4
5
12
Europe
Transition Economies
North America
Central and South America
East Asia
South Asia
China
Middle East
Africa
Pacific

Figure 4.2: Reference Outlook Scenario [20T]
The figure 4.3 shows the Moderate scenario, Europes share will have fallen to 26 %,
but North America will dominate with 30 %.
Regional break down: Moderate scenario 2030 [GW]
295
28
334
123
59
75
87
18
20
90
Europe
North America
East Asia
South Asia
China
Middle East
Africa
Pacific

Figure 4.3: Moderate Outlook Scenario [20T]

30

Figure 4.4 shows the break down of the Advanced scenario. There an even stronger
input would come from Asia and South America, with Chinas share of the worlds
market increasing to 16 % and Europe make only 19 % of the worlds total wind
capacity.
Regional break down: Advanced scenario 2030 [GW]
392
116
570
198
142
126
328 47
48
140
Europe
North America
East Asia
South Asia
China
Middle East
Africa
Pacific

Figure 4.4: Advanced Outlook Scenario [20T]

31
Mean wind speed scenarios
Also there are future scenarios about the mean wind speed in a height of 10 meter for
whole Europe. The following maps show the mean wind speed in m/s between the
years 1961 1990. The maps between the years 2071 2100 describe what the
difference of the wind speed in m/s could be. A and B are two different scenarios. It is
possible that the truth is in the middle of these two scenarios. This maps are divided in
the four seasons of a year. DJF means December, January and February and so on.

Figure 4.5: Difference wind speed [21T]

The mean wind speed in the regions around the Mediterranean sea in the winter season
could be nearly stable but on the coasts of the North and Baltic Sea and also on the
Atlantic Ocean could be probably some changes. The mean wind speed could be up to
1 m/s faster than in the past.


32
During the month March, April and May are less changes in the mean wind speed. Only
in Norway and on the eastern side of the Baltic Sea could be some changes. But at the
coast of the Atlantic Ocean less wind could it be possible.


During the summer month less wind would blow in almost whole Europe. Just some
regions in the north of Spain and Greece could have more wind than in the past. This
could be an advantage for those regions because especially during this season it is very
hot and this countries could use the energy of wind power plant for the air conditioner.


Also in the month September, October and November arent due big changes in the
mean wind speed. In the western part of Europe could be less wind and in the eastern
part a little bit more wind.

33
At the cost of Norway is one region noticeable. It is marked on the following map and
you can also sea it on the maps above. In every season the mean wind speed
increases in all scenarios. Maybe this area could have a great potential for generate
energy with wind power plant.

Figure 4.9: Wind map with noticeable region[21T]
Physical and technical background of wind power

34
5 Physical and technical background of wind power
5.1 The Power in the wind and the power output of turbines
To get to know how much power is in the wind we need to know how we can calculate
the energy which is in the wind and as another step how much can be transformed into
electricity. The kinetic energy in the wind is a function of wind speed, rotor diameter and
air density. The Power generated by wind is the kinetic energy per time passing the
turbine. The rotor takes a part of the kinetic energy out of the wind so that the wind is
slower after the turbine.

The next figures shows the power in the wind by using standard sizes of todays wind
turbines and influenced by the parts of the Power of wind formula.

For this example are standard wind turbines used:
Wind turbine with 107 m rotor diameter and a nominal power of 3600 kW [26sg]
Wind turbine with 62 m rotor diameter and a nominal power of 1300 kW [26sg]

Both turbines use a cut-in wind speed of 4m/s and a cut-out wind speed of 25 m/s, there
nominal power is approximately arrived by a wind speed of 13-15 m/s. []

The Power of wind formula:
[1sg]

P power in the wind
c wind speed
r rotor radius
air density

The derivation of the wind formula is shown in the appendix.

P
1
2
c
3
r
2

35
5.1.1 Power of wind depending on the wind speed.
The air density is for this example constant at the international standard air. The
standard air is dry, got 15C on sea level by 1013,24 hPa, the graphs are representing
two different rotor diameter.

Figure 5.1: Result of the Calculation with [1sg], Power of wind over wind speed

In the figure [5.1] it is visible that the wind provides a lot more of power than we can use
in the wind turbine. In the nominal working point we use only 18% of the energy
included in the wind.
Reasons for this are the Law of Betz, losses in the gear, generator and in the bearings.
The wind formula is affected in the third power of the wind, the wind speed is the most
important thing in searching for areas building wind parks.
For generating the maximum amount of energy out of the wind it would be interesting to
use as high as possible wind speeds, but this is not possible. The first reason is that
wind is not always constant in its speed and especially not in the high wind speeds.
Another reason is that wind turbines are limited in there strange to resist the pressure of
the wind. Wind turbines are constructed to work until the wind reaches a speed of 25
m/s, this speed is called cut-out speed.
To start the wind turbine is a minimum of wind needed, this point is called cut-in speed,
state-of-the-art turbines start to work at a speed of 4 m/s.
Table 5.1: Relation of the wind speed in m/s in conversion to km/h.
m/s 5 10 15 20 25 30
km/h 18 36 54 72 90 108

36
5.1.2 Power of wind depending on the rotor diameter.
Figure [5.2] shows the power in the wind over the rotor diameter or the swept area of
the rotor. It is still the standard air used for the calculation and the graph shows to
different wind speeds.

Figure 5.2: Result of Calculation with [1sg], Power of wind over rotor diameter

The first thing which is obvious in this figure is the difference between the to graphs, a
doubling of the wind speed causes a eight times higher power output. This again a
example for the important influence of the wind speed.
The rotor diameter is in second power included in the power of wind formula, so it is
also important to have a look at the size of a wind turbine.
The area swept by the rotor is called harvest area and not all of this area can be used in
the same way. The part of the rotor blade next to the hub has to be formed that a
connection is possible but in this way the profile of the blade is not optimized for the
aero dynamical stream of the air. Interesting to know is that a circle got only a quarter of
its area in the inner half of its radius and that a force attacking far from the centre is
producing a higher momentum which can be used in the generator. With this it is
obvious why the rotor diameter is increasing. The rotor diameter and with this the length
of the blades are limited by technical aspects.
Technical aspects are the strength of material used to build the blades and all other
parts of the wind turbine and the vibrations caused by working in a dynamic process.
Also it is a economical question if it is useful to build higher towers and longer blades.

37
5.1.3 Power of wind depending on the air density.
The next figure shows the power depending on the air density. The air is dry and follows
a temperature decrease of 0,65C per 100 m more height over the sea level starting at
15C at sea level. In the figure [5.3] is a altitude difference of 1000 m shown. The wind
speed is in this calculation constant at 14 m/s. Also shows the graph the influence on
two different rotor diameters.

Figure 5.3: Result of Calculation with [1sg], Power of wind over air density

The air density is the smallest factor in the wind formula but it is important to know
about the influence of it. Air density itself is affected by the temperature, altitude over
sea level and the atmospheric pressure. The air density is decreasing by higher
temperature and altitude.

The air density on sea level by 15C and standard atmospheric pressure of 1013,24hPa
is 1,225 kg/m, in an altitude of 500 m and also 15C the air pressure decreases and
with this the air density to a value of 1,155 kg/m.
In this example produces a wind turbine on a hill only 94% of the power the same
turbine will produce on sea level. In the moment is the wind turbine on the Gtsch in
Switzerland the highest mounted wind turbine, it is 2300 m over the sea level.
Another effect of the air is that it can happen that humidity is freezing on the rotor
blades, this causes losses. Nowadays wind turbines are often using the heat produced
by generator and gear to heat the blades.

38
5.1.4 The power output of wind turbines
As shown in the previous points the wind provides a large amount of power but how
much power can be converted into a, for us, usable power.
This power output depends on the degree of efficiency of all parts of the wind turbine
and also on the fact that is not possible to convert all power.

The fact that its not possible to convert all power of the
wind was established by the physicist Albert Betz in the
year 1919. In the year 1926 was the book Wind
Energie published which gives an overview about the
knowledge in wind energy at this time.
What is really interesting at this work is the sweeping,
general statement which applies to any wind turbine
with a disc-like rotor.
Since Betz formulated this it is called Betz law.

Figure 5.4: Betz law [1sg]

The final result of Betz law is that is not possible to convert more than 59% of the
kinetic energy into mechanical energy in a wind turbine. The proof of Betz law is shown
in the appendix.

The degree of efficiency of the main parts in a wind turbine is the next important factor
in the calculation of the power output.

The degree of efficiency is influenced by:
twist losses behind the rotor blade
tip losses at the end of the rotor blade
mechanical losses in bearings and gear
electrical losses in generator and transformation

39

Figure 5.5: Power output of a wind turbine over wind speed [2sg]

Figure [5.5] shows the power output of state-of-art wind turbine in the 5 MW class, it got
a rotor diameter of 126 m and a hub height of 117 m. The wind speed is measured in
hub height. The cut-in wind speed is at 3 m/s, the cut-out wind speed 25 m/s,
approximately by 13 m/s the turbine starts to work in its nominal point and is regulated
in higher wind speeds to avoid mechanical damages. [22sg]

When we compare the power which is in the wind and the power output pf the turbine
we see that we only use a small part of the included power. Especially in the more
powerful high wind speeds are wind turbines limited in the power transformation. This
fact is also to keep in mind when there is a search for ground to place wind turbines.


40
5.2 Wind statistics as indicator for areas to build wind turbines
To include region into the calculation it is necessary to use statistical material of local
winds. The wind speed over a year is shown in so called Weibull distribution.

Figure 5.6: Weibull distribution [3sg]

This site shown in figure [5.6] has a mean wind speed of 7 m/s, and the shape of the
curve is determined by a so called shape parameter of 2. [3sg]
The shape parameter provides an information about the roughness of the local
landscape, this includes hills, forests, buildings and cliffs when the turbines are near the
coastline. Shape parameters are shown in special charts.
With Weibull distributions it is possible to design wind turbines so that they fit to the
wind situation in the region. Very important to know for designer and the operating
company is the average wind speed and with this the annual power output of the
turbine.
The wind speed is always measured in the hub height to get a realistically picture of the
situation, this is not always possible or useful but with a simple mathematic operation it
is calculable. This is feasible with the logarithmic equation of wind profiles, established
by the physicist Ludwig Prandtl.

41
The wind speed is a function of the altitude over ground and the roughness of the
terrain and the measured wind speed. The roughness class is defined in the European
Wind Atlas. With the equation in figure 5.7 is it possible to calculate the wind profile.

c c
ref
ln
z
R
ln
z
ref
R

Figure 5.7: Equation of wind profile [4sg]

c wind speed over ground[m/s]
c
ref
measured wind speed [m/s]
z
ref
measured altitude over ground [m]
R roughness length [m]
z altitude over ground [m]

Figure 5.8: Result of calculation with [4sg],
Wind speed over altitude and different roughness classes

Figure 5.8 shows the wind speed in different altitudes over ground and with different
roughness classes.
For this example is the measured wind speed in 20 m height is 7 m/s.

42
Table 5.1 shows the roughness classes used for the example and figure [2.3sg], the
roughness classes are according to the European wind atlas.

Roughness class Roughness length [m] Example
0 0,0002 Water surface
2 0,1 Agricultural land with some houses and 8
metre tall sheltering hedgerows with a
distance of approx. 500 metres
3,5 0,8 Larger cities with tall buildings
Table 5.2: Roughness classes for different scenarios [5sg]

According to figure [5.8] it is visible that it is necessary to build higher turbines in more
rough regions then in offshore. What is also important to see and to know about the
wind speed is that it increases a lot more when the terrain is rough. Higher wind speeds
are more powerful then lower one but a big difference between highest and lowest point
of the rotor diameter causes problems. The incitation of mechanical vibrations is
stronger and can cause fatigue of the material, also is the static wind pressure on the
blades higher which causes more deformation at the blade.

For Example:
A Wind turbine with a hub height of 100 m and a rotor diameter of also 100 m got in
offshore use a wind difference between highest and lowest point of the rotor diameter
with about 0,6 m/s. A wind turbine used onshore with roughness class 3,5 got a
difference of 2,4 m/s, this is printed in figure [5.8].

43
5.3 Development in size and power output of wind turbines
As shown in the last chapters it is possible to produce more power out of the wind when
we increase the rotor diameter and the hub height.
Figure 5.9 and table 5.3 show the development of this two components in the last 25
years.

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Figure5.9: Development of height and rotor diameter of wind turbines [6sg]

Table 5.3: Characteristic criteria of wind turbines from 1980 2005 [6sg]
Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Power
[kW]
30 80 250 600 1500 5000
Rotor diameter
[m]
15 20 30 46 70 115
Hub height
[m]
30 40 50 78 100 120
Energy yield per
year [MWh]
35 95 400 1250 3500 17000

The development trend shown in this two figures is obvious, manufacturers of wind
turbines built higher turbines with larger rotor diameter. The largest commercial used
wind turbine got in onshore use a tower height of 117m, offshore 90 m, and a rotor
diameter of 126 m. The rotor area is as big as two football fields. [22sg]
Rotordiameter
Hub height
Increase of Power
In the last 20 years the yield
of wind energy increased 100
times. With the 5 MW wind
turbines it will by again
multiplied by five.

44
5.4 Different kind of wind turbines, advantages and disadvantages
Due to the development of wind turbines there where two different kind of executions
installed and tested, today we can see both of them. The first one is the vertical axis
wind turbine (VAWT) and the second one is the horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT).
State-of-the-art are the horizontal axis turbines and also is most of the research and
development taken into them.

5.4.1 Vertical axis wind turbines.
Some pictures to show how this turbines look like.

Figures 5.10: Figure 5.11: Figure 5.12:
Darrieus-Rotor [7sg] Giro mill [7sg] Savonius Rotor [7sg]

An vertical wind turbine is a turbine with a vertical turning shaft which is driving a
generator. This kind of turbines are only able to work near the ground because of their
height or when they are mounted on towers they are not as effective then horizontal
axis turbines. Most of the vertical turbines are only for small power output useful and it
is not possible to built with this kind of rotors plants with an higher power output. They
are used for isolated applications when there is a constant wind in the near of the
ground.
Picture 5.10 shows the biggest ever built Darrieus-Rotor with a high of 96 m and a rotor
diameter of 64 m, it has a nominal power output of 4 MW.

45
Advantages of vertical wind turbines [8sg]
Easier to maintain because most of their moving parts are located near the
ground.
Vertical wind turbines have a higher airfoil pitch angle, giving improved
aerodynamics while decreasing drag at low and high pressures.
Low height useful where laws do not permit structures to be placed high.
Does not need a free standing tower so is much less expensive and stronger in
high winds that are close to the ground.
Disadvantages of vertical wind turbines [8sg]
Most VAWTs produce energy at only 50% of the efficiency of HAWTs in large
part because blades rotate into the wind.
There may be a height limitation to how tall a vertical wind turbine can be built
and how much sweep area it can have.
Most VAWTs need to be installed on a relatively flat piece of land.
Most VAWT's have low starting torque and need to start a motor.

46
5.4.2 Horizontal axis wind turbines
The next pictures show different kind of horizontal wind turbines.

Figure 5.13: Figure 5.14: Figure 5.15:
Windmill [8sg] Western windmill [8sg] State-of-the-art turbine [8sg]

Advantages of horizontal wind turbines [8sg]
Ability to wing warp, which gives the turbine blades the best angle of attack.
Allowing the angle of attack to be remotely adjusted gives greater control, so the
turbine collects the maximum amount of wind energy.
Tall tower allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear.
Tall tower allows placement on uneven land or in offshore locations.
Can be sited in forests above the tree line.
Horizontal wind turbines are self-starting.
Can be cheaper because of higher production volume, larger sizes and, in
general higher capacity factors and efficiencies.

Disadvantages of horizontal wind turbines [8sg]
HAWTs have difficulty operating in near ground, turbulent winds because their
yaw and blade bearing need smoother, more laminar wind flows.
The tall towers and long blades (up to 60 m long) are difficult to transport on the
sea and on land. Transportation can now cost 20% of equipment costs.
Tall HAWTs are difficult to install, needing very tall and expensive cranes and
skilled operators.
Their height can create local opposition based on impacts to view sheds.

47
5.5 Parts of wind turbines

Figure 5.16: Main parts of a wind turbine [9sg]

Anemometer:
Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.
Blades:
Wind blowing over the blades causes the blades to "lift" and rotate.
Brake:
A disc brake, which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop the
rotor in emergencies or when maintenance is needed
Controller:
The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 4 to 5 m/s and shuts off
the machine at about 25 m/s. This two limits are the cut-in and the cut-out wind speeds
of nowadays wind turbines, some turbines are able to work till a wind speed of 34 m/s is
reached.
Pitch
Rotor
Low speed
shaft
Gearbox
Generator
Controller
Anemometer Wind
direction
Brake
Yaw drive
Yaw motor
Blades
Tower
Wind van
Nacelle
High speed
shaft

48
Gear box:
Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational
speeds from about 5 to 20 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the
rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity.
Generator:
Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 50 Hz AC electricity.
High-speed shaft:
Drives the generator.
Low-speed shaft:
The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 5 to 20 rotations per minute.
Nacelle:
The nacelle sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts,
generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to
land on.
Pitch:
One kind of power regulation. This will be explained in a later chapter.
Rotor:
The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.
Tower:
Towers are explained in a later chapter.
Wind direction:
With the wind direction we can divide turbines into to classes of different turbines.
Explanation in a later chapter
Wind vane:
Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine
properly with respect to the wind.
Yaw drive:
The yaw drive is used to keep the turbine facing the wind or to untwist the cables in the
tower.
Yaw motor:
Powers the yaw drive, in this place are often hydraulic motors used.

Parts of a wind turbine from the U.S. Department of Energy [9sg].

49
5.6 Number of blades on wind turbines
The state-of-art wind turbines have three rotor blades but
there where also turbines designed which may have a
larger or smaller number of rotor blades. As you have seen
in chapter different wind turbines are there the western
windmills with a lot of blades and on the other hand there
are turbines with only one rotor blade.
But what are the differences between this systems and
why are turbines with three rotor blades the most used
type?

To answer this question it is necessary to know about the
factors carrying weight into the structure and the efficiency
of wind turbines. The maximum degree of efficiency is
limited to 59% according to the Betz law. Slow working
turbines, low-speed-turbines, with a high number of rotor blades loose efficiency
because of the turn effect. The wind after the turbine is reduced in its speed and got
also an turn, this turn causes turbulences in the stream and with this a lower efficiency.
The faster working turbines, high-speed-turbines, got considerable lower looses in the
efficiency then the low-speed-turbines.
Another reasons to built turbines with a smaller number of rotor blades are the costs for
one blade and the mass reduction. For an example is the weight of one rotor blade with
a length of 37m about 5,5t and costs about 150000. Rotor blades are built as one
single part and so it is essential to carry them as one big part one streets, this transports
are also expensive and relevant for the total balance.
When we take attention to the power output of a wind turbine we will see what is the
reason for the state-of-art turbines with three rotor blades. Theoretical the power
increases with a higher number of blades. A change of one blade to two blades
increases the power about 10%, a third blade will cause a higher output with about 4%.
When we built a fourth blade we become a increase of about 1-2% more power.
When we compare this to the costs for blades and the work which is needed to install
one more blade we see that it is useful to built three bladed turbines.
Figure 5.17:
Wind turbines [10sg]

50
5.7 Different kind of power regulation
As shown in further chapter is the power included in the wind depending on the wind
speed. Wind turbines are build that they produce the maximum power output at wind
speed which is typical for the place the turbine is mounted. When the wind speed is
getting higher then the designed nominal point of power output it is necessary that the
turbine is controlled in its power to avoid damages in the whole building.

There are several different ways of power control in modern wind turbines:
1. Passive stall controlled wind turbines
The blades are fixed to the hub without the possibility of rotation around their
longitudinal axis. Rotor blade profiles are aerodynamically designed that they create
turbulences after the wind has passed the blade. Through increasing wind the
turbulences are producing losses in the power, this means that less of the power in the
wind will be transformed into electricity. In the moment there are two thirds of the wind
turbines build with passive stall.

Advantages of stall control
there are no moving parts in the rotor itself
a control system is not needed

Disadvantages of stall control
the aerodynamic design is very complex and with this expensive
turbulences induced through the stall can cause vibrations which were harmful
for the structure
the rotor blades are more deflected and with this the stress in the blade
increases

2. Pitch controlled wind turbines
This way of power regulation works by turning the rotor blades in or out of the wind. A
controller checks the power output and pitches (turns) the rotor blades out of the wind
when it gets to high, otherwise it pitches the rotor blades back into the wind when the
wind gets slower. It is necessary that the blades are able to turn around their
longitudinal axis, the turning of the blades is usually realised by hydraulic motors.

51
Advantages of pitch control
the turbine can work at the optimum in a wider range of different wind speeds
aerodynamic forces are reduced and with this the deflection of the rotor blades
lower aerodynamic noise
Disadvantages of pitch control
the engineering is more difficult because of bearings and motors in a limited
space
a controller is needed which also causes costs

3. Active stall controlled wind turbines
This kind of power regulation combines the stall and the pitch control and it is used
mainly in larger wind turbines. When the generator reaches its nominal power, you will
observe the main difference to pitch controlled turbines. If the generator is going to
overload, the blades were pitched in the opposite direction of a pitch controlled turbine.
This means that through the pitch the stall increases and with this the power is
regulated. The turning of the rotor blades is in the same way realised then in the pitch
control.
Advantages of active stall control
the power output can be adjusted more accurately then with passive stall
the turbine is able to work in lower wind speeds more effective
at all higher wind speeds it is possible to run the generator in nominal point
an overshooting of the power output through gust of wind can be rated
Disadvantages of active stall control
the costs for active stall are a lot higher then for passive stall or pitch control
the development of active stall is quit more difficult

4. Alternative power control methods
4.1 Ailerons or flaps are known from aircrafts and are changing the geometry of the
rotor blade and with this the power output. This principle is used in older wind turbines.
4.2 Yaw the rotor out of the wind
This possibility is in use for very small turbines, it is not useful for larger turbines
because of high forces resulting out of the wind pressure.


52
5.8 Design of rotor blades
5.8.1 Aero dynamical profile of rotor blades
The design of rotor blades at wind turbines is, in some parts, similar to the design of
wings from planes and helicopters. The state-of-the-art turbines are turning because of
the lift their blades are producing. To optimize the lift it is necessary to know about the
aerodynamics on the blades and the speed differences at every point of the blade.
The reason for the lift on planes is the difference between the wind speed on the upper
side of the wing and the under side of it. A
wind turbine uses this lift to start a rotary
motion. The lifting force is increasing with
the square of the approach velocity. The
rotor blades for larger wind turbines are
also twisted. The reason for this is that
through the rotation of the blade the wind
hits the blade in another angel near the hub then in the tip of the blade. When the angle
of attack is getting to steep the rotor will stop its motion, this is the same effect used in
the stall power control.
With so called wind triangles is it possible to calculate the twist of the rotor blades. The
wind triangles are different at every sectional draw of the rotor blade the reason of this
is the approach velocity which is increasing with
the peripheral velocity. To get the maximal force
onto the rotor blade and with this the maximal
power, it is necessary that the oncoming flow is
under the same angle to the blade profile at
every point on the blade.

r Rotor radius
c approach velocity
v
2
wind speed at rotor
u peripheral velocity
angular velocity Figure 5.19: Wind triangle [12sg]
Figure 5.18:
Flow profile on a blade [11sg]

53
5.8.2 The tip of rotor blades
With the increase of the size of turbines and with this the increase of the length of rotor
blades were some problems caused. The turbulences on the blade tip causes noises,
losses in the power transformation from wind to blade and a reduce of the lifetime
because of fatigue in the material. Another advantage is that the stream around the
whole blade is more smooth and that the blade is less susceptible for turbulences in the
wind. The problems were solved by an change of the end of the rotor blade, the tip is
now adjusted upwards. This principle is also known on the wings of aircrafts. This
adjustment is in the moment only used in large wind turbines were forces are higher
then in smaller turbines.

Figure 5.20: Tip of a rotor blade [13sg]

The problem of noise from the blade tip is easy to explain when we take a look at the
speed of the tip. In Figure 5.21 is u the tip-speed in m/s, n the rotation speed of the rotor
in 1/min and d the rotor diameter in m.

u
n d
60

Figure 5.21: Rotor tip speed [24sg]

For an example we got a turbine with a rotor diameter of 82 m and a rotation speed of
maximal 20 1/min, this constellation causes a tip speed of 85,9 m/s or 309 km/h. With
this knowledge it is obvious that a efficient design of the tip is very important to reduce
the noise.
Modern wind turbines are build with a ratio between rotor tip speed and wind speed of
about 7 to 8, this ratio is called .
u
c

Figure 5.22: Ratio of rotation speed and wind speed [24sg]

54
5.8.3 Materials used for blades
Next to the tower are the blades the most interesting thing in material use at a wind
turbine.
Nowadays are for large wind turbines mainly glass mats impregnated with polyester or
epoxy in use. Another basic material are carbon fibres, they are lighter but more cost
intensive.
Wood or Aluminium blades are used in smaller turbines, their stiffness is not high
enough to get in use in large turbines, also is fatigue a problem in metal blades.

Sectional draw thru a rotor blade.
Lacquer made up of PUR-synthetic to resist the weather.
Glass mats impregnated with epoxy or polyester, gives the
needed stiffness to the blade.
Core of rigid foam or balsa wood.

Figure 5.31:
Layers of a blade
[23sg]

Requirements on the material of rotor blades: [23sg]
Light weight to reduce the mass moment of inertia
High stiffness to resist the forces out of the wind
Low prices of the compounds of a blade
Resistance against influences of the weather, like temperature changes or solar
radiation


55
5.9 Wind turbines and their orientation to the wind
There are two different systems in orientation of the rotor blades to the wind direction,
one system is called upwind- or luv-turbine and the other is called downwind- or lee-
turbine.

Figure 5.23: Figure 5.24:
Upwind- or downwind- or
luv-turbine [14sg] lee-turbine [14sg]

Upwind turbines 5.23 are facing the wind and nowadays is the majority of wind turbines
build in this design. The main advantage of upwind turbines is that they didnt have any
wind shade of the tower. A disadvantage of this type is that the rotor blades have to be
more inflexible and that they need to stay a distance away from the tower, upwind
turbines also need a yaw mechanism to keep the rotor in wind direction.
Downwind turbines 5.24 have the rotor placed behind the tower, they are not facing the
wind. An interesting advantage is that they didnt need a yaw mechanism. This kind of
design is following the wind in an passive way but with this is a big disadvantage linked,
they are not able to untwist the cables in the tower when the tower yaws a longer time in
the same direction. Another advantage is that the rotor blades can be designed more
flexible and with this lighter then the blades of an upwind turbine. Also a disadvantage is
that the rotor is passing the wind shade of the tower, this can cause more vibrations in
the whole structure and also a loss of power.
Large wind turbines are only build in the upwind design because there nacelle is too
heavy to orientate itself into the wind.

56
5.10 Different kind of wind turbine towers
tubular steel towers
The biggest part of produced wind turbines in Europe is
build with tubular steel towers. The towers are
manufactured in two to five sections depending on the
tower height and bolted together at the site. It is possible
to build the towers conical or cylindrical, conical towers are
more common because of material savings and to
increase their strength. A main problem with this towers is
the transport because of the their length and the diameter
they got. [15sg]
Figure 5.25: tubular steel
tower [15sg]

concrete towers
This towers were build out of ferro-concrete. They are
thicker and heavier then every other kind of tower. The
typical concrete tower is conical. There are two ways of
building concrete towers at the site and out of
prefabricated concrete parts. [15sg]

Figure 5.26: concrete tower [15sg]

lattice towers
Lattice towers are manufactured using welded steel
profiles. Lattice towers requires only the half of the
material as tubular towers with the same stiffness. A
disadvantage of lattice towers is that they are producing
wind turbulences this can cause power losses and noises.
[15sg]
Figure 5.27: lattice tower [15sg]

57
guyed pole towers
This type of tower is only used for small wind turbines. The tower is supported by guy
wires and it is possible to build it up without a crane. Guyed pole towers are very
common in areas with the risk of hurricanes or other kind of storms, in this case the
wind turbine are stooped and rebuild after the storm. [16sg]

Setting up a guyed pole tower [16sg] Guyed pole tower [16sg]

hybrid tower solutions
There are hybrid solutions for concrete and steel towers,
in this way the lower part is made up of concrete and the
higher part of tubular steel. This method solves the
problem of transport the large lower parts out of steel.
Another hybrid are buildings of lattice towers and guyed
pole towers. [16sg]

Figure 5.30:
Hybrid tower [16sg]
Steel
Concrete

58
5.11 Foundations of wind turbines
5.11.1 Onshore

To build a wind turbine on the ground, there are several aspects to consider, first the
feasibility of building foundations of the turbines, and also, road construction to reach
the site with heavy trucks.
Towers are usually bolted onto the concrete
foundations on which they are placed. Generally
the part of the bottom section of the tower is cast
into the concrete foundation, and where the lowest
section of the tower is subsequently welded
together directly on the site. In most of the wind
turbine the concrete foundation reinforced, is
buried at a depth of approximately 3 meters and 10
to 15 meters on side. For each wind mill, a
compacted platform, of approximately 1000 m, is necessary for the assembly of the
various elements. The total surface of influence on the ground (foundation and platform)
varies from 1200 to 1500 m per wind mill.

5.11.2 Offshore
The foundations of the offshore wind turbine are
another problem. Indeed the disadvantage is that
the environmental (wind and wave) factors on the
larger structures lead to greater forces in the
structure than those that would occur onshore. It is
necessary to ensure that a sufficient connection
with the ground is provided, otherwise the structure
will move irreversibly. The foundation of the
structure transfers the forces from the structure to
the surrounding soil. This is a critical part of the
design of a wind-turbine structure.
Figure 5.31: Wind turbine
construction in Bernay-Saint-
Martin (France) [5ac]
Figure 5.32: Wind turbines at
Blyth, UK [8ac]

59
However, corrosion is not a major concern with offshore steel structures. Experience
from offshore oil rigs has shown that they can be protected using cathodic (electrical)
corrosion protection.

Figure 5.33 shows the different types of foundation that are usually found in the wind
farm all around the globe. We can separate them in 2 categories:
Gravitation Foundation (suction caisson)
Monopile Foundation

Figure 5.35: Proposed structures for offshore wind-turbine applications, (a) piled
foundations, (b) suction caisson multi-foundation structure; and (c) suction caisson
monopod [8ac]

60
5.11.2.1 Monopile foundation

One solution for the foundation is to use conventional methods such as driven piling in a
deep soft material as we can see in the figure 5.33(a). The monopile foundation is a
simple construction. The foundation consists of a steel pile with a diameter of between
3.5 and 4.5 metres. The pile is driven some 10 to 20 metres into the seabed depending
on the type of underground.
This type of foundation requires heavy duty piling equipment but does not need
preparation of the seabed.

5.11.2.2 Gravitation

The traditional concrete caisson are built in dry dock most of time which can be found
near the sites using reinforced concrete and are floated to their final destination before
being filled with sand and gravel to achieve the necessary weight.
Most of the existing offshore wind parks use gravitation foundations like this one. But
new technology offers a similar method to that of the concrete gravity caisson like the
(b) and the (c) in the figure 5.33. Instead of reinforced concrete it uses a cylindrical steel
tube placed on a flat steel box on the sea bed.
This new technology is considerably lighter than concrete foundations. Although the
finished foundation has to have a weight of around 1,000 tonnes, the steel structure will
only weigh some 80 to 100 tonnes for water depths between 4 and 10 m.
The relatively low weight allows barges to transport and install many foundations
rapidly, using the same fairly lightweight crane used for the erection of the turbines. The
gravity foundations are filled with olivine, a very dense mineral, which gives the
foundations sufficient weight to withstand waves and ice pressure.
By comparison with traditional foundation systems, such as piles or massive concrete
bases, large savings can be made on installation time and materials. The skirted
foundations have the added advantage that they can be removed easily by reattaching
the installation pumps and pumping water into the cavity, forcing the bucket out of the
ground.

61
5.11.2.3 Summary offshore foundations

Several structural configurations exist like typical `jacket structure where there are three
or four individual foundations, or monopod structure with only one foundation.

The following figure 5.34 shows a summary of the different foundations of offshore wind
turbines, their main application and their advantages and disadvantages.

Concept Application Advantages Disadvantages
Single piles Most conditions other
than deep soft
material
Simple, versatile Very expensive
installation because
of large size, Difficult
to remove
Multiple piles (tripod) Most conditions other
than deep soft
material. Deeper
water
Versatile Expensive
construction and
installation. Difficult to
remove
Concrete gravity
base
Deep soft material Float- out
installation
Expensive (large
weight)
Single suction
caisson
Sands, soft clays Inexpensive
installation, Easy
removal
Installation proven in
limited range of
materials
Multiple suction
caisson (tripod)
Sands, soft clays.
Deeper water
Inexpensive
installation, Easy
removal
Installation proven in
limited range of
materials. More
expensive
construction
Figure 5.36: Types of foundation for wind turbines in offshore operation [9ac]

According to figure 5.34, which come from an English study, the single suction caisson
which is a steel caisson filled with a stone like material seems to be a good application
regarding the price.

62
5.12 Electricity production in a wind turbine
In the past was the wind power used to get a rotary motion and with a gear and a shaft
was a mechanical device driven. Nowadays is the production of electricity the main
focus of a wind turbine. For the production of electricity we need generators and often
also gears to reach the necessary revolution speed. There are different kind of
generators used in state-of-the-art turbines, the synchronous generator and the
asynchronous generator.
5.12.1 Synchronous generator
Synchronous generators are using a magnet which is rotating powered by the rotor of
the wind turbine. In the spools around the rotor is electricity induced. This alternate
current has the frequency of the rotation speed of the magnet. The grid frequency in
Europe is 50 Hz and in the US 60 HZ, so it is in the most cases not possible to connect
synchronous generators direct to the grid. A frequency of 50 Hz means that the rotor
has to turn with 3000 thousand revolution per minute, as shown in a previous chapter
wind turbines are turning with a lot smaller number of revelations. To get the right
rotating speed it is possible to use a gear and a higher number of poles in the
generator, in this way are generators build with up to 12 poles. Most of the wind turbine
are using generators with four or six poles because of the costs and the size.
Figure 5.32 shows the principle of a synchronous generator with two poles.
The context of grid frequency f, number of poles p and rotational speed of the generator
n is shown in figure 5.33.

n
f
p
60

Figure 5.32: Synchronous Generator [17sg] Figure 5.33: Generator
rotation speed

63
5.12.2 Asynchronous generators
Asynchronous generators got the main difference to the synchronous generator in the
design of the rotor. The rotor is build like a cage, this cage is made up of aluminium or
copper. When the rotor is turned in the same rotational speed then the electrical grid
has it would not produce any electricity, the rotor needs some revolutions per minute
more then the grid got. This phenomena is the reason that the generator is called
asynchronous because it is not running synchronous with the grid. The difference of
rotor frequency and grid frequency is called slip. Asynchronous generators need the
local grid to start their work because it is necessary that the stator builds up a magnetic
field in which the rotor is turning. With this kind of generator it is possible that the turbine
rotor has small fluctuations in its turning speed because of the fact that the rotor of the
generator always has to be faster then the grid frequency.
Alternative there is the room to build a pole changing generator, this means that a
generator is reversible to use only a part of its poles to run at a different speed but with
this also in another power output. This design has become more widespread through
the last years. An advantage of this system is that it is producing electricity even when
there are low wind speeds and with this the rotational speed of the turbine is lower.

Figure 5.34 shows the cage of an asynchronous generator and figure 5.35 shows the
principle of an asynchronous generator with four poles.

Cage of asynchronous generator [18sg] Asynchronous generator [18sg]

64
Gearboxes
To get the required rotational speed for a generator it is useful to have gear between the
rotor of the wind turbine and the generator, figure 5.36 shows the arrangement of gear
and generator. For example is a wind turbine working with a rotational speed of 30 min
-1

and a generator with four poles. The generator needs 1500 min
-1
to produce an
alternate current with 50 Hz, in this way we need a multiple of 50 times of the rotational
speed. This speed transformation is done in the gearbox.

There are two different kind of gearboxes used in wind turbines, planetary gears and
stepped transmissions, in some cases both of them are combined.

Generator gear

Figure 5.36: Figure 5.37: Figure 5.38:
Wind turbine [19sg] Stepped gear [19sg] Planetary gear [19sg]

65
5.12.3 Wind turbines without gear
It is also possible to build wind turbines without a gear but
in this case it used a so called ring-generator, in figure 5.39
red marked. This kind of generator uses a lot of poles around
the diameter. With this design it is possible to build turbines
without gear, clutch and break but on the other hand are costs
for the generator and the electronically compounds.
Figure 5.39: Turbine
without gear [20sg]

5.12.4 Grid connection
While most of the wind turbines produce a alternate current with a frequency not exactly
the net frequency it is important to synchronise the frequencies. In the most cases this
is done by an indirect grid connection.
The indirect grid connection works in its principle like in figure 5.40.

Figure 5.40: Principle of indirect grid connection [21sg]
1. The wind turbine produces an alternate current with a variable frequency depending
on the rotational speed of the rotor. This current is not manageable for the public grid
2. The alternate current is transformed into direct current using thyristors or large power
transistors.
3. By converting the direct current back to alternate current it gets the correct frequency
but it is a stepped sine wave.
4. To get a smooth sine wave are inductances and capacitors used. This current can be
supplied to the public electrically grid

The biggest advantage of the indirect grid connection is that the turbine can work at
various speed, on the other hand is it more cost intensive and it is to calculate if it is
expedient to build a turbine with this technique.

66
5.12.5 Alternative production scenarios
A lot of areas worldwide which gave good conditions for wind turbines are far away from
cities or need other products more then electricity. As a result of this it is an idea to build
next to a wind park a factory which is using this electricity to produce for example gases
needed in the industry like hydrogen, oxygen and argon.
For agricultural areas it is more useful to produce ammonium for manuring fields when
there is a low population density and the need for electricity is not so high.
Another scenario is in dry regions to build desalination facilities to produce drinking
water.

Another possibility is the combination of wind and water energy. The idea is that a wind
farm is producing electricity, when the electricity is needed it is transferred into the grid,
if there is no need for electricity in the grid it is stored in the water. This storage is a
normal hydropower plant, when electricity is needed it is producing it but when there is
no need in the grid a pump is working with the electricity from the wind farm. The water
is pumped in a storage lake, this water can be used in times when the need of electricity
is higher. The efficiency grad of this combination is at about 90% and a testing
installation is installed in Norway.
Also an idea of energy storage is realized in the north of Germany, there is a wind park
working together with a compressed-air store. The storage volume is an old salt deposit.
But this installation is in the moment only working with a grad of efficiency of 70%, by
the compression of air is a lot of energy losses by warming up the air.

Wind energy economic plan

67
6 Wind energy economic plan
Wind power was the most rapidly-growing means of alternative electricity generation at
the turn of the century and world wind generation capacity more than quadrupled
between 1999 and 2005. 81% of wind power installations are in the US and Europe, but
the share of the top five countries in terms of new installations fell from 71% in 2004 to
55% in 2005. 2006 was again another record year for the wind energy. This market
exceeded expectations. According to the 4th Assessment Report on Climate Change by
the IPCC, the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), the world saw a growth of 15,197
megawatts (MW) in 2006, taking the total installed wind energy capacity to 74,223 MW,
up from 59,091 MW in 2005.
We can read in the GWEC Despite constraints facing supply chains for wind turbines,
the annual market for wind continued to increase at the staggering rate of 32% following
the 2005 record year, in which the market grew by 41%. This development shows that
the global wind energy industry is responding fast to the challenge of manufacturing at
the required level, and manages to deliver sustained growth. [1bs] In Europe, at the
end of 2006, Germany was the country with the highest total installed capacity with
20 621 MW followed by Spain with 11 615 MW and Denmark with 3 136 MW. In terms
of new installed capacity in 2006, Germany, Spain and France had a respective
development of 2 233 MW, 1587 MW and 810 MW. The wind energy sector has
become one of the important players in the energy markets, with the total value of new
generating equipment installed in 2006 reaching 18 billion. [1bs] But how much cost
these installations? Who finance these new wind power plans? What is the context who
favour this growth ?

Figure 6.1:Wind power park in the Bourgneuf baye (France) [2bs]

68
6.1 The costs of wind energy

There is a lot of different installation for wind energy and the price varies from a wind
turbine to another. An installed wind turbine cost approximately 1000 per 1 nominal
Kilo Watt. So a wind turbine of 2MW of capacity cost 2 000 000 . The following figure
6.2 gives a picture of the construction cost repartition for a wind turbine.
Figure 6.2: cost repartition [2bs]

In economic terms, wind power has an extremely low marginal cost and a high
proportion of up-front capital costs. The estimated "cost" of wind energy per unit of
production is generally based on average cost per unit, which incorporates the cost of
construction, borrowed funds, return to investors (including cost of risk), estimated
annual production, and other components. The cost incorporates also operation and
maintenance costs and fuel costs but in the case of wind energy this represent a
negligible part of the cost.

The cost of wind energy production has fallen rapidly since the early 1980s, primarily
due to technological improvements, although the cost of construction materials
(particularly metals) and the increased demand for turbine components caused price
increases in 2005-06. Many expect further reductions in the cost of wind energy through
improved technology, better forecasting, and increased scale.

cost repartition
75%
10%
8%
5% 2%
wind turbine connection civil engineering
engineering raising and transportation

69
The cost per produced unit of electricity depends also on different factors as the
geographic situation of the available wind turbine. The distance of connection cable and
power lines between the wind farm and the national grid can have an important impact
on the cost and the wind speed and frequency determines the final cost of wind energy.
Beside the cost of capital plays a large part in projected cost, risk (as perceived by
investors) will affect projected costs per unit of electricity.
Cost per unit of energy produced was estimated in 2006 to be comparable to the cost of
new generating capacity in the United States for coal and natural gas: wind cost was
estimated at $55.80 per MWh, coal at $53.10/MWh and natural gas at $52.50. [3bs]
Once the cost of carbon to the society and environment is included in electricity
generation costs, the price of wind power will be even lower since wind energy is a
clean and renewable source of electricity generation, producing no harmful emissions.

Three major trends have dominated the economics of grid connected wind turbines in
recent years:

1. The turbines have grown larger and taller: the average capacity of turbines
installed in Germany and Denmark increased from approximately 200 kW in
1990 to almost 1.5 MW during 2002. Turbines in the 1.5 to 2.5 MW range have
more than doubled their share of the global market - from 16.9% in 2001 to
35.3% in 2003. [4bs]

2. Turbine efficiency has increased: a mixture of taller turbines, improved
components and better siting has resulted in an overall efficiency increase of 2 -
3% annually over the last 15 years. [4bs]

3. Investment costs have decreased: the average cost per kW of installed wind
power capacity currently varies from 900 /kW to 1,150/kW. The turbine itself
comprises about 80% of this total cost. The remainder is contributed by three
main items - foundations, electrical installation, grid connection and then other
costs are land, road construction, consultancy and financing costs. Reduction of
costs by swept rotor area (kWh/m2) have declined by 30%, or around 3% per
year from 1989-2001. [4bs]


70
When all these elements are considered together, the cost of electricity generated by
wind power (2003 calculations) ranges from approximately 4 - 5 cents/kWh at sites
with very good wind speeds to 6 - 8 cents/kWh at sites with low wind speeds. A good
wind speed site is defined as a coastal location with an average wind speed of 6.9
metres per second (m/s) at a height of 50 m above ground level. Medium and low wind
speed sites have average wind speeds of 6.3 and 5.4 m/s respectively. [5bs]
Figure 6.3: Wind turbine blade construction [4bs]


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6.2 The financing of wind power plants

A favourable legal framework in Europe

The legal context in Europe allowed the wind power markets growth since the end of the
twentieth century. Several legislations helped investors to start green power plans.
According to the French Recueil d experience europeennes [6bs] before the Year
2000, incentives laws were in action. The major legislation helping the wind energy
market to start was the feed in laws. These laws were in action in Denmark until the
first of January 2000. They put the price of wind electricity at 0.60DDK/kWh
(0.08/kWh). They are built on 2 principles: firstly, they fixed minimum prices for
electricity and secondly, they guaranteed access for grid connection and obligation for
utility to buy all electricity from renewable energy resources. The existing projects will
maintain this price for 12000 full load hours (approx. 6 years), and after 10 years the
price will consist of a market price for electricity plus a green renewable energy
certificate. From the first of January 2000 and up to the first of January 2003, some
transaction agreements have prolonged the fixed prices and access to the grid. The 1st
of January 2003, the liberal energy market was introduced in Denmark. The parliament
has agreed on a minimum (0.0035/kWh) and a maximum price (0.0048/kWh) for all
new projects starting after the first of January 2003.
In France, the EOLE 2005 Program was launched in 1996.
The objective announced, foresaw the installation of between 250 and 500MW of wind
production from the year 2005 on. At the end of three sets of bids, 50 projects
representing a production of 360 MW and a potential production of 1.04TWh per year,
were thus programmed. The sale price of the wind generated kWh settled on average at
5.03 c/kWh and the financial installation of most of the projects required the support of
territorial collectivises in the form of subsidies. EOLE 2005 Program had the merit of
mobilizing new players (consultancies, industrials) but equally it showed that the bid
system was not really adapted to this stage of the development of the French wind
generation path. The wind tariff is very largely inspired by the German model resulting
from the EEG law of April 2000, giving
a single increased tariff (8.38 c/kWh) during the first 5 years of operation, then
differentiated for the 10 years following.

72
In Germany, the main financial promotion and stimulation instrument for renewable
energy sources (RES) on the national level is the Act on Granting Priority to Renewable
Energy Sources Renewable Energy Sources Act (Erneuerbare- Energie-Gesetz,
EEG), which relates to electricity from wind, water, geothermal sources, biomass and
solar. The following table show the price of electricity for Wind power under the RES

Figure 6.4:Tariffs paid under the RES act [6bs]

Financial help and subsides

In order to finance up-front capitals for wind power plans, programs, Agency and region
help investors with subsidies. At the German federal level several programmes support
the market penetration of renewable energy sources, such as: General Funding of RES
by the Ministry of Economics and Technology. When investments in RES installations
are promoted with the aim of market penetration and further dissemination of RES,
many of the programmes cover more than just one subsection of the paper in hand.
The French environmental and energy control agency (Agence de lenvironnement et de
la matrise de lnergie - ADEME) propose the investigation funds in environnemental
and energy control (FIDEME). This subside aim is to promote and facilitate renewable
energy projects financial aspect. Since 2003 80% of loans were used for wind power
plans. See details [7bs]


73
6.3 Investors in wind turbines
The local and jointly social investment is seen most clearly in Denmark in wind energy.
The figure 6.5 shows the repartition of ownership for wind turbines in Denmark in 2002.

FIGURE 6.5: Ownership of wind turbines in Denmark 2002 [6bs]

In the year 2002, wind energy with a total capacity of 2465MW was established. Of this
58 % was owned by individuals or industry mostly farmers owning one turbine. 26% was
owned by wind turbine cooperatives and 15% was owned by power utilities.

singles cooperative electricity others total
person turbines companies
Number of Turbines
Power in MW

74
The following figure 6.6 shows ownership for wind turbines in Denmark between 1990 to
2002.

Figure 6.6: Ownership for wind turbines in Denmark [6bs]

Up to 1995, the majority of all turbines were established by wind turbine cooperatives. In
the beginning, it was organised as a shareholders company with limited responsibility.
Tax legislation made it difficult and most cooperatives today are organised like a
partnership, which means the turbines are personally owned by all the shareholders. A
partnership has unlimited responsibility. The supreme authority of the partnership is the
partnership. After 1995, the developers and farmers with single turbines took over the
marked. There were several reasons for this. Larger turbines became more feasible and
it was easier for a developer to plan and sell a single turbine to a farmer. Planning
permission was more difficult to achieve and this also promoted single turbines.
Statistics about financial sources are rare. Most turbines seem to be financed by
ordinary bank loans. Some projects are financed by mortgage. Many shareholders in
the wind turbine cooperative have paid their share in cash and only 10% of the
shareholders have taken a bank loan. A loan proposal/offer for potential shareholders is
normal practice in Denmark.
Electricity company

Cooperative

Private/industry (single
turbines)

75
German wind development, by contrast, has been characterized by geographically
dispersed wind farms of various sizes, developed by small enterprises and
cooperatives. At present, 90 % of the turbines in Germany are owned by private citizens
and more than 200 000 people are involved in cooperative programs.

Contrary to Germany or Denmark, the financial implication of individuals still remains
anecdotal in France. Nevertheless, one sees an increasing interest by individuals for
ethical investments, answering to the principles of lasting development. We will
distinguish, within the context of renewable energy financing, two categories of
individuals: the jointly investors and the local investors.

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6.4 Middelgrunden: The steps of an offshore wind power farm

The Middelgrunden offshore wind farm has a
rated power capacity of 40 MW. The project
consisting of 20 wind turbines at each 2 MW is
situated just 2 km outside the Copenhagen
harbour on shallow water (3-5 meters deep).
The wind farm is owned fifty/fifty by a wind
turbine cooperative and the Copenhagen
Utility.

What was the financial steps for this offshore wind energy plan?
Who could buy share?
In the beginning, only people from the municipal area inside Denmark could buy shares.
In April 2000, the Danish parliament changed the regulation and removed all restriction
on ownership. Anybody (also outside Denmark) could buy it within certain conditions.
The cooperatives part consists of 40500 shares. One share represents a production of
1000kWh/year and was sold for 568.

Who are the shareholders?
8500 shareholders, primarily private
individuals from the local area, have
joined the cooperative. Also companies,
trade unions, NGOs, and institutions
have joined the cooperative. By October
2000, 100 % of the private shares were
sold. All shares have to be paid up front
in order to follow the constitution of the
cooperative.

Figure 6.7: The 20 wind turbines of
Middelgrunden [6bs]
Figure 6.8: Map showing the position of
the wind farm [6bs]

77
Financing of the starting up phase.
Selling reservations for shares started in the cooperative to finance this difficult start up
phase. 10 000 people joined the project and paid 6.7 per share. This amounts to
67000 but it was not enough for the pre-investigation phase, but only for organising the
cooperative itself.
In order to initiate such investigations 680000 from the Danish Energy Agency was
granted. The purpose of the grant was to investigate the technical and environmental
aspects of offshore wind power. Furthermore, the grant covered an analysis of the
organizational and economic aspects of the cooperatively owned part of the project,

Financing the construction phase.
Towards the end of the pre-investigation phase, selling shares began to finance the
construction. Construction began in April 2000 and turbines began commercial
production in April 2001.

The wind turbines.
The turbines installed on Middelgrunden will be the first 2MW turbines to be
demonstrated offshore, table 6.1 shows the technical specification of the wind turbines.
Table 6.1: Technical data of the wind turbines [6bs]
Hub height 64 meters
Rotor diameter 76 meters
Total height 102 meters
Estimated power output 89 GWh
Park efficiency 93%

The economy of the project is shown in table 6.2 and also the budget of it in table 6.3.
Table 6.2: Sales price of electricity delivered to the grid from the wind farm [6bs]
Year Fixed Added price for ren. energy
DKK/kWh /kWh DKK/kWh /kWh
0 6 0,33 0,044 0,27 0,036
6 10 0,33 0,044 0,1 to 0,27 0,013 to 0,036
10 - 25 Market price Green Label certificated to be traded

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Table 6.3: Budget of the wind farm [6bs]
[millions]
Wind turbines 26,11
Foundations including changes after the
tender to reduce the time on sea
9,92
Grid connection, from land to farm Not included
Grid connection, off-shore 4,56
Design, advice and planning 2,15
Wind turbine cooperative 0,54
Other costs 1,61
Total 44,89

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6.5 Butte du tlgraphe: A French project in wind energy

This project, under ways, consists of the
implementation of 5 wind generators of 300 kW on
the border between two Breton villages, Pleyber-
Christ and Saint-Thgonnec. It has the peculiarity of
being financially supported by an agricultural grouping
(GAEC groupement agricole dexploitation en
commun), a local entrepreneur and about thirty local
investors regrouped within a specific investment
structure. Figure 6.9: Wind turbine off
Butte du telegraphe [6bs]

Pre investigation.
The building permit was granted in May 2001. The first building work was started on the
site, installation of the foundations. Subsequent operations were suspended waiting for
the uncertainty about the tariffs to be resolved. The local investors want to benefit from
the new tariff system (decree of June 2001) but EDF is refusing for the moment, treating
the machines as already functioning.

The ownership and organization.
The initiators of the project accepted that one of the wind generators could be financed
by individuals by purchase
of the parts. The fifth wind generator thus became the property of about 30 people,
including several farmers. From the Cigales which are clubs of individuals investors
who choose to place their funds in activities in harmony with durable and sustainable
development.

Financing the construction.
The principle of financing is as follows: The cost of the studies, the building works at the
site (foundations, access track) and the connection equipment are held mutually
between the investors pro rata to their financial participation, but the dividends are
calculated based on the production of each wind generator, equipped with an individual

80
meter. In the opinion of the local entrepreneur (who invested in 2 wind generators), a
breakdown linked to one machine badly maintained by its proprietor, should not
penalise the other investors. It was still possible to have a joint maintenance agreement.
Table 6.4 shows the technical specification of the wind turbines operating on the site.
Table 6.4: Wind turbine specification [6bs]
Nominal Power 300 kW
Year of manufacture 1992
Duration of operating 4 years

These machines have a relatively small rotor diameter (25m) in relation to the power of
the generator (300kW).

In table 6.5 is shown what was the calculation basis of the project.
Table 6.5: The economy of the project [6bs]
Basic assumptions
Investment per kW 457 /kW installed
Average tariff 0,42 /kWh
Average wind speed 7 m/s
Average production per machine and year 500000 kWh
Capacity factor 1670 hours (19%)


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6.6 Simonsberg: one of the first german wind power farm

The Husum Wind farm Simonsberg has an installed capacity
of 5.5 MW and is one of the earliest installations of the
German market in October 1993. The project consisting of 11
wind turbines of ENERCON E-40 at each 500 kW rated
power is sited near Husum. The wind farm is owned by 3
private partners and is one of typical examples of private
initiated and owned wind farms in the early 90s. The wind
farm Simonsberg is owned by three farmers who live in
neighbourhood and initiated the project jointly. For small
sized projects private companies (GbR) with total financial
risk of all partners are used. [6bs]
Figure 6.10: Wind turbine Simonsberg [6bs]

The financing of the wind farm.
In case of private planning, like in Simonsberg, planning costs can be reduced to a
minimum. There are no costs for administration and for shareholder organization. The
investment was discussed with a locally based bank. You can see the investment in the
following table 6.6.
Table 6.6: Total investment costs of the project [6bs]
Wind turbines (11 Enercon E-40) 80,6% 5753000
Foundations 5,9% 418000
Transmission station 0,7% 50000
Grid connection, incl. Transformer station 8,6% 615000
Streets 1,1% 78000
Planning and building supervising 1,8% 130000
Company founding
Tax consulting, legal advisering 0,4% 25000
Enviromental impact payment 1,0% 70500
Total investment costs 100% 7139500
Specific investment costs 1298 /kWh


82
Equity could be established with support of subsidies programmes of the federal states.
On that basis projects at the windiest sites could be financed with a share of equity of
only 10%.
Deutsche Ausgleichs-Bank (DtA) is a state owned bank with special programs focussed
on environmental issues who participated with a loan of 50 % of total investment.
Interest rates are similar to ERP but loans are limited to 25% of total investment. A
cumulation of ERP and DtA loans is possible. Pay back periods are basically 10 years
for both programs. Table 6.7 shows the financing of the project.

Table 6.7: The financing of the project [6bs]
Equity (from private investors) 10 % 700000
Subsidy (investment grant from Schleswig-Holstein) 2 % 150000
ERP-loan 50 % 3569500
DtA-loan 24 % 1720000
Bank loan 14 % 1000000
Total financing 100 % 7139500

The economy
The economy of the wind farm Simonsberg is based on the German fixed price tariff
system. In the first years of operation the tariff was regulated by the Renewable Energy
Feed-In law (REFIT). Here is an overview about yearly expenses

Table 6.9: Yearly expenses [6bs]
Maintenance 161260
Insurance 4400
Land lease 35000
Electricity and telephone 8000
Management 10000
Totally yearly O&M costs 218660
Specific yearly O&M costs (first 10 years) 0,015 /kWh
Specific yearly O&M costs (second 10 years) 0,030 /kWh
Capital costs (average first 10 years) 943272
Total yearly expenses 1161872
Environmental Impact

83
7 Environmental Impact
7.1 Introduction
Environmental impacts can occur in every phase of an offshore wind energy projects
life-cycle. In the following chapter the following phases of an offshore wind power plant
should be considered:
Installation of the wind farm
Connecting the wind farm to the grid
Normal wind farm operation
Maintenance of the wind turbines
Dismantling after service life.
In this connection the main focus is on the normal wind farm operation since this period
takes the longest time. Most information for this chapter are taken from a study report
commissioned by Greenpeace called North Sea Offshore Wind A Powerhouse for
Europe [1k*].

7.2 Possible Environmental Impact During Installation of a Wind farm
The installation of a wind farm may take several years, depending on the size of the
planned wind farm and the work capacity of the construction company. If, for example,
four construction teams would be working, there would be an area of three square
kilometres temporarily been influenced, even if the construction only takes place during
the summer season from May to the end of August.

A big impact to the seabed will be the installation of the foundation, including piling and
the seabed preparation. A raised seabed will cloud the water around the construction
work and downstream. The water flow will be influenced by the new obstacles.

The inhabitants of the seabed (benthos) will lose some of their habitat. Some will even
die by shifting the ground, not only in the area of the foundation, but also in the area
where the cables are laid.


84
Also fish may be disturbed by the presence of the construction teams. There might be a
bigger noise from setting up the working platform, from piling and vibration from working
platforms or marine engines [2k*]. The noise may be expected as being higher than
those from commercial fishery because of the frequent and sudden changes in speed.
There might be also negative effects on less mobile stages of life cycle (eggs or
larvae) by being covered with soil ([1k*], p. 67, l. 7 et seq.).

An even bigger effect is suspected by the noise of the installation of the wind turbines
for whales and seals. But it is unclear what frequencies can be perceived by sea
mammals and how they will react on the influence.

Above the water surface birds can be disturbed by the presence of cranes, vessels and
construction platforms. According to [3k*], in areas where wind farms should be placed
in the summer period densities between 0.1 and 42 birds per square kilometre are
expected. With this the number of displaced birds is considerable [1k*].

Moreover for example in Danish waters there are a number of wrecks on reefs and
settlements from the stone age. The installation of a wind farm could destroy
archaeological items.

Most of these impacts will be gone after the construction is finished.

7.2.1 Possible Environmental Impact Due to Connecting the Wind Farm to the
Grid
To transport the produced electricity to the end user there must be installed a
connection between the wind farm and the electrical grid at the mainland. Therefore
special submarine cables are passed in one to two m depth into the seabed.
Laying of the cable will disturb an area of approximately two meters on both sides of the
trench for the cable. But this will be diminished after some weeks so that this impact in
most cases can be considered negligible.


85
7.3 Possible Environmental Impact by Normal Wind Farm Operation
7.3.1 Disturbance of Water
With the wind turbine, there is a new obstacle set into the nature. Under the water
surface it influences the water flow. It will amount to only 10 percent at a distance of one
diameter from the structure and four percent at a distance of two diameters [4k*]. The
change in the flow may influence the sea bed (compare Disturbance of Sea Bed ).
7.3.2 Landscape
Because of their atypical vertical and moving structures in an otherwise calm and
monotone view and because of their size which makes them visible over a relatively
wide area, wind turbines have a great influence to the landscape. Whether this is a
negative effect depends highly on the subjective opinion. While some people express
concern about the effect wind turbines have on the beauty of our landscape, others see
them as elegant and graceful, or symbols of a better, less polluted future [5k*]. Several
studies in Denmark, the UK, Germany, and the Netherlands have figured out, that
people who live close to wind turbines give in general a more favorable opinion towards
them than urbanites [6k*].
Over time, the landscape has been elementary influenced by the humans. Incisions to
the appearance of the countryside like lines of electricity pylons are mostly accepted as
a part of the landscape. In comparison to other human-made energy constructions such
as nuclear, coal and gas power plants or open coal mines, wind farms have relatively
little visual impact ([5k*], p. 29, l. 17).
To reduce the visual impact of wind turbines, there are several possibilities. On the one
hand the turbines could be blend well into the landscape by giving them a navy
camouflage painting similar to the grey sky or sea. On the other hand the size matters.
With a smaller number of larger turbines can be produced the same amount of energy
as with a lager number of smaller turbines so that there would be fewer turbines in the
landscape. Moreover lager turbines generally have lower rotational velocity than smaller
turbines. Therefore lager turbines do not attract ones attention in the way faster-moving
objects would do.
Beside this, a regular arrangement of the entire wind farm influences the way how the
farm is perceived. Figure 7.1 shows a very aesthetically arrangement of wind turbines.


86

Figure 7.1: Siemens Wind Power GmbH [7k*]

After all, the visual impact depends on the distance of the turbines to the shore. At a
distance of 45 km from the coast the wind turbines become invisible due to curvature of
the earths surface (compare figure 7.2)[1k*].

Figure 7.2: Influence of the curvature of the earth [8k*]
7.3.2.1 Tourism
Because there is no influence to the landscape of the coast, there are no interferences
with tourism expected [8k*].
A public-opinion poll arises that there is even a bigger acceptance of offshore wind
farms than of onshore wind farms because most times they arent perceived as much as
onshore wind farms [9k*]. Only few people would change their vacation resort because
of the presence of wind turbines.
More influenced are people who enjoy sailing on the sea. Half of the interviewed people
specify that the attraction of the spot decreases. One third sees in wind farms a
handicap for their spot, one fifth would think about changing the spot [10k*].


87
7.3.3 Sound from Wind Turbines
Sound is a pressure variation in the air. The human ear can recognize variations
between 0.00002 Pa and 20 Pa. Often the sound level is given in a logarithmical scale,
the so called decibel scale. Here 0 dB is theoretical absolute silence and 150 dB causes
deafness.
Noise from wind turbines is produced by the turning blades, by the gearbox, the
generator and the hydraulic systems within the nacelle. Modern turbines are optimized
to operate nearly noiseless.

For onshore wind farms there are special laws which give limits to what a wind turbine is
allowed to radiate. Depending on the area where the farm is set, in Germany this limit is
between 45 and 70 dB [11k*]. Figure 7.3 shows in comparison the sound intensity of
different sources of noise. Remarkable is that also a quiet room is not totally quiet
(40dB).

Figure 7.3: Sound intensity of different sources of noise [12k*]


88
While sound propagation in the air the sound intensity decreases with the square of the
distance.

Figure 7.4: Developing of the sound emissions over the distance [11k*]

Figure 7.4 shows the sound emissions of a 1.5 MW wind turbine housing and the
development over the distance (wind velocity of 10 m/s). Taking a 70 m high tower into
account, already next to the tower the sound is decreased to 60 dB. In comparison to
table 7.3 this is more quiet than a passenger car [11k*]. In a distance of 100 m the
sound level is fallen to 55dB what is more silent than a conversation (compare Figure
5.3).

Another important aspect is the velocity of the wind. No landscape is totally quiet and
the sound radiation of the landscape rises with a rising velocity of the wind. At a wind
velocity of 7-8 m/s and up the noise from the wind in leaves, trees, etc. overlaps the
sound from the wind turbines [11k*]. In the offshore situation there are no trees, etc. but
depending on the weather situation there are the sounds of the waves.
Furthermore it must be taken into account, that if the wind farm is placed 40 km away
from the shore there are no human neighbours who are directly influenced by the
sound. The influence of the sea dwellers will be discussed later.


89
Beyond it, there is no denying that the mechanical vibrations of the turbine which are
transmitted by the tower will generate underwater sounds. They are in no connection to
the sounds talked about earlier, because these sounds are reflected by the water
surface and do not affect the underwater sound level. The tower also transmits
vibrations to the sea floor but this effect is evaluated to be of minor importance.

Underwater sound radiation from wind turbines
The underwater sound from wind turbines is mainly generated by vibrations in the
tower. The towers have a large contact area with the water, which transmits the sound
effectively. The tower will also transmit vibrations to the sea floor but this effect is
judged to be of minor importance. Airborne sounds from blade tips are effectively
reflected in the water surface and do not affect the underwater sound level. The tower
vibrations are mainly generated from the gearbox mesh frequencies and the generator.
Thus, underwater sounds from a wind turbine can be identified as tones mainly below
1000 Hz.

7.3.4 Infrasonic
Sounds with a very low frequency, less than 20 dB, so that humans cant hear it, are
called infrasonic. Beside natural sources as storms, wind flow and the surge, also air
heating- and cooling units or the traffic are sources for infrasonic. Researches by the
German Ministry of Health showed that infrasonic with a sound level below 130 dB will
not rise negative effects on the human organism. Measurements have proved that even
close to the wind turbine this value is not reached so that there is no health treat [13k*].

7.3.5 Shadow casting
While the sun shines every wind turbine causes a shadow. Because of the rotating
blades the shadow is alternating. This is overlapped by a daily variation in the shadow
connected to the position of the sun.
For people living close to an onshore wind farm this can be very unpleasant. That is the
reason why in Germany there is a law which allows shadow casting for maximal 30
hours per year or 30 minutes per day. If this limit is exceeded the plant must have a
special sensor which turns the wind turbine off [14k*].

90
Because of the distance between offshore wind turbines and the shore this will not rise
to be an impact of the nature and any people.

7.3.6 Impact of Cable Links
As mentioned before, there must be installed cable links across a long distance. Due to
the electricity flow the main effects of the cables are the electric and magnetic field and
the heat development in the vicinity of the cable.

Electric and magnetic field: The generated field can disturb fish and sea mammals that
navigate with the help of the magnetic field oft he earth. This can affect the navigation,
the migration movements and the foraging. At present, there are no significant
researches on these impacts available [1k*].

Heat development: The development of heat in the vicinity of the cable leads to an
elevated temperature in the soil. This may influence the animals living in and on the
seabed, the so-called benthos (compare figure 7.5). It may change the composition of
the species [14k*].

Figure 7.5: Benthos [16k*]

For both effects one should take into account that it concerns only a comparable small
trace in the sea which is modified by the cable.


91
7.3.7 Disturbance of the Seabed
The wind turbine is anchored through the fundament to the seabed. This means a loss
in habitat. The size vary depending of the kind of fundament used but is compared to
the size of the of the wind farm relatively small. To reduce scour around the piles a
surrounding of approximately 10 m have to be covered by gravel, mattress or artificial
seaweed.
Depending on the sea current this area could be bigger.

7.3.8 Contamination of the Environment by Materials
Contamination of the Environment can be caused by several reasons.
On the one hand the use of chemicals against fouling could have negative effects on
the live next to the piles. On the other hand there is the possibility of lubricant, fuel or
cooling agents from the gearboxes and transformers discharging into the surrounding.
Nevertheless, it is expected that only no poisonous and biodegradable fuels, lubricant
and cooling agents are used and that precautions are taken that none of this liquids will
discharge.

7.3.9 Effects on sea dweller
7.3.9.1 Fish
Fish may be disturbed in their normal behaviour by the noise, by vibrations and by the
shadow of the blades. At the moment, it is not clear how the behaviour of fish is
influenced by this effects. It is also unknown, to what kind of frequencies fish can
perceive.
Species which react sensitive to magnetic fields can be influenced by the electric cables
and be affected in their migration and orientation.
In contrast experiences with oil rigs have shown that technical constructions often are
used by sea dwellers as a pullback area. Here they can be safe of flues [17k*].


92
7.3.9.2 Sea mammals
At the moment there is only little knowledge about the influence of visual effects or
noise to seals produced by wind turbines. Researches next to the shore have shown no
negative effects to common and grey seals.
There is also a lack of information about how dolphins and whales are influenced by
offshore wind farms. Similar to fish they might be influenced by the noise and vibrations
of wind turbines but it is unclear what frequencies can be perceived by sea mammals.

7.3.10 Effects on birds
7.3.10.1 Collision of Birds with the Turbines
The wind turbines as a big obstacle in the landscape may hold the risk birds being
injured or even killed by collisions with wind turbines. Especially at bad weather
conditions like rain, storm, fog, etc. with bad visual conditions this might be a big
problem. Although it is proved that collisions of birds with onshore wind turbines is a
minor problem, it is questionable if it will be the same situation for offshore wind
turbines. At the moment there are no studies about the collision risk with offshore wind
turbines available. Nevertheless, other studies figured out that birds are able to avoid
obstacles like electric power lines so that it can be assumed that birds used to wind
turbines can avoid them.

7.3.10.2 Wind Turbines as Barriers
Every year millions of birds cross the Sea for long distance migration or on their flight
from feeding grounds to sleeping grounds or to breeding grounds. The behaviour of
migration changes with weather conditions, wind direction and species. Therefore wind
turbines may be a barrier on their way. This may lead to long detours or a change of the
sleeping or feeding grounds.
First studies on wind farms in Denmark and Sweden show that common Eider and
Scoters avoid wind farms up to a distance of 1500 m, the area with reduced flight
activity not only concerned the wind farm itself (800 x 400 m), but also a larger area
surrounding it (in total 3400 x 3800 m). But still the size of the impact depends on the
behaviour of the species. So for example Eiders keep a certain distance in their
movements to the wind farm.

93
7.4 Possible Environmental Impact by Maintenance Operation
The environmental impact by maintenance is comparable to the impact of the
construction work. During the maintenance period between May and September
maintenance vessels disturb the settled area.

7.4.1 Possible Environmental Impact During Dismantling of the Wind Turbines
During the dismantling of the wind farm the foundation of the piles have to be
terminated at least three meters beneath the ground. The cables must be completely
removed. After 40-50 years of service life the environment changes again. The size of
the impact of the dismantling is also comparable to the impact of the installation (even
more than the maintenance).
After removing the wind turbines the impact on birds disappears. However, fish
populations and the seabed will be influenced by the commercial fishery who is allowed
to use the area again for their purposes.

7.4.2 Position of the environmental and conservation organizations
The big environmental and conservation organizations underline the ecological sense
and usefulness of wind energy. Greenpeace, WWF, DNR, BUND, NABU und Robin
Wood support the environmentally compatible extension of wind energy. They point out
that the sustainable energy systems like water, wind and solar energy will take a main
part in solving the energy and climate problems [18k*].
Possibilities of CO2 - reduction by usage of offshore wind energy

94
8 Possibilities of CO
2
- reduction by usage of offshore wind energy

With the production of energy by wind the emissions of CO
2
can be reduced if normal
power plants are substituted by wind farms. The high of saved emissions depends on
what kind of power plant is replaced.
This depends in Germany on the CO
2
certificate - prize. At a low certificate-prize-level
mostly electrical energy out of coal is restored. Furthermore it a increase in the energy
production out of gas noticeable because they can very quickly compensate the
fluctuation of the wind energy. At a high certificate-prize more energy produced by gas
is replaced then energy out of coal. [19k*]

In both cases because of the bad possibility to predict the amount of wind energy,
energy plants which produce for the middle demand are substituted. But this
substitution means also that power plants are more often driven in part load where they
have a worse efficiency. This leads to more CO
2
emissions (70 gCO2/kWh respectively
18 g CO
2
/kWh in the year 2020) only because of the substitution. [19k*]

Taking a look including the construction and the operation of the wind turbine, the
production of one kWh energy from a offshore wind turbine produces 22,42 gCO
2
. But
almost all Emissions (99,7%) derivate from the construction of the turbine. The normal
operation derivates only 0,02 gCO
2
per kWh. [19k*]

Figure 8.1 shows the specific CO
2
- emissions and savings for all life periods of a wind
turbine (construction, operation and disposal of the wind energy plant; grid extension
because of the wind energy production; Reduction of CO
2
without a change in the
operation of common power plants; decrease of efficiency) for a low and a high CO
2
-
certificate prize.
Because of the different substitution of common plants the total savings are between
822 and 606 g CO
2
/kWh.
Compared to the savings by not using fossil fuels are the emissions developed by the
construction and operation of a offshore wind plant negligible. [19k*]
Possibilities of CO2 - reduction by usage of offshore wind energy

95

Figure 8.1: Specific CO
2
-emissions of a offshore wind power plant (for CO
2
-high
and CO
2
-low) compare [19k*]

Table 8.1 shows the specific CO
2
- emissions of there sustainable energy systems.
Compared to other systems Offshore wind energy emits less during the production. In
total the CO
2
saving is in the middle.
Table 8.1: Comparison of sustainable energy systems [20k*]
[gCO2/kWh] Water Offshore Wind Photovoltaic Geothermic Biomass
Specific
Emissions
(Construction)
35 25 210 5 64
CO
2
saving 566 856 474 1030 929
Discussion

96
9 Discussion
In this report, we described all the wind power aspects from a technical point of view to
the impact on the economy and on the environment. But is there a real future for wind
power?

Economic aspect

As the other renewable energy plant, the most important problem for wind power is the
high investment costs. The next figure shows long-run marginal generation costs for
different green energy.

Figure 1: Long-run marginal generation costs (for the year 2005) for
various RES-E [1bd]
It clearly appears that the price of the wind power electricity is higher than the current
market price. However, the current market price is mainly based on the fossil fuel
electricity which is going to increase in the next decades because of the future lack of
these kinds of resources. On the contrary, the prices of wind-generated electricity are
stable and not subject to the price volatility of fossil fuels. Moreover, figure 1 shows that
the running cost of the wind energy production are much inferior to the current prices.
Discussion

97

Figure 2: Short-run marginal generation costs (for the year 2005) for various [1bd]

Beside, according to the following figure 2, the cost of wind power has decreased by
nearly 90 percent since the 1980s to 4 or less per kilowatt-hour in prime wind sites. In
some markets wind-generated electricity is cheaper than electricity from conventional
energy sources.
The explosive growth of world wind power is due in large part to its increasing
technological sophistication. Modern turbines are taller and have longer rotor blades
than the turbines of 20 years ago, allowing them to produce up to 200 times more
power. Since the fuel for wind power is free and unlimited, 75 to 90 percent of the
costs of generating electricity with wind lie in manufacturing and constructing wind
turbines and connecting them to the grid. Once turbines are installed, the remaining
costs are primarily turbine operation and maintenance, land-use royalties, and property
taxes.

Figure 3: Average cost per kilowatt-hour of wind generated electricity [1bd]
Discussion

98
If environmental, social, and human-health costs were reflected in the economics of
electricity generation, wind energy would become even less costly compared to energy
derived from fossil fuels. Unlike conventional power plants, wind electrical generation
does not release greenhouse gases that warm the climate or other polluting emissions.

Environmental

In many aspects, wind power plant is an energy sources who respects the environment.
Indeed it makes no gas emission that is an important point in the context of the global
warning. Besides the wind is free, available and inexhaustible.
This kind of energy plan can cause some troubles in the wildlife especially in bird
migration and shoal of fish. However, wind power is one of the energy plan which is the
most respectful for the environment even compare to the other green energy sources.

Social discussion

Anyone who has already gone to see a wind turbine closely knows the truth about the
noise of it. Any person who describes them as noisy is, at best, misinformed, at worst,
animated questionable intentions. The problem is that the general public listening to
people against wind turbine, believes the turbines noisy, without even being visited
them closely. At the bottom of a modern wind turbine, you do not hear more noise than
in a car. Either a very low noise when you are close to the turbine. In fact, you hear
mostly wind noise, which is present there is a wind turbine or not .When there was no
wind, a wind turbine produces absolutely no noise.
So when there is wind turbine, you hear the wind. When there is not, you do not hear
anything. When you move away from the wind turbine, the noise decreases. It is 45 dB
(decibels) at 250m apart. For comparison, the level is 50 dB in a quiet house ... The
regulations impose very low level implantation: 3 dB is the maximum level around
accommodation areas. A leaf that falls causes a 10 dB noise...
Add a large turbine produces barely more noise than average. And in any case much
less a train, a car, a highway or an aircraft.

Discussion

99
About the aesthetic problem, there is a real controversial debate. Everybody will always
have different taste. In the first hand, lot of people say that wind farms destroy beautiful
landscapes and in the other hand some wind turbine participate to the tourist
development of the region.
But what do you think about the esthetical difference between a coal industry and a
wind farm?

There is also a discussion about the security problem. Turbine close to habitation can
be dangerous in case of strong wind or technical problem. Some accidents already
happened for example in Denmark when a wind turbine exploded in 2005 near Udby.
But this kind of security problem is less dangerous than a nuclear plant problem or a
dam collapse.

Wind power supports local economic development since the jobs, royalties, and tax
revenues from wind-generated electricity production tend to stay in the community. And
since wind is inexhaustible it offers long-term energy security that electricity derived
from nonrenewable fossil fuels cannot.

Conclusion

100
10 Conclusion
Wind power in combination with other sustainable energy systems is an alternative to
fossil energy. The energy of the future have to be generated with renewable systems.
Also there should be a better connection of the grid between the countries to
compensate energy deficiency at a location with an overrun at another area.
For several millennium, the mankind have used wind as a primary energy. From grain-
grinding to water-pumping, and more recently to electricity generation, wind is available
and free in most regions of the world. Moreover with the growth of the science wind
energy is becoming more and more efficient. In the future wind electricity will be more
profitable than fossil fuel electricity even without all the government help. The following
graph describes the trend of the wind electricity prices comparing to the capacity
development.

Figure 1: Costs and capacity trends in wind power, 1980 to 2001 [1C]

However in many aspects wind power is not enough alone. First it is not a fare source of
energy all around of the world and many regions dont have enough wind. Besides wind
is a source with fluctuation so it cannot supply all the industrial need during all the year.
The environmental impact is much more maintainable than in example coal power
plants.
Conclusion

101
Despite this, the development of wind power is a need for the environment. We can not
continue in this way, the global warming is making and will make so much troubles to
earth that the mankind depends on that. Wind power cannot supply all our need but a
big part of it and some other renewable energy can offsetting the missing of wind power.

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102
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Appendixes

111
Appendixes

I) Derivation of the power of wind formula
Kinetic energy:
E
1
2
c
2
m
(1) c speed, m - mass
Mass:
m V
(2) density, V Volume
Volume:
V A s
(3) A area, s distance
Distance:
s c t
(4) t time
Swept area of the rotor:
A r
2

(5) r radius
Power:
P
E
t

When this formulas are taken together and we say that we want to know what amount
of power is produced per second is this the result.
Power of wind formula:
P
1
2
c
3
r
2

Appendixes

112
II) Proof of Betz law

Figure A.1sg: Stream tube [18sg]
With the assumption that the average wind speed through the rotor area is the average
of wind speed before the wind turbine, c
1
, and the wind speed after the passage through
the rotor plane, c
2
.
Average wind speed:
c
c
1
c
2
+
2
(1)

The mass per second through the rotor:
m
s

c
1
c
2
+
( )
2
A
(2)
The power extracted out of the wind:
P
1
2
m
s
c
1
2
c
2
2
( )
(3)
With (2) in (3) follows:
P
1
4
c
1
c
2
+
( )
A c
1
2
c
2
2
( )
(4)

Power without turbine and the same area:
P
0
1
2
c
1
3
A
(5)

When we divide the Power extract out of the wind with the power of the undisturbed flow
we get: (4)/(5)
P
P
0
1
2
1
c
2
c
1
1
c
2
c
1
(6)

c
1
C
2

Appendixes

113
Printing function (6) in a graph:

Figure A.2sg: Maximum extract of power

Out of figure [A.2sg] it is visible that the function reaches a maximum for c2/c1 = 1/3,
the maximum value for the power extract is 0,5926 of the total power in the wind. This
result is also calculable but not shown here.

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Introduction

Physical and technical background of wind power

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