UNIT 1 PART B

1. (a) (i) List and define the dynamic characteristic of sensors?

(ii) With an example explain the various functional units of a measurement system?
Nov/Dec 2012 (16Marks) 11 (a)(i,ii)
(a) (i)
Dynamic characteristics of sensors
Sensors and actuators respond to inputs that change with time. Any system that changes with time is
considered a dynamic system. Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are the parameters which are varying
with time. The following Characteristics of dynamic sensors
Response time
The time taken by a sensor to approach its true output when subjected to a step input is sometimes
referred to as its response time. It is more usually, however, quote a sensor as having a flat response between
specified limits of frequency. This is known as the frequency response, and it indicates that if the sensor is
subjected to sinusoid ally oscillating input of constant amplitude, the output will faithfully reproduce a signal
proportional to the input.
Time constant
It is the time taken by the system to reach 63.2% of its final output signal. Amplitude i.e. 62.3% of
response time. A system having smaller time constant reaches its final output faster than the one with larger
time constant. Therefore Possesses higher speed of response.
Rise time
It is the time taken by the system to reach 63.2% of its final output signal
Setting time
It is the time taken by a sensor to be within a close range of its steady state value.

(ii) Various functional units of a Measurement System
Measurement Systems
The word system in mechatronics refers to a group of physical component or related in such a manner
as to form as entire unit for performing a task. For example, this universe is a system consists of large number
of systems, Similarly human body is a system consists of large number of systems such as brain, nerve systems,
digestive. Systems etc. All mechatronics consist of various systems in which some input data are given to get
output. A system can be treated as a black box having an input and output own in Figure 1.3 (a). For example,
an electronic heater may be thought of as a system which has, as its input electric power and as output heat as
shown in Figure
A measurement system involves the precise measurement and display/recording of physical, chemical,
mechanical, electrical or optical parameters. It provides a means of describing natural phenomena in
quantitative terms. Measurement system provides the input to the control systems of mechatronics. A
generalized Measurement system comprises of a sensor/transducer, signal processor, and a display/recording
device.




SENSOR
Sensor is a device which converts a physical quantity, property or condition into output, usually electrical
parameters such as voltage, resistance or capacitance. For example, a thermocouple is a sensor which converts
changes in temperature into a voltage
SIGNAL PROCESSOR
Signal processor receives output signal from sensor and manipulates in to a suitable input signal to control
system. Signal processor performs filtering and amplification functions. For example, the output from the
thermocouple is very small voltage, therefore, amplicifier increases the magnitude of the voltage and A/D
(analog to digital) converter changes the analog voltage signal to a coded digital signal.
DISPLAY
Recorder records the output signal conditioner and display devices gives the measured variable in visual or
quantitative form. For example, LEDs, CRT, LCD are the example of display devices which gives measured
variable in terms of numbers.

2. Suggest a sensor whose output is an electrical signal for the following and explain them in detail
(i) Vacuum pressure measurement in the range of 10 2to 10^-6 torr
(ii) Velocity of hot gas in conduit. Nov/Dec 2012 (16Marks) 11(b)

(i)(ii)
The McLeod gauge is used for measuring very low pressures. The McLeod gauge can measure vacuums
as high as 10-6torr (0.1 mPa). McLeod gauge amplifies pressure by compressing a gas into a small volume. The
pressure of the compressed gas is then measured with a mercury manometer. A McLeod gauge is connected to
the unknown gas whose pressure measurement is required. The gas enters the gauge through B and fills the
tubes down to the level of the mercury reservoir. The pressure is equal throughout the tubes and the bulb
mercury is pumped up from the reservoir G. As the mercury rises above the cut-off, it traps gas inside the bulb.
The mercury is then pumped higher in the gauge until all the gas in the bulb is compressed into the closed
capillary tube. The operator allows the mercury to rise until it reaches a zero reference line on the close
capillary tube. The mercury rises faster in the open capillary tube A.




The compression of gas in the closed capillary makes the pressure of the trapped gas is higher than
measured pressure. The pressure difference causes a difference in the mercury levels in the two tubes. The
difference in height is used to calculate the pressure.

3. (a) (i) Identify the various elements present in the temperature control system used in a
refrigeration system with a simple circuit?
(ii) A potentiometer which is used to measure the rotational position of the shaft has 850 Turns
of wire. The input range is from -160 to + 160. The output range is from 0 V to 12 V. Determine
(a) The span (b) Sensitivity (c) average resolution in volts.
Nov/Dec 2011 (16Marks) 11 (a)(i,ii)
(a) (i) TEMPERATURE CONTRL SYSTEM USED IN REFRIGERATION SYSEM
The temperature control system of a refrigeration system. The temperature control loop consists of a
temperature transducer, a temperature controller and a temperature control valve.

The refrigerator temperature is the controlled variable because it is maintained at a desire value.
Refrigerant flow rate is the manipulated variable because it is adjusted by the temperature control valve to
maintain the refrigerator temperature. The temperature transducer senses the temperature of the inside the
refrigerator as it leaves the cooler and sends an error signals that is proportional to the temperature controller.
Next, the temperature controller compares the actual temperature of inside temperature to the set-point (the
desired value). If a difference exists between the actual and desired temperatures, the controller will vary the
control signal to the temperature control valve. This causes it to move in the direction and by the amount needed
to correct the difference. For example, if the actual temperature is greater than the set-point value, the controller
will vary the control signal and cause the valve to move in the open direction. It results in more refrigerant flow
through the cooler and lowers the temperature of inside refrigerator leaving the expansion devices.



The temperature transducer is the feedback element. It senses the controlled output and inside
refrigerator temperature and produces the feedback signal. The feedback signal is sent to the summing point to
be Algebraically added to the reference input (the set-point). The actuating signal passes through the two
control elements: the temperature controller and the temperature control valve. The temperature control valve
responds by adjusting the manipulated variable (the refrigerant flow rate). The refrigerant temperature changes
in response to the different gas flow rate, and the control loop is complete.
(ii) A potentiometer which is used to measure the rotational position of the shaft has 850 Turns of wire.
The input range is from -160 to + 160. The output range is from 0 V to 12 V. Determine
(a) The span (b) Sensitivity (c) average resolution in volts.
SOLUTION
(A) Span of potentiometer = 160 - ( -160) = 320

(B) Sensitivity = (12-0)/320 = 0.0375 V/deg


(C) Average resolution = 12/850 = 0.0141 V

4. b (i) Explain the construction of a Venturimeter with a neat sketch?
(ii) Briefly discuss the working of a Total radiation pyrometer with a neat sketch?
Nov/Dec 2011 (16 Marks) 11 b (i,ii)
(b)(i) VENTURIMETER
In the venturimeter the fluid is accelerated through a converging cone of angle. The pressure difference between
the section before the convergent cone and the throat is measured which provides a signal for the of flow. The
fluid slows down in a divergent cone with smaller angle to where most of the kinetic energy is converted back
to pressure energy. Because cone and the gradual reduction in the area there is no "Vena Contracta" as in case
of orifice meter. The flow area is minimum at the throat. Two small access ports are placed, one at upstream
side of the venturimeter and the other at oat, to allow the measurement of the pressure change across the venture
meter.
The Venturi effect is a jet effect; as with a funnel the velocity of the fluid increases as the cross sectional
area decreases, with the static pressure correspondingly decreasing. According to the laws governing fluid
dynamics, a fluid's velocity must increase as it passes through a constriction to satisfy the principle of
continuity, while its pressure must decrease to satisfy the principle of conservation of mechanical energy. Thus
any gain in kinetic energy a fluid may accrue due to its increased velocity through a constriction is negated by a
drop in pressure.
When a fluid such as water flows through a tube that narrows to a smaller diameter, the partial
restriction causes a higher pressure at the inlet than that at the narrow end. This pressure difference causes the
fluid to accelerate toward the low pressure narrow section, in which it thus maintains a higher speed. The
Venturi meter uses the direct relationship between pressure difference and fluid speeds to determine the
volumetric flow rate.

(b) (ii) Total Radiation Pyrometer
A pyrometer is a type of thermometer used to measure high temperatures. Various forms of pyrometers have
historically existed. In the modern usage, it is a non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal
radiation, a process known as pyrometry. The thermal radiation can be used to determine the temperature of an
object's surface.
Eb=
Where is the Stefan Boltzmann constant (5.669x10^8 W/m2K): Eb is the emissive power and T is the
absolute temperature in K.
Construction
Total radiation of pyrometer has one housing tube in which an adjustable eye piece is fixed at one end of
the housing tube and the other end is free to receive radiations from the radiating object whose temperature is to
be measured. A rack and pinion attachment is used to adjust the position of a concave mirror. A thermocouple is
also provided to receive radiation and the thermocouple is connected to the mill voltmeter to measure the
temperature.
Working
Thermal radiations from the radiating object come inside the housing tube. These radiations fall on the
concave mirror and are reflected to the hot junction of the thermocouple. So, an emf will be produced in the
thermocouple and it is measured by using a mill voltmeter. This change in emf will give the measure of
temperature.
Application:
It is used to measure the high temperature of 3500C.
Advantages:
It has high accuracy.
There is no physical contact with the radiating object.
The distance between the radiating object and the pyrometer is negligible
Disadvantages:
It is not suitable for very low temperature measurement due to poor sensititivity.
Dust, smoke, gases in between radiating object and the instrument will cause error


5. (a) (i) Explain microprocessor based controllers with suitable example?
(ii) Explain the open and closed loop control system suitable for shaft speed control with a neat
diagram?
Nov/Dec 2010 (16Marks) 11 a (i,ii)
(a) (i) MICROPROCESSOR BASED CONTROLLERS
A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a single
integrated circuit (IC) or at most a few integrated circuits. All modern CPUs are microprocessors making
the micro- prefix redundant. The microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts digital
data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results as output. It is an
example of sequential digital logic, as it has internal memory. Microprocessors operate on numbers and
symbols represented in the binary numeral system.
Another more adaptable form of microcontroller is the programmable logic controller (PLC). Figure 1.23
shows the basic structure of a PLC. The PLC is a microprocessor based controller consists of the CPU, memory
and I/O devices. These components are integral to the PLC controller. Additionally the PLC has a connection
for the programming unit, and printer. The CPU used in PLC system is a standard CPU present in many other
microprocessor controlled systems. The choice of the CPU depends on the process to be controlled. Memory in
a PLC system is divided into the program memory which is usually stored in EPROMIROM, and the operating
memory.

Eg. Automatic Camera
Example Automatic Camera
An automatic focus and indirect illumination control system for focusing a camera imaging lens on a
scene and for selectively illuminating the scene with light from a camera associated light source wherein the
camera includes active and passive scene range finders for automatic focus control of the imaging lens, an
active bounce surface range finder and direct and indirect illumination lamps operable in relation to the
detection of a reflective surface. The active range finders are connected to a common drive circuit and auto
ranging circuit and are operated selectively by the camera microcontroller in conjunction with a scene
illumination photometric sensor. A passive multi-spot scene range finder is operated in conjunction with the
active single-spot scene range finder for automatic focus control based on left, central and right subject distance
information under normal scene illumination conditions and central subject distance information under low
scene illumination, respectively.

(ii) CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

Closed-loop system uses on a feedback loop to control the operation of the system. In closed loop or
feedback control the controller notices what actually takes place at the output end and drives the plant in such a
way as to obtain the desired output. Closed-loop control systems are the type most commonly used because they
respond and move the loads they are controlling quicker and with greater accuracy than open-loop systems. The
reason for quicker response and greater accuracy is that an automatic feedback system informs the input that the
desired movement has taken place.

The basic layout of a feedback or closed-loop control system is shown in Figure The essential elements of this
system are:
The plant is the system or process through which a particular quantity or condition is controlled. This is also
called the controlled system.
Measuring unit: sensors, estimators and signal conditioners are the part of measuring unit.
The control elements are components needed to generate the appropriate control signal applied to the plant.
These elements are also called the "controller.
Comparison element or Error junction: where the desired system outputs and the measured or estimated outputs
are compared to generate the error.
A sensor is used to monitor the actual operating state of the system and to feed back to the input of the
controller an analogue or digital signal representing the output state. The actual and desired or reference states
are continually compared and if the actual state is different from the reference state an error signal is generated
which the controller uses to force a change in the controllable parameters to eliminate the error by driving the
system back towards the desired operating point.
Loop Gain The error signal is usually very small so the controlling circuit or mechanism must contain a high
gain "error amplifier" to provide the controlling signal with the power to affect the change. The amplification
provided in the loop is called the loop gain.
Loop Delay The response is not always instantaneous as there is usually a delay between sensing the error, or
aiming at a new position, and eliminating the error or moving to the new desired position. This delay is called
the loop delay.
In mechanical systems the delay may be due to the inertia associated with the lower acceleration possible in
getting a large mass to move when a force is applied. In electrical circuits the delay may be associated with the
inductive elements in the circuit which reduce the possible rate of current build up in the circuit when a voltage
is applied.

6. (b) (i) Explain the hall effect sensor and its types?
(ii) Discuss the static and dynamic characteristics of a sensor?
Nov/Dec 2010 (16 Marks) 11 (b) (i,ii)
b (i) HALL EFFECT SENSOR

Hall effect sensor is a type of magnetic transducer that varies its output voltage in response' 1879 Edwin
Hall discovered that: "when a conductor flowing in one direction was introduced perpendicular could be
measured at right angles to the current proportional to the number of flux lines passing three; _ which they
pass through it, and the amount of current.
When a current-carrying conductor is placed be generated perpendicular to both the current and as the
Hall effect of semiconducting material (Hall element) through output connections are perpendicular to the
direction field is present as current potential difference is seen across the output.
When a perpendicular magnetic field is present, as shown in a exerted on the current. This force disturbs
the current distribution, resulting a potential difference (voltage) across the output. This voltage is the Hall
voltage The Hall voltage is proportional to the vector cross product of the current (J) and magnetic flux density
(B) where KH is the Hall coefficient t is the thickness of the Hall element.
The Hall element is the basic magnetic field sensor. It requires signal conditioning to make the output
usable for most applications. The signal conditioning electronics needed are amplifier stage and temperature
compensation.





Hall sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as for internal combustion
engine ignition timing, tachometers and anti-lock braking systems. They are used in brushless DC electric
motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet. In the pictured wheel with two equally spaced magnets,
the voltage from the sensor will peak twice for each revolution. This arrangement is commonly used to regulate
the speed of disk drives.

(ii) STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SENSOR
Static characteristics of sensor
Sensitivity
The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error, but the
sensor is still linear. Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually
reach a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full scale range defines the
maximum and minimum values of the measured property.
Offset Or Bias
If the output signal is not zero when the measured property is zero, the sensor has an offset or bias. This
is defined as the output of the sensor at zero input.
Nonlinearity
If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor, this is called nonlinearity. Usually this is
defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full range of the sensor, often noted as a
percentage of the full range.
Accuracy
If the deviation is caused by a rapid change of the measured property over time, there is a dynamic
error. Often, this behaviour is described with a bode plot showing sensitivity error and phase shift as function of
the frequency of a periodic input signal.
Drift
If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined as drift
(telecommunication).
Long term Drift
Long term drift usually indicates a slow degradation of sensor properties over a long period of time.
Noise
Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.
Hysteresis
Hysteresis is an error caused by when the measured property reverses direction, but there is some finite
lag in time for the sensor to respond, creating a different offset error in one direction than in the other. If the
sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the measured property. The
approximation error is also called digitization error.
Digitization
If the signal is monitored digitally, limitation of the sampling frequency also can cause a dynamic error, or if
the variable or added noise changes periodically at a frequency near a multiple of the sampling rate may induce
aliasing errors.
Dynamic Characteristics of Sensor:
Answer: Refer Question No 1 (a) (i)

7. (a) (i) Compare open and closed loop systems with example?
(ii) Explain the principle of various sensors used for measuring displacement?
April/May 2010 (16 Marks) (11) a (i,ii)
(a)(i) OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM



(ii) VARIOUS SENSORS USED FOR MEASURING DISPLACEMENT
Displacement Measurement
Measurement of displacement is the basis of measuring: Position Velocity Acceleration Stress Force, Pressure
Proximity Thickness.
Displacement Sensors types
Potentiometers displacement sensors
Inductive displacement sensors
Capacitive displacement sensors
Eddy current displacement sensors
Piezoelectric displacement sensors
Ultrasonic displacement sensors
Magnetostrictive displacement sensors
Optical encoder displacement sensors
Strain Gages displacement sensors
POTENTIOMETER SENSOR
The coil acts as a source of magneto motive force that drives the flux through the magnetic circuit and the air gap.
The presence of the air gap causes a large increase in circuit reluctance and a corresponding decrease in the flux. Hence, a
small variation in the air gap results in a measurable change in inductance.
A potentiometer measuring instrument is essentially a voltage divider used for measuring electric
potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the same principle, hence its name. Potentiometers
are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers
operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are
rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt), since the power dissipated in the
potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled load.


Potentiometers comprise a resistive element, a sliding contact (wiper) that moves along the element,
making good electrical contact with one part of it, electrical terminals at each end of the element, a mechanism
that moves the wiper from one end to the other, and a housing containing the element and wiper.
Many inexpensive potentiometers are constructed with a resistive element formed into an arc of a circle
usually a little less than a full turn and a wiper sliding on this element when rotated, making electrical contact.
The resistive element, with a terminal at each end, is flat or angled. The wiper is connected to a third terminal,
usually between the other two. On panel potentiometers, the wiper is usually the center terminal of three. For
single-turn potentiometers, this wiper typically travels just under one revolution around the contact. The only
point of ingress for contamination is the narrow space between the shaft and the housing it rotates in.
Another type is the linear slider potentiometer, which has a wiper which slides along a linear element
instead of rotating. Contamination can potentially enter anywhere along the slot the slider moves in, making
effective sealing more difficult and compromising long-term reliability. An advantage of the slider
potentiometer is that the slider position gives a visual indication of its setting. While the setting of a rotary
potentiometer can be seen by the position of a marking on the knob, an array of sliders can give a visual
impression of, for example, the effect of a multi-band equalizer.
8. (b) (i) Explain the static and dynamic characteristics of sensors?
(ii) Explain the following thermistors and piezoelectric sensors?
April/May 2010 ( 16Marks) 11 b (i,ii)
(b)(i) STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTISTICS OF SENSORS
Answers
Refer Question No. 1 (a) (i)
Refer Question No. 6 (b) (ii)
(ii) Thermistors and Piezoelectric sensors
Thermistor, a word formed by combining thermal with resistor. Thermistors like RTDs, are temperature-
sensitive resistors. Thermistors are non linear devices their resistance will decrease with an increase in
temperature but at much faster rate than that of RTDs. The resistance can change by more than 1000 times. As a
result, thermistors can sense minute changes in temperature that are otherwise undetected by RTDs and
thermocouples reference temperature and resistance, with a constant for the resistance.
The equation was a resistance at another temperature. The expression can be temperature given the
resistance inexpensive devices that are most commonly made of chromium, nickel, manganese and cobalt. The
metals reaction, ground to a fine powder, then compressed Theses oxides are semiconductors. thermistors
based on the lead attachment beads and Bead types have platinum wires sintered into a ceramic Metallized
surface-contact thermistors are contrast to bead types, leads are not sintered directly into the sirnered ceramic is
coated with a metallic contact as shown in chip manufacturer or user attaches leads to this contact thermistors
over bead types is that the chips are easily Thus, they are easy to match and, therefore, are bead thermistors are
available, they cost more than interchangeable chips.

Piezoelectric Sensors
A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect, to measure changes in pressure,
acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical charge. The prefix piezo- is Greek for 'press' or
'squeeze'.
Piezoelectric sensors have proven to be versatile tools for the measurement of various processes. They
are used for quality assurance, process control and for research and development in many industries. Although
the piezoelectric effect was discovered by Pierre Curie in 1880, it was only in the 1950s that the piezoelectric
effect started to be used for industrial sensing applications. Since then, this measuring principle has been
increasingly used and can be regarded as a mature technology with an outstanding inherent reliability. It has
been successfully used in various applications, such as in medical, aerospace, nuclear instrumentation, and as a
tilt sensor in consumer electronics
[1]
or a pressure sensor in the touch pads of mobile phones.

In the automotive industry, piezoelectric elements are used to monitor combustion when
developing internal combustion engines. The sensors are either directly mounted into additional holes into the
cylinder head or the spark/glow plug is equipped with a built in miniature piezoelectric sensor

9. (a)(i) Compare and contrast the control system for the domestic central heating system involving a
bimetallic thermostat and that involving a microprocessor?
(ii) Explain the static performance characteristics of a sensors?
Nov/Dec 2008(16 marks) 11 a (i,ii)
(a)(i) CLOSED LOOP DOMESTIC CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEM
Closed-loop system uses on a feedback loop to control the operation of the system. In closed loop or
feedback control the controller notices what actually takes place at the output end and drives the plant in such a
way as to obtain the desired output. Closed-loop control systems are the type most commonly used because they
respond and move the loads they are controlling quicker and with greater accuracy than open-loop systems. The
reason for quicker response and greater accuracy is that an automatic feedback system informs the input that the
desired movement has taken place. The basic layout of a feedback or closed-loop control system is shown in
Figure The essential elements of this system are: The plant is the system or process through which a particular
quantity or condition is controlled. This is also called the controlled system.
Measuring unit: sensors, estimators and signal conditioners are the part of measuring unit.
The control elements are components needed to generate the appropriate control signal applied to the plant.
These elements are also called the "controller.
Comparison element or Error junction: where the desired system outputs and the measured or estimated outputs
are compared to generate the error.



(a)(ii) STATIC PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISITICS OF A SENSOR
Answer: Refer Question No. 6 (b) (ii)

10.(b) Write short Notes on
a. Thermocouples
b. Piezoelectric transducer
c. Incremental Encoder
d. Photovoltaic transducer Nov/Dec 2008 16 Marks 11 (b)
(b) (a.) THERMOCOUPLES
A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device consisting of two dissimilar conductors that contact
each other at one or more spots. It produces a voltage when the temperature of one of the spots differs from the
reference temperature at other parts of the circuit. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature
sensor for measurement and control, and can also convert a temperature gradient into electricity. Commercial
thermocouples are inexpensive interchangeable, are supplied with standard connectors, and can measure a wide
range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are self
powered and require no external form of excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy;
system errors of less than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.


b. PHOTO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
Refer question 8 b (ii)
c. INCREMENTAL ENCODER
Rotary encoder, also called a shaft encoder, is an electro-mechanical device that converts the
angular position or motion of a shaft or axle to an analog or digital code.
There are two main types: absolute and incremental (relative). The output of absolute encoders indicates
the current position of the shaft, making them angle transducers. The output of incremental encoders provides
information about the motion of the shaft, which is typically further processed elsewhere into information such
as speed, distance, and position.
Rotary encoders are used in many applications that require precise shaft unlimited rotationincluding
industrial controls, robotics, special purpose photographic lenses, computer input devices(such as opto
mechanical mice and trackballs), controlled stress rheometers, and rotating radar platforms.



d. PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCER
Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct
current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power generation
employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Solar
photovoltaics power generation has long been seen as a clean sustainable energy technology which draws upon
the planets most plentiful and widely distributed renewable energy source the sun. The direct conversion of
sunlight to electricity occurs without any moving parts or environmental emissions during operation.

11.a) Explain open and closed loop with suitable examples?
CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
Refer Question No . 5 a (ii) 9 a (i)
OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
An open-loop controller, also called a non-feedback controller, is a type of controller that computes
its input into a system using only the current state and its model of the system.
A characteristic of the open-loop controller is that it does not use feedback to determine if its output has
achieved the desired goal of the input. This means that the system does not observe the output of the processes
that it is controlling. Consequently, a true open-loop system can not engage in machine learning and also cannot
correct any errors that it could make. It also may not compensate for disturbances in the system.
There are two basic forms of control system one being called and Open loop and other closed-loop systems. The
difference between these can be illustrated by a simple example.
Consider an electric fire which has a selection switch which allows a 1 KW or a 2kW heating element to
be selected. If a person used the heating element to heat a room, he or she might just switch on the 1 kW
element if the room is not required to be at too high a temperature. The room will heat up and reach a
temperature which is only determined by the fact the 1 kW element was switched on, and not the 2 kW
elements. If there are changes in the conditions perhaps someone opening a window, there is no way the heat
output is adjusted to compensate.

This is an example of open loop control in that there is no information fed back to the element to adjust it and
maintain a constant temperature.
The heating system with the heating element could be made a closed loop system if the person has a
thermometer and switches the 1 kW and 2 kW elements on or off, according to the difference between
the actual temperature and the required temperature, to maintain the temperature of the room constant.
In this situation there is feedback, the input to the system being adjusted according to whether its output
is the required temperature. This means that the input to the switch depends on the deviation of the
actual temperature from the required temperature.
The difference between them determined by a comparison element. The person in this case.
Open-loop systems have the advantage of being
relatively simple and
consequently low cost with generally good reliability.
However, they are disadvantages like
inaccurate since there is no correction for error

12. b (i) Explain The Velocity Sensor With Suitable Diagram?
(ii) Explain the working principle of piezoelectric sensors?
To detect and monitor the velocity and motion the following sensors are used.
VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
Velocity sensors or tacho- generators are devices that give an output proportional to angular velocity.
These sensors find wide application in motor speed control systems.
The following are the various velocity sensors.
1. Electro Magnetic Transducer,
The most commonly used transducer for measurement of linear velocities is electromagnetic transducer.
The electromagnetic transducers are classified into two categories.
1. Moving Magnet Type:
2. Moving coil type.
1. In moving magnet type the sensing element is a rod that is rigidly coupled to the device whose velocity is
being measured. This rod is a permanent magnet. This permanent magnet is surrounded by a coil.
2. The motion of the magnet induces a voltage in the coil and the amplitude of the voltage is directly
proportional to the velocity.



Moving coil type velocity transducer:
It is operated through the action of a coil moving in a magnetic field.
A voltage generated in the coil is proportional to the velocity of the coil.
This is a more satisfactory arrangement due to it forms a closed magnetic circuit with a constant air gap and
the device is contained an antimagnetic case which reduces the effects of stray magnetic field.


(ii) Refer Question No. 8 b(ii)
13.a)(i) Explain the basic elements of a closed loop control system with the help of an automatic water
level controller?
(ii) What is RTD? Briefly explain the relationship between resistance and temperature for the RTD
with temperature resistance curve.
An automatic control system for the control of the room temperature could involve a temperature sensor,
after Suitable signal conditioning, feeding an electrical signal to the input of a computer where it is compared
with the set value and an error signal generated. This is then acted on by the computer to give at its output a
signal, which, after suitable signal conditioning, might be used to control a heater and hence the room
temperature. Such a system can readily be programmed to give different temperatures al different times of the
day.

The above figure shows an example of a simple control system used to maintain a constant water level in a tank.
The reference value is the initial setting of the lever arm arrangement so that it just cuts off the water supply at
the required level. When water is drawn from the tank the float moves downwards with the water level. This
causes the lever arrangement to rotate and so allows water to enter the tank. This flow continues until the ball
has risen to such a height that it has moved the lever arrangement to cut off the water supply. It is closed loop
control system with the elements being:
Controlled variable - the water level in the tank
Reference value - initial setting of the float and lever position
Comparison clement - the lever
Error signal - the difference between the actual and initial settings of the lever positions
Control unit - the pivoted lever
Correction unit - the flap opening or closing the water supply
Process - the water level in the tank
Measuring device - the floating ball and lever

(ii) RTD (Resistance temperature detectors)
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) or resistance thermometers are basic instruments for measurement of
resistance. The materials used for RTDs are Nickel, Iron, Platinum, Copper, Lead, Tungsten, Mercury,
Manganin, Silver, etc. The resistance of most metals increases over a limited temperature range and the
relationship between Resistance and Temperature is shown below. The Resistance temperature detectors are
simple, and resistive elements in the form of coils of wire and it is shown in the above Fig.
The equation which is used to find the linear relationship in RTD is


Constructional Details of RTDs:
The platinum, nickel and copper in the form wire are the most commonly used materials in the RTDs.
Thin film platinum elements are often made by depositing the metal on a suitable substrate wire- wound
elements involving a platinum wire held by ahigh temperature glass adhesive inside a ceramic tube.
Salient Features of RTDs:
1. High degree of accuracy.
2. Resistance thermometer is interchangeable in a process without compensation or recalibration.
3. It is normally designed for fast response as well as accuracy to provide close control of processes.

14.B(i) Classify transducers by function, performance and by the output basis?
(ii) Explain an incremental encoder. What are their applications?
(i)
Sensors are generally classified -into two types based on its power requirement: passive and active. In
active sensors, the power required to produce the output is provided by the sensed physical phenomenon itself
(Examples: thermocouples, photovoltaic cells, piezoelectric transducers, thermometer etc.) whereas the passive
require external power source (Examples: resistance thermometers, potentiometric devices, differential
transformers, strain gage etc.).
The active sensors also called as self-generating transducers work based on one of following principles:
resistance, inductance and capacitance.
Sensors can also be classified as analog or digital based on the type of output Analog sensors produce
continuous signals that are proportional to the sensed.
These sensors generally require analog-to-digital conversion before output signal to the digital controller
(Examples: potentiometers, LVDTs variable differential transformers), load cells, and thermistors, bourdon tube
sensor, spring type force sensors, bellows pressure gauge etc.).
Digital on the other hand produce digital outputs that can be directly interfaced with digital controller
(Examples: incremental encoder, photovoltaic cells, electric transducers, phototransistors, photodiodes etc.).
Often, the digital are produced by adding an analog-to-digital converter to the sensing unit.
If sensors are required, it is more economical to choose simple analog sensors surface them to the
digital controller equipped with a multi-channel analog-to- digital converter.
Transducers of classifying sensor refers to as primary or secondary sensors. sensors produce the output
which is the direct measure of the input Secondary sensors on the other hand produce output which is not the
representation of the physical phenomenon.
Mostly active sensors are referred sensors where as the passive sensors are referred as secondary
sensors.
(ii) Refer Question No. 10 (b) c

15.a) (i) Explain the static (steady state) characteristics of transducers?
(ii) Explain capacitive push pull sensor and capacitive proximity sensor?

(i) Refer Question No 6 b(ii)
Push Pull Displacement Sensor:
It has three plates with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair forming another
capacitor. There is a non-linear relationship form between the change in capacitance AC and the
displacement X.
The displacement moves the central plate between the two other plates.
The result of this, the central plate moving downwards and to increase the plate separation of the upper
capacitor and decrease the separation of the lower capacitor.
Therefore, the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by where C1

where C1 is in one arm of an a.c. bridge,
C2 is in an other arm of an a.c. bridge.
x = Displacement,
A = The area of overlap between the two plates,
d = The plate separation.

CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR
A combination of plates which can hold an electric charge is called a capacitor. The capacitor may be
characterized by q, the magnitude of charge on either conductors, and by V, the positive potential difference
between the conductors. The ratio of charge to voltage is constant for each capacitor, and is called the
capacitance (C) of the capacitor.

The capacitance of the parallel-plate capacitor is a function of the distance between the two plates (d), the area
of the plate (A), and the constant (k) of the dielectric which fills the space between the plates. It can be
expressed as

where epsilon is the permittivity constant.
Applications
This sensor can be employed for measuring position, displacement, gauging, or any other similar parameter in a
machine tool.
16.b) (i) Explain the dynamic characteristics of transducers?
(ii) Explain any three sensors used for temperature measurement?

(i) Refer Question No. 1 a(i)

(ii) THREE SENSORS
1. RTD (Resistance temperature detectors)
Refer Question No. 13 a(ii)
2. Thermocouples
Refer Question No. 10 b)a
3. Thermistors
Refer Question No. 8 b(i)

17.a) Discuss how displacement is sensed by LVDT. With neat sketch show how it can be made phase
sensitive?

It consists of three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube.
The central coil is primary and other two are secondary.
A magnetic core is moved through the central tube, so that the displacement being monitored.
When voltage is supplied to the primary coil, alternating e.m.f.s are induced in the secondary coils.
Suppose the magnetic core is in central, the e.rn.f. induced in each coil is same because of magnetic
material in each coil is same and oppose to each other. So there is no output.
If the core is displaced from the central position there is a greater amount of magnetic core in one coil
than the other. This will create a higher e.m.f. in one coil and lesser e.m.f. in the other coil. This will
make a net difference in two e.m.f.s and the displacement being monitored.
The formulas which are used in LVDT are:
The e.m.f.s induced in the two secondary coils 1 and 2 are:

where K1, K2 are degree of coupling between the primary and secondary coils.
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a type of electrical transformer used for
measuring linear displacement. The transformer has three solenoidal coils placed end-to-end around a tube. The
center coil is the primary, and the two outer coils are the secondaries. A cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attached
to the object whose position is to be measured, slides along the axis of the tube.
An alternating current is driven through the primary, causing a voltage to be induced in each secondary
proportional to its mutual inductance with the primary. The frequency is usually in the range 1 to 10 kHz.
As the core moves, these mutual inductances change, causing the voltages induced in the secondaries to
change. The coils are connected in reverse series, so that the output voltage is the difference (hence
"differential") between the two secondary voltages. When the core is in its central position, equidistant between
the two secondaries, equal but opposite voltages are induced in these two coils, so the output voltage is zero.
When the core is displaced in one direction, the voltage in one coil increases as the other decreases,
causing the output voltage to increase from zero to a maximum. This voltage is in phase with the primary
voltage.
When the core moves in the other direction, the output voltage also increases from zero to a maximum,
but its phase is opposite to that of the primary. The magnitude of the output voltage is proportional to the
distance moved by the core (up to its limit of travel), which is why the device is described as "linear". The phase
of the voltage indicates the direction of the displacement.
Because the sliding core does not touch the inside of the tube, it can move without friction, making the
LVDT a highly reliable device. The absence of any sliding or rotating contacts allows the LVDT to be
completely sealed against the environment.
LVDTs are commonly used for position feedback in servomechanisms, and for automated measurement
in machine tools and many of her industrial and scientific applications.

Advantages of LVDT:
1. High range
2. Friction and electrical isolation
3. Low hysteresis
4. Power consumption is less.
18.b) No Question from this unit No.1
19.a)(i) Discuss the functioning of Strain-gauged elements.
(ii) How are linear variable differential transformers used to control the length of machine slide
movements.
(i)
The change in length divided by original length is called strain.
The strain gauge consists of metal wire, metal foil strip. When subject to strain, the resistance R changes, and
the change in resistance L is proportional to strain E.

where G is a constant (gauge factor).
In the Fig. the strain gauge is attached to flexible elements in the form of cantilevers, rings, U shapes.

When the flexible element is bent, as a result of this the electrical resistance will change due to force
applied by a contact point.
The change in resistance is the measure of displacement.
The Fig. shows the strain gauges and strain gauged elements.
The major types of strain gauges are
I. Metal wire strain gauges,
2. Metal foil strain gauges
In Metal Wire Strain Gauges a wire stretched between two points in an insulating medium such as air.
The wires may be made of various copper nickel, chrome nickel or nickel iron alloys. They are about
0.003 mm in diameter and gauge factor of 2. The length of wire is 25 mm or less.
In Metal foil strain gauge the foil is usually made up of constantan, and it is etched in a grid pattern onto
a thin plastic backing material, usually polyimide. The foil is terminated at both ends with large metallic
pads.
The size of the entire gauge is very small and has a length of 5 mm to 15 mm length.
In Semiconductor strain gauges the p type and n type silicon semiconductors are used.
The semiconductor strain gauges have the gauge factors of about +100 or 100. In p-type gauges
resistance increases with tensile strain. While in n-type, resistance decreases. Typical thickness is about
0.25 mm and effective length range from 1.25 to 12 mm.

(ii)Refer Question No. 17 a

20.b) Discuss any five types of signal conditioning process with examples.
In electronics, signal conditioning means manipulating an analog signal in such a way that it meets the
requirements of the next stage for further processing. Most common use is in analog-to-digital converters.
In control engineering applications, it is common to have a sensing stage (which consists of a sensor), a
signal conditioning stage (where usually amplification of the signal is done) and a processing stage (normally
carried out by an ADC and a micro-controller). Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are commonly employed to
carry out the amplification of the signal in the signal conditioning stage.
Signal conditioning can include amplification, filtering, converting, range matching, isolation and any
other processes required to make sensor output suitable for processing after conditioning.
Filtering
Filtering is the most common signal conditioning function, as usually not all the signal frequency
spectrum contains valid data. The common example is 60 Hz AC power lines, present in most environments,
which will produce noise if amplified.
Amplifying
Signal amplification performs two important functions: increases the resolution of the inputed signal,
and increases its signal-to-noise ratio.
[
For example, the output of an electronic temperature sensor, which is
probably in the millivolts range is probably too low for an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to process directly
.
In this case it is necessary to bring the voltage level up to that required by the ADC.
Commonly used amplifiers on signal on conditioning include sample and hold amplifiers, peak detectors, log
amplifiers, antilog amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers and programmable gain amplifiers.

Isolation
Signal isolation must be used in order to pass the signal from the source to the measurement device
without a physical connection: it is often used to isolate possible sources of signal perturbations. Also notable is
that it is important to isolate the potentially expensive equipment used to process the signal after conditioning
from the sensor.
Magnetic or optic isolation can be used. Magnetic isolation transforms the signal from voltage to a
magnetic field, allowing the signal to be transmitted without a physical connection (for example, using a
transformer). Optic isolation takes an electronic signal and modulates it to a signal coded by light transmission
(optical encoding), which is then used for input for the next stage of processing.
Applications
It is primarily utilized for data acquisition, in which sensor signals must be normalized and filtered to
levels suitable for analog-to-digital conversion so they can be read by computerized devices. Other uses include
preprocessing signals in order to reduce computing time, converting ranged data to boolean values, for example
when knowing when a sensor has reached certain value.
Types of devices that use signal conditioning include signal filters, instrument amplifiers, sample-and-
hold amplifiers, isolation amplifiers, signal isolators, multiplexers, bridge conditioners, analog-to-digital
converters, digital-to-analog converters, frequency converters or translators, voltage
converters or inverters, frequency-to-voltage converters, voltage-to-frequency converters, current-to-voltage
converters, current loop converters, and charge converters.
And also Refer Question No. 1 a(ii) 3 a(i)