Producing and Maintaining Vacuum

Art Montemayor Introduction to Vacuum Systems
August 21, 2002

Rev: 1(02-16-04)
The purpose of this workbook is to provide informative engineering experience and guidelines
to allow the successful design and operation of a process plant vacuum system. This also involves:
1.0 Selection of vacuum-producing equipment;
2.0 Operation of vacuum-producing equipment; and,
3.0 Trouble-shooting of vacuum-producing equipment operating at 0.04 inches of mercury or
higher. Vacuum operation lower than 0.04 inches of mercury is considered a special and
unique vacuum design and requires additional expertise.
Vacuum equipment either must be capable of withstanding the maximum possible pressure to which it might
be subjected in case of a malfunction, or it should be protected by a rupture disc or buckling pin. For example,
a cast iron steam jet ejector using 125 psig steam as motive force and built with a 25 psig maximum
allowable working pressure (MAWP) on the body (or the same steam jet connected to a 25 psig MAWP
vessel) should have a rupture disk or buckling pin installed to prevent the 125 psig steam pressure from being
applied to either the jet ejector's body or the process vessel.
Needless to say, all equipment connected to a vacuum-producing device should be 100% vacuum rated.
GENERAL ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
Initially, the required process vacuum must be established at the startup of the related equipment.
This is called the "pump-down" period, and the vacuum system must be able to evacuate the
connected equipment in the required amount of time.
After the process has been analyzed properly to determine the vacuum required, it then becomes
necessary to investigate the process material(s) and to determine the amount or rate of gases
generated during process that ultimately have to be handled by the vacuum-pumping equipment.
Corrosive vapors and suspended solid materials then must be identified to determine what materials
of construction will be necessary to obtain reasonable life expectncy from the vacuum-producing device.
Analysis of the process equipment then must be made to determine a reasonable air leakage value.
Number and type of packing glands, valves, sight glasses, etc, all must be taken into consideration and due
allowances made. By estimating a reasonable air leakage of equipment and the other noncondensables
from the process, it is possible to determine the required capacity of the vacuum-producing equipment.
However, it is very important to determine the saturation factor (i.e., every pound of air and other
noncondensables carry with them some quantity of process vapor according to the law of partial pressures
- as expounded in the well-known Dalton's Law.)
SAFETY
Workbook Scope:
Page 1 of 24
FileName: 243470275.xls.ms_office
Worksheet: Scope of Work
August 21, 2002
Rev: 1(02-16-04)
DEFINITION OF TERMS
This is a pressure value measured from absolute zero pressure, i.e., from an absolute
vacuum base starting point. Note: often some scientists and engineers are delinquent in
using the term "vacuum" when they mean a negative value from the base point of
atmospheric pressure. This is often results in confusion and misunderstanding.
Absolute pressure is recommended usage because it is precisely that - absolute.
This is a pressure value measured within the gas medium such that no effect from
the velocity of the gaseous medium is reflected on the measurement; i.e., the velocity
head effect (v
2
/2g - where v = fluid velocity, ft/sec; g = 32.2.ft/sec
2
) is not measured.
This is the absolute static pressure prevailing at the suction of the vacuum-producing
equipment expressed in pascals, psia, torr, or in inches, millimeters, or microns of
mercury.
This is the absolute static pressure prevailing at the discharge of the vacuum-producing
equipment expressed in pascals, psia, inches of mercury, or mm Hg (torr).
This is the maximum discharge pressure against which a stream jet can operate stably.
The temperature above absolute zero, expressed in degrees Rankine or Kelvin.
The temperature of the gas at the suction of the vacuum-producing equipment.
The mechanical operation of the vacuum producing equipment without violent
fluctuation of the suction pressure.
The capacity of steam jet ejectors is expressed as a weight rate of flow of a specific
gas [usually as lb/hr of dry air at 21
o
C (70
o
F)]. For mechanical vacuum pumps,
capacity is expressed as a volume rate of flow at the specified suction pressure and
suction temperature (usually Acfm of dry air).
This is atmospheric air at normal room temperature, devoid of any water vapor content
that is usually found in atmospheric air. The very small amount of water vapor in it is
considered insignificant and is ignored. For example, the weight of water vapor in
atmospheric air at 50% relative humidity and 25
o
C (77
o
F) temperature is 0.010 pound
of water per pound of dry air.
This is the calculated weight rate of air in lbs/hr that is equivalent to the weight
rate of gas handled by the vacuum-producing equipment at the suction conditions.
VACUUM PRESSURE MEASUREMENT UNITS
14.696 psia
= 101.325 pascals
= 760 mm mercury
= 760 torr
= 760,000 microns mercury
= 29.94 inches mercury absolute (@ 32
o
F)
1 Bar = 14.5 psia
Stable Operation
Absolute Pressure
Suction Pressure
Suction Temperature
Absolute Temperature
Support Pressure
Equivalent Air
1 Atmosphere =
Discharge Pressure
Capacity
Static Pressure
Dry Air
Page 2 of 24
August 21, 2002
Rev: 1(02-16-04)
Plant equipment (especially distillation columns) are fixed assets that must be employed to the maximum in
order to maximize the return on their investment. The column start-up time should be as short as possible and
requires large vacuum rates that are in far excess of the designed, steady-state value that the system usually
runs at. You should decide on the maximum time allowable for start-up and make sure you have sufficient
vacuum rate to evacuate the system in that period. For this, you must have accurate volumetric estimates of all
the system components, including all connected piping.
The following equations (which neglect air seepage into the system) may be used to estimate the evacuation
time for a system to be reduced in pressure if the system is initially found filled with atmospheric air.
For vacuum systems using positive-displacement, mechanical vacuum "Pumps":
where,
T
Evac
= The approximate time to evacuate the system from P
1
to P
2
, minutes
V = System volume, Ft
3
cfm = Mechanical pump capacity, Acfm
P
1
= Initial pressure, inches Hg absolute
P
2
= Final pressure, inches Hg absolute
DA = Steam jet design capacity, lbs dry air/hr @ 70
o
F
Calculation examples: (Key in input into YELLOW cells and answer is in RED)
(1) Calculate the time to evacuate a 3,140 ft
3
chamber from atmospheric pressure,
29.9 inches Hg absolute, down to 1.0 inch of Hg absolute by using a
1,000 Acfm positive displacement vacuum pump.
Solution:
T
Evac
=
11.7 minutes
(2) Calculate the time to evacuate a 1,000 Ft
3
system if the design capacityof the steam
40.0 lb/hr of dry air.
Solution:
T
Evac
=
55.0 minutes
jet ejector used is
For Steam vacuum jets:
PUMP-DOWN TIME
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
1 . 1
P
P
Ln
cfm
V
T
Evac
( )
|
.
|
\
|
=
DA
V
T
Evac
2 . 2
Page 3 of 24
Art Montemayor Calculating Vacuum Requirements August 21, 2002
Rev: 1(02-16-04)
Determination of the required vacuum capacity for a given system should include the following:
1) Atmospheric air seepage into the system through joints and seals;
2) Gases generated by, or inherent to, the process;
3) Liquid impurities whose vapor pressures are higher than the vacuum setting;
4) Maximimum pump-down time required for startup of the system.
The amount of air leakage (actually seepage) into a system is a function of design, operation, and
maintenance. Energy conservation and environmental emission controls dictate that air seepage be
minimized and kept to the lowest practical levels. Once air is introduced into a vacuum system, its
negative effects are compounded downstream.
One way to identify air seepage into existing equipment is to employ a field pressure drop test. For this test,
all process fluid should be evacuated from the subject equipment and the system should be subjected to a
vacuum level within the range of 1 to 10 inches Hg absolute. Once the vacuum level is attained, the
vacuum-producing equipment should be quickly and positively isolated from the system. The time that it
takes the system to reach a given rise in pressure is measured as accurately as possible. As an example,
measure the time required to achieve a pressure rise of 2 inches Hg. The system pressure should not be
allowed to increase the system pressure above 15 inches Hg during the test.
To calculate the estimated air seepage rate into the system, use the following relationship:
where,
V = System volume, ft
3
P
2
= Final system pressure, inches Hg abs
P
1
= Initial system pressure, inches Hg abs
t = time required for the system pressure increase, minutes
Calculation example: (Key in input into YELLOW cells and answer is in RED)
300 ft
3
of internal volume and increases from
5.0 inches Hg abs to 7.0 inches Hg absolute pressure in
31.0 minutes.
2.9 lbs/hr
The air seepage into a process can originate from various sources. Leaks can occur through gasketed joints;
through holes, cracks, or other flaws in the base material of construction; through permeation; and through
flaws in the welded vessel joints. Most of these sources are related to the pressure or concentration
differential existing between the vacuum-producing equipment and the surrounding atmosphere. Leakage
allowances should always be estimated on the conservative side (allowing for an excess vacuum capacity) in
order to ensure that there will be sufficient capacity for a variety of conditions that may arise.
Air seepage can be estimated for new or existing systems by using the following empirical relationships:
First: Estimate the air seepage due to metal porosities and weld line cracks and flaws with one of the
DETERMINATION OF AIR SEEPAGE INTO VACUUM EQUIPMENT
A system has
The air seepage rate is =
( )( )( )
t
P P V
hr lb Seepage Air
1 2
15 . 0
,

=
Page 4 of 24
WorkSheet: Air Seepage
Rev: 1(02-16-04) following three equations
For a design vacuum pressure (P) less than 0.4 inches Hg abs, use
For a design vacuum pressure (P) within the range of 0.4 to 4.0 inches Hg abs, use
For a design vacuum pressure (P) greater than 4.0 inches Hg abs, use
Second: Estimate the air seepage due to the various system components using one of the following three
equations. Determine the value of the specific heat leak, Q, from the subsequent Table below.
For a design vacuum pressure (P) less than 0.4 inches Hg abs, use
For a design vacuum pressure (P) within the range of 0.4 to 4.0 inches Hg abs, use
For a design vacuum pressure (P) greater than 4.0 inches Hg abs, use
Note: D = the nominal diameter, in inches, of a sealed joint
( )
6 . 0 34 . 0
1
0781 . 0 / , V P hr lbs W =
( )
6 . 0 26 . 0
1
0742 . 0 / , V P hr lbs W =
( )
6 . 0
1
106 . 0 / , V hr lbs W =
34 . 0
2
3 / , P Q D hr lbs W t =
26 . 0
2
78 . 2 / , P Q D hr lbs W t =
Q D hr lbs W t 98 . 3 / ,
2
=
Page 5 of 24
Rev: 1(02-16-04)
Static Seals
O-ring construction 0.0020
Conventional gasket seals 0.0050
Thermally cycled static seals
Temperature < 100 oC (212 oF) 0.0050
100
o
C < Temperature > 200
o
C (392
o
F) 0.0180
Temperature >200
o
C 0.0320
Motion (Rotary) Seals
0-ring construction 0.1000
Mechanical seals 0.1000
Conventional packing 0.2500
Threaded Connections 0.0150
Access Ports 0.0200
Viewing Windows 0.0150
Globe Valves, diameter < 2 inches 0.2400
Third: To obtain the total estimated air seepage, add the W
1
estimate to the sum of all the estimated W
2
values and the answer will be the total air seepage rate in lb/hr.
Q
lb/hr-in.
Table of Specific Air Seepage rates for vacuum system components
System Component
Page 6 of 24
Rev: 1(02-16-04)
One way to identify air seepage into existing equipment is to employ a field pressure drop test. For this test,
allowances should always be estimated on the conservative side (allowing for an excess vacuum capacity) in
Page 7 of 24
Rev: 0
Process gases such as water vapor, alcohol, oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, chlorine,
sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, carbon monoxide, the nitrogen oxides, etc. are often found to be generated
within a process operation - especially one involving sufficient heat to cause decomposition of some of the
liquid components (i.e., the vacuum distillation of crude nitric acid I did at the DuPont Plant in Victoria, TX).
Determination of the quantities and rates involved is necessary since either they have to be handled by the
related vacuum system just as if they were so much more seepage air or they must be removed by
condensation or by chemical scrubbing done subsequently downstream. Familiarity and/or intimate
knowledge of the chemistry involved in the process is required in the absence of actual laboratory
determinations. Those with a command of Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures will appreciate the fact that any
liquid components with vapor pressures in excess of the system vacuum at the operating temperature will
emit their flash vapors in accordance with Dalton's Law.
In some cases, the amount of dissolved gases or generated gases will be found to be quite large and may
even be more than the amount of seepage air. In many cases, however, these gases are very small in quantity
and can be considered as additional air leakage. In other cases, these process gases can be considered as
nil or neglected altogether.
If there is a possibility of removing process gases selectively by employment of condensation, scrubbing,
adsorption, or even possibly a reaction, this should always be considered first before discarding the option.
When a condensable process gas temperature is higher than that of the available condensing or scrubbing
media, it always requires less energy to remove the gas as a liquid with a barometric leg (or pump) rather
than to "pump" it as a gas. The size of the vacuum-producing equipment and its energy consumption can be
reduced economically any time that water vapor or process gases can be condensed or scrubbed ahead of
the vacuum-producing equipment.
However attractive the incentives to remove process gases may appear, they inherently carry the inevitable
engineering trade-off. Any process or technique applied to removing these gases will introduce a pressure
drop immediately prior to the vacuum-producing equipment and this directly increases the size and/or
complexity of the subject equipment - and consequently the total capital cost. Nevertheless, such is the
attractiveness of the incentives to remove the process gases that it is always in the interests of the design
engineer to carefully analyze the available options and their merits. Frequently, due to strict emission laws
and potential hazardous conditions, there is no choice and it is a practical decision to install such equipment
directly rather than waste irrelevant time and effort by subjecting it to economic analysis and justification.
Process Gases and Non-Condensables Generated within, or inherent to, Vacuum Systems
Page 8 of 24
WorkSheet: Process-Generated Gas
Rev: 0
liquid components (i.e., the vacuum distillation of crude nitric acid I did at the DuPont Plant in Victoria, TX).
even be more than the amount of seepage air. In many cases, however, these gases are very small in quantity
Page 9 of 24
WorkSheet: Process-Generated Gas
Art Montemayor Example Vacuum Capacity Calculation August 21, 2002
Rev: 0
A Process Reactor with 2:1 ellipsoidal heads is fitted with a packed,
2-inch diameter agitator shaft, a 24-inch filling port, a 12-inch diameter
viewing window, and a 6-inch threaded outlet connection. The reaction
takes place at 3.5 inches Hg abs and requires the removal of water
vapor at a rate of 2,000 lb/hr. It is required that the design vacuum
be achieved within 10 minutes after the reactor has been charged and
sealed. Cooling water is supplied at 20
o
C.
Calculate the required size of

a) A mechanical, positive displacement pump;
b) A steam jet ejector
Assume that the reactor ellipsoidal heads have a 2" straight flange.
The volume of each ellipsoidal head is calculated by using my
Vessel Volumes Workbook:
Pump-down Capacity:
56.55 Ft
3
(refer to attached Worksheet, Ellipsoidal Head volume)
263.89 Ft
3
320.45
Ft
3
29.94 inches Hg absolute (vessel is filled at atm. Press.)
3.5 inches Hg absolute
10.0 minutes
75.7 Acfm (refer to Work Scope Worksheet)
70.5
lbs dry air/hr @ 70
o
F (refer to Work Scope Worksheet)
For estimating the amount of air seepage due to metal porosity, use the following equation as found in the Air
Seepage Worksheet:
where,
P = 3.5 inches Hg absolute
V = Total vessel volume, Ft
3
(see above calculation)
therefore,
W
1
=
3.3 lbs/hr of air seepage through welding cracks and flaws
Initial vessel pressure =
Final vessel pressure =
Required Pump-down time =
Required Mechanical pump capacity =
Required Steam jet ejector capacity =
Air Seepage Calculation:
TYPICAL PROCESS VACUUM SIZING APPLICATION PROBLEM
Volume of two ellipsodial heads =
Cylindrical vessel volume =
Total vessel internal volume =
Engineering Solution:
72" ID 108" S/S
( )
6 . 0 26 . 0
1
0742 . 0 / , V P hr lbs W =
Page 10 of 24
WorkSheet: Sizing Example Problem
Rev: 0
In order to estimate the air seepage through the various system components, the following equation from the
Air Seepage Worksheet is used:
The various components' contributions in seepage are detailed:
1.57
1.51
0.57
0.28
3.93
W
2
= 15.1 lbs/hr of air seepage through the system's components
18.4 lbs/hr of air seepage
By applying the Universal Gas Law, volumetric equivalent capacity for the total Seepage Air is:
where,
Z = Compressibility Factor, assumed as 1.0
n = 0.01 lb moles of air/min
R = 10.73 psia - Ft
3
/lbmol -
o
R
T = 581
o
R
P = 1.72 psia
V = 38 Acfm
Process Gas Calculations:
The water vapor generated and evacuated at the vacuum conditions behaves as if it were a process gas. This
is thus because it's original state is at the reaction temperature. When a vacuum is pulled over the
liquid water, a portion of the fluid is vaporized as the system pressure is lowered below the fluid's vapor pressure.
Although the reaction temperature is not given in the problem statement, it must be at least as high as the
corresponding saturation temperature of water at the given vacuum of 3.5 inches Hg absolute (1.719 psia).
The Thermodynamic properties of saturated water vapor are taken from the NIST website and are as tabulated:
Temperature
(
o
F)
Pressure
(psia)
Density
(lbm/ft3)
Volume
(ft3/lbm)
119.89 1.69 0.0049137 203.51
120.11 1.70 0.0049410 202.39
120.32 1.71 0.0049684 201.27
120.53 1.72 0.0049957 200.17
120.74 1.73 0.0050230 199.09
6,672
Actual Ft
3
/min (Acfm)
Seepage from the threaded outlet = t (6) (0.015) =
Total E of t D Q effect =
Total Air Seepage = W
1
+ W
2
=
Seepage from the viewing window gasket = t (12) (0.015) =
Seepage from the agitator shaft seal = t (2) (0.25) =
Seepage from the filling port gasket = t (24) (0.02) =
Water vapor evacuation capacity required =
26 . 0
2
78 . 2 / , P Q D hr lbs W t =
P
ZnRT
V =
This is the Specific Volume involved
Page 11 of 24
Rev: 0
To convert any gas or vapor to an equivalent air weight requires a conversion factor equal to the square root
of the molecular weight ratio. As an example, the 2,000 lb/hr of water vapor is equivalent to:
therefore,
2,539 lb/hr of dry air Equivalent Air Load =
water of MW
air of MW
Load Air Equivalent 000 , 2 =
Page 12 of 24
Art Montemayor Vent Condenser Calculations September 30, 2002
Rev: 1(02-16-04)
During the design phase of certain vacuum applications, it is worthwhile to consider the possibility of
employinga vent condenser on the downstream side of the main condenser (if one is dealing with a
distillation column) or by itself just previous to the entrance to the vacuum-producing equipment (if one is
dealing with pure evacuation of a vessel or system - as in a batch reactor that has to be evacuated prior to
the transfer of its reaction products).
Often, the gaseous or vapor products that inevitably form part of the evacuated vapor stream are considered
valuable compounds (such as solvents and light components - acetone, methanol, Carbon Tetrachloride,
etc) or they are classified as undesirable atmospheric emissions (such as solvents, methanol, ethanol, etc.).
The utilization of a vent condenser in a Vacuum application allows the removal and/or recovery of the
condensable components in the evacuated gaseous stream. Of course, in order to be effective, the vent
condenser should have a coolant (usually on the tube side) that has a temperature well below the
condensing temperature of the condensable components.
Other favorable and positive characteristics of a vent condenser in such applications are:
1. The capacity of the vacuum-producing equipment is reduced as well as its capital cost;
2. The required capacity of the downstream disposal facilities (such as vent headers, flare
systems, incinerators, etc.) and their related capital cost is also reduced.
Such are the attactive features of a vent condenser application that it is expedient for a design engineer to
evaluate the potential results and benefits of a vent condenser. Vent condensers can be installed In series
or they can be installed in inter-stage vacuum applications where deeper vacuum levels have to be attained
by using multi-stage equipment.
Although the benefits of a vent condenser are immediately apparent, there are trade-offs that must also be
considered during their evaluation. A higher pressure drop is the main nemesis in a vacuum system.
Special care and expertise is required to design and fabricate the vacuum (usually shellside) side of a vent
condenser - as is also the case for a main overheads condenser in a distillation application. Often, the
presure drop anticipated is so critical and controlling that it is left to experienced and recognized experts in
the field to design the Main and Vent Condensers - and sometimes the entire vacuum-producing package.
As an example of judicious Vent Condenser application, consider one on the vacuum system described
previously in the Sizing Example WorkSheet:
VENT CONDENSER APPLICATIONS
Vent Condenser
18.4 lb/h air +
20
o
C CWS
to vacuum-producing
CWR
liquid water
Page 13 of 24
WorkSheet: Vent Condenser Application
Art Montemayor Vent Condenser Calculations September 30, 2002
Rev: 1(02-16-04)
In order to find the volumetric flow rate of the gases exiting the vent condenser, assume that the outlet gas
will approach the inlet cooling water by 5
o
C (9
o
F) so the gas to the vacuum-producing equipment will be
at 25
o
C.
The FREE NIST databank (at: http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/fluid/) for water vapor yields:
Temperature
(
o
C)
Pressure
(psia)
Density
(lbm/ft3)
Volume
(ft3/lbm)
22 0.38367 0.001214 823.64
23 0.40771 0.001286 777.66
24 0.43305 0.001361 734.58
25 0.45976 0.001441 694.2
26 0.48789 0.001524 656.32
27 0.51751 0.001611 620.79
The above table identifies the saturated water vapor pressure as 0.95 inches Hg absolute (0.45976 psia)
This pressure is also the partial pressure of water vapor in the system at 25
o
C.
Since the vapor stream is a binary of (water + air), by Dalton's Law the partial pressure of the air is:
3.04 inches Hg absolute
By applying the Universal Gas Law, volumetric equivalent capacity for the total Seepage Air is:
where,
Z = Compressibility Factor, assumed as 1.0
n = 0.01 lb moles of air/min
R = 10.73 psia - Ft
3
/lbmol -
o
R
T = 537
o
R
P = 1.72 psia
V = 35 Acfm
This volumetric flowrate also includes the evacuated water vapor; by Dalton's Law, the water vapor also
occupies this volumetric flowrate. From the above NIST data, the specific volume of water at 25
o
C and
0.95 inches Hg is 694.2 Ft
3
/lb. Therefore, the water vapor being evacuated by the vacuum-producing
equipment is:
0.051059 lb/min
= 3.06 lb/hr
3.89 lb/hr
Note the tremendous load difference in the vacuum-producing equipment when a vent condenser is used.
The water vapor load has been reduced by (2,000 - 3.06) = 1,997 lb/hr. (99.8 % of the total)
Air partial pressure = (3.5 - 0.95) =
Water Vapor evacuated =
The equivalent dry air load for this quantity of water vapor =
P
ZnRT
V =
Page 14 of 24
WorkSheet: Vent Condenser Application
Art Montemayor Vacuum Specifications December 12, 2002
Rev: 0
1.
75.7 Acfm (Refer to Sizing Example WorkSheet)
3.5 inches Hg absolute (Refer to Sizing Example WorkSheet)
25
o
C (Assume this as ambient, since not stated)
2. The capacity required for evacuating process gases and air seepage is as follows:
6,710 Acfm
(air seepage + water vapor, without a vent condenser)
49
o
C (Refer to Sizing Example WorkSheet)
35 Acfm
(air seepage + water vapor, with a vent condenser)
0.95 inches Hg absolute (Refer to Vent Condenser Application WorkSheet)
25
o
C (Refer to Vent Condenser Application WorkSheet)
1.
70.5 Lbs Steam/hr (Refer to Sizing Example WorkSheet)
25
o
C (Assume this as ambient, since not stated)
2. The capacity required for evacuating process gases and air seepage is as follows:
6,710 Acfm
(air seepage + water vapor, without a vent condenser)
= 2,557
lb/hr of dry air @ 70
o
F
49
o
C (Refer to Sizing Example WorkSheet)
35 Acfm
(air seepage + water vapor, with a vent condenser)
= 21
lb/hr of dry air @ 70
o
F
0.95 inches Hg absolute (Refer to Vent Condenser Application WorkSheet)
25
o
C (Refer to Vent Condenser Application WorkSheet)
Sizing Specification for a Mechanical Vacuum Pump
Capacity =
Vacuum pressure =
Process Temperature =
The capacity required for pump-down of the system is as follows:
Vacuum pressure =
Sizing Specification for a Steam Vacuum Jet Ejector
The capacity required for pump-down of the system is as follows:
Capacity =
Vacuum pressure =
Capacity =
Vacuum pressure =
Capacity =
Vacuum pressure =
Capacity =
Vacuum pressure =
Capacity =
Page 15 of 24
WorkSheet: Equipment Sizing
Art Montemayor Vacuum Specifications December 12, 2002
Rev: 0
Important observations to consider:
a. Note that the pump-down capacity is based on evacuating the reactor within the time span of 10 minutes.
The calculated required pump capacity of 75.7 Acfm is a conservative value, since the
calculation does not take into consideration the net reactor volume after the vessel is charged. In other
words, the time required for reaching the design vacuum will be less due to the fact that the net volume
to evacuate is less than the total vessel volume. Since the problem does not state the volume of the
liquid reactants, the net reactor volume cannot be deduced nor calculated for a more accurate value.
b. Note that the employment of a vent condenser prior to the vacuum-producing equipment reduces the
amount of required capacity by 99.5 %. However, this dramatic reduction in equipment capacity
is obtained at the expense of a lower vacuum requirement due to the vapor pressure that must be
maintained at the vent condenser outlet in order to assure condensation and subsequent liquid
separation at the 25
o
C outlet temperature. This physical example of Dalton's Law requires that the
pressure drop through the vent condenser's process side be no greater than (3.5 - 0.95) = 2.55 inches Hg.
If the pressure drop through the vent condenser is greater than this value, the ultimate vacuum level in
the reactor will be higher; i.e., the vacuum effect will be less (or the pressure will be more positive).
This relatively small amount of pressure drop (1.25 psi) is a very stringent design specification for a
shell-and-tube vent condenser and an experienced and recognized fabricator is usually called upon to
design this type of special equipment. Proprietary, special design baffles are often used in this type of
application.
c. The 10 minutes of pump-down time using a mechanical pump requires a capacity for 75.7 Acfm.
If a longer pump-down time can be tolerated, a smaller mechanical pump can be used by also
employing a vent condenser. For example, the 35 Acfm capacity required with a vent condenser can be
serviced by using a nominal 40 Acfm machine that would take 30 minutes instead.
By using a vent condenser, the capacity has been greatly reduced, but the pump-down time has been
tripled in duration.
d. The 10 minutes of pump-down time using a steam jet ejector requires a capacity for 70.5
lb dry air/hr. If a longer pump-down time can be tolerated, a smaller ejector can be used by also
employing a vent condenser. For example, the 21 lb/hr of dry air required with a vent condenser can be
serviced by using a nominal 24 lb dry air/hr unit that would take 29 minutes instead.
Again, take note that the time elapsed for pump-down has almost tripled due to the lower vacuum
that has to be produced at the ejector inlet due to the vent condenser's pressure drop.
e. There is not much one can do about non-condensable process gases in a vacuum operation. These
fluids impose a vacuum capacity requirement that can only be resolved with equally-sized vacuum
producing equipment. However, where condensable process vapors are involved, the utilization of
vent condensers is a conventional and natural technique to reduce process emissions and energy
requirements.
Page 16 of 24
WorkSheet: Equipment Sizing
Art Montemayor Designing Vacuum Lines December 26, 2002
Rev: 0
As has been mentioned in the Vent Condenser Application WorkSheet, pressure drops introduced in the
trajectory of a vacuum system cause additional work requirements on the vacuum-producing equipment.
flow. In other words, the ultimate vacuum-producing equipment must be specified for a higher vacuum in
order to produce the desired end result further upstream, within the process.
Typical equipment employed and causing pressure drops in a vacuum system are:
1. Piping, fittings;
2. Valves;
3. Condensers, heat exchangers;
4. Traps, separators;
5. Scrubbers, filters;
6. Low piping points or piping "traps".
Piping should be designed with as short a process run as is feasible within the guidelines and scope of the
equipment layout and process requirements. All piping should be positively sloped to avoid any liquid
accumulation in the run. Strategically-located condensate drop-legs should be in incorporated - especially in
the main header runs. Branch tees should be avoided as much as possible and all elbows should be minimal
long-radius design - with piping bends used as a preference. Characteristically, process vacuum piping
(especially headers) will be fabricated as "Big-Bore" piping (pipe with an O.D. greater than 24"). This size
and type of pipe is normally installed with mitered elbows (minimal 3-cut) to reduce presssure drop. Big
Bore piping requires special supports and expansion capability design; sometimes it may have to be
re-inforced for vacuum rating. The discharge piping of vacuum-producing equipment should be liberally
sized to reduce pressure drop to a minimum because the equipment's performance is adversely affected by
a high discharge pressue - especially steam jet ejectors.
Valves should be held to a minimal quantity. Only block valves are employed as line valves; there is no
throttling required in the main piping. Vacuum flow control is done in the smallest size piping - usually in
the process area. Any Ball or Gate Valve employed as a block should be a "Full-bore" type.
Condensers are always specially designed for vacuum service, due to the pressure drop constraints. This
means that the shellside is normally used for the vacuum side, since this is the side that offers the lowest
pressure drop available. As a result of this, baffle design and phase separation become key design criteria
in order to keep the pressure drop as low as possible while maintaining the required heat transfer.
Condensing under a vacuum is an industrial specialty and fabricators usually have proprietary techniques
and know-how that enables them to design, fabricate and warrant the operation of successful equipment.
Young or inexperienced engineers with less than 10 to 15 years design and operating experience are advised
to distance themselves from this specialty design area and leave it to the experts who will warrant their
design and equipment supply.
Page 17 of 24
WorkSheet: Vacuum Line Sizing
Rev: 0
Traps, separators, scrubbers, and filters should be kept out of a vacuum system if this action can be justified.
However, many times, because of process characteristics and needs, this is not possible. Nevertheless, the
best advice for a successful vacuum system is to keep the process SIMPLE, with a minimal of hardware and
controls.
Recommended Design vapor velocities for vacuum lines are as follows:
Absolute Vacuum
755 - 760 0 - 5
725 - 755 5 - 35
685 - 725 35 - 75
380 - 685 75 - 380
0 - 380 380 - 760
Maximum
Allowable Velocity
Desired Operating
Velocity
System Process Pressure
Torr (mm Hg)
Ft/sec
150
300
250
200
150
150
275
225
175
150
Ft/sec
Page 18 of 24
Rev: 0
accumulation in the run. Strategically-located condensate drop-legs should be in incorporated - especially in
the main header runs. Branch tees should be avoided as much as possible and all elbows should be minimal
Young or inexperienced engineers with less than 10 to 15 years design and operating experience are advised
Page 19 of 24
Rev: 0
Traps, separators, scrubbers, and filters should be kept out of a vacuum system if this action can be justified.
best advice for a successful vacuum system is to keep the process SIMPLE, with a minimal of hardware and
Page 20 of 24
Art Montemayor Vacuum-Producing Equipment December 27, 2002
Rev: 0
The vacuum-producing equipment related to the information in this workbook are the following types:
Inches Hg Torr Psi
1. Liquid Piston Ring Rotary Pumps0.05 to 29.94 1.27 to 760 0.024 to 14.7
2. Positive Displacement Pumps 0.05 to 29.94 1.27 to 760 0.024 to 14.7
3. Steam Jet Ejectors 0.05 to 29.94 1.27 to 760 0.024 to 14.7
4. Liquid Jet Ejectors 2.0 to 29.94 50.77 to 760 0.98 to 14.7
5. Positive Displacement Blowers 2.0 to 29.94 50.77 to 760 0.98 to 14.7
These machines originated in a USA patent and were originally called "Nash" or "Nash HyTor" pumps.
The concept is unique in that they employ a liquid piston rotating in an oval chamber as a displacement
medium for the gases being evacuated. The liquid can be any fluid that has an adequate vapor pressure
at the operating temperature and is compatible with the process gases. Some typical liquids used as
the sealing piston are: Dowtherm A, ethylene glycol, sulfuric acid and water. In fact, in the past it was
quite normal to employ Mercury as the seal piston. Recent environmental and health concerns have
contributed to the eradication of Mercury as the seal piston fluid. The concept, besides being unique, is very
efficient and trouble-free in operation. Since there is no metal-to-metal contact or wear, the machine is
relatively free of noise and maintenance. Because the seal piston fluid is always in direct contact with the
gases being evacuated, the fluid's vapor pressure has a direct effect upon the capacity of the liquid ring pump.
As the operating temperature of the pump increases (due to the compression ratio and the evacuated
gases), the fluid's vapor pressure increases also -- until it reaches a point where it vaporizes so fast that it
"vapor locks" the pump. The vacuum will not be maintained and the pump fluid must be either cooled or
changed to a compatible one with less vapor pressure. For vacuums lower than 5 inches Hg absolute,
these types of vacuum pumps have to be multi-staged. These positive-displacement pumps are more
efficient than equivalent capacity steam jet ejectors and can easily handle so-called "dirty gases". In fact,
their characteristic liquid piston acts as a liquid scrubber and collects the dirt in gases. This characteristic
can be a positive feature in applications where the seal fluid is recycled, filtered, and cooled through an
external heat exchanger and filter in order to minimize pollution-abatement problems. Although relatively
expensive, these machines traditionally give excellent service and reliability with minimal emission problems.
The word "pump" as used for some vacuum-producing equipment is a misnomer that unfortunately has
gotten entrenched in the industry's nomenclature. Pumps handle liquids; they cannot handle gases or vapors.
Blowers and compressors handle gases and vapors. As long as the engineer understands this unfortunate
use of an erroneous label, he can design around it.
Vacuum Range Capacity, Absolute Pressure
Equipment Type
Liquid Piston Ring Rotary Pumps
Positive Displacement Pumps
Page 21 of 24
WorkSheet: Equipment Types
Rev: 0
This category of vacuum pumps covers a wide range of positive-displacement devices from reciprocating
pistons through sliding rotary vanes and rotating lobes. Most of these types of devices depend on very
close clearances between metallic or solid parts and, as a result, they require oil for lubrication and
sealing. This oil is subject to being separated and filtered back into the pumps process by way of
special-designed equipment and often is a process and maintenance problem.
Although they are limited to clean, dry gases and vapors, the type that employs a rolling-type of internal
contact are better suited for limited solids' loadings than the type that uses a sliding-type of contact. The
necessity of lube oil also causes concern when the gases handled can react or form gels, gums, or other
semi-solid compounds with the lube oil. Nevertheless, this type of device is the most efficient single
vacuum-producing equipment available at present. Although the capacity is limited to the device's
displacement, this shortcoming can be overcome by using rotary blowers as a first stage of vacuum. This
combination of equipment has the maximum thermal efficiency for vacuums less than 8 inches Hg absolute.
These simple, venturi-type devices were once the "King of the Hill" with regards to vacuum-producing
applications in the chemical processing industry. However, their demise began with the ever-increasing
emission restrictions imposed by EPA, local, and state regulatory agencies. By the end of the 20
th
century they were considered as the least desirable of the vacuum-producing devices because of
increasing fuel (and consequently, steam) costs and their emission characteristics.
Nevertheless, they are probably the lowest capital cost equipment for this service, very simple to operate
and essentially maintenance-free. They literally have "no moving parts". For vacuum applications below
6 inches Hg absolute, they are operated in stages connected in tandem -with water-cooled condensers
in-between vacuum stages. Below 0.2 inches Hg absolute, the intercondensers cannot be used with
steam jets and the various stages must be direct connected.
These devices are very similar to the Steam Jet Ejector except that they use a high pressure liquid instead
of steam as the motive force producing the vacuum. They have a limited operating range but are more
efficient than the steam jet variety while sharing their low cost and simplicity. One serious draw-back may
be potential pollution problems if once-through water is used as the motive force fluid; however, this may
be avoided if the water is recirculated or if a liquid compatible with the process gases is used instead.
Liquid Jet Ejectors
Steam Jet Ejectors
Page 22 of 24
Rev: 0
Positive Displacement Blowers
These devices were first introduced in the USA as the Roots-Connersville blower. They utilize two
intermeshing rotors (usually with a figure "8" profile) that are maintained with a very close mechanical
tolerance and are driven by external timing gears. Within their operating range they are more efficient than
liquid ring pumps and at vacuum higher than 8 inches Hg absolute, they are the most efficient vacuum-
producing equipment available. However, they also have their drawbacks, or trade-offs.
Although they are often referred-to as "pumps", they are positive displacement machines and cannot
tolerate liquid entrainment into their chambers. Consequently, they can only be applied on dry, clean
gases or vapors. Additionally, they are extremely noisy and for an acceptable OSHA noise limit to be
met, they often require mufflers. These mufflers deter and negate a lot of the energy and evacuating
efficiency that these blowers offer under a basically plain design devoid of extra equipment.
Centrifugal-type blowers, because of their inherent suction characteristics are incapable of generating
a conventional vacuum and, as such, are never applied to this unit operation.
Page 23 of 24
Art Montemayor Ellipsoidal Head Volume September 12, 1997
Rev 1(01/19/00)
I. D., inches Vol. Gallons
12 0.98
18 3.31
24 7.83
30 15.30
36 26.44
42 41.99
48 62.67
54 89.23
60 122.41
66 162.92
72 211.52
78 268.93
84 335.89
90 413.12
96 501.38
102 601.39
108 713.88
114 839.59
120 979.26
126 1,133.61
132 1,303.39
138 1,489.33
144 1,692.16
150 1,912.61
156 2,151.43
162 2,409.34
168 2,687.08
174 2,985.39
180 3,304.99
186 3,646.63
192 4,011.04
198 4,398.95 72 inches
204 4,811.09
210 5,248.21 211.52 Gallons
216 5,711.03 = 28.28 Ft
3
222 6,200.29
228 6,716.73
234 7,261.07
240 7,834.06
Ellipsoidal Head Inside Diameter =
Volume of Single Ellipsodial Head =
y = 0.000566699x
3.000000133
R
2
= 1
0.00
1,000.00
2,000.00
3,000.00
4,000.00
5,000.00
6,000.00
7,000.00
8,000.00
9,000.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
V
o
l u
m
e
, C
u
F
t

Inside Diameter, Ft
2:1 Ellipsoidal Head Volume
Reference:
Trinity Industries, Inc.
Head Division
Navasota, TX
Product & Services
Catalog # 7962M (1996)
Page 24 of 24
Electronic FileName: 243470275.xls.ms_office
WorkSheet: Ellipsoidal Head Volume

Producing and Maintaining Vacuum

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Producing and Maintaining Vacuum

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Art Montemayor Introduction to Vacuum Systems

August 21, 2002

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