Surface Hardening:

Non-chemical Treatment
Dr. Santosh S. Hosmani
DEPT. METALLURGY & MATERIALS SCIENCE,
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE 411 005
S f H d i SurfaceHardening
Thermochemicaltreatment:
Changeinchemical
Phasetransformationbyrapid
heatingandcooling:
compositionofsurfaceby
diffusionofotherelements.
Nochangeinchemical
compositionofsurface.
Examples:
Nitriding,
Carburizing
Examples:
Flamehardening,
Induction hardening
Carburizing,
Cabonitriding,
Boronizing,etc
Inductionhardening,
Laserhardening,etc
InductionHardening
Nochangeinchemicalcompositionofsurface.
Rapid heatingthesurfacetoaustenitetemperatures,andthenquenchingittomartensite.
Materialbelowthehardenedsurfaceremainatlowertemperature.
Heatforhardeningasteelorcastironpartsisgeneratedbyelectromagneticinduction.
InductionHeating:
Analternatingcurrentthroughtheinductor,orworkcoil;
Highly concentrated and rapidly alternating magnetic field is established within the coil; Highlyconcentratedandrapidlyalternatingmagneticfieldisestablishedwithinthecoil;
Magneticfieldthusestablishedinducesanelectricpotentialintheparttobeheated;
Inducedvoltagecausestheflowofcurrent(eddycurrent);
2
Resistance(R)oftheparttotheflowofcurrentcausesheatingbyI
2
Rlosses.
Rateofheatingdependsthestrengthofthemagneticfieldtowhichpartisexposed.
Maximumheating(i.e.hightemperature)atthesurfaceanddecreasesrapidlybelowit.
Highfrequencycurrent(I)isusedwhenshallowheating(thincasedepth)isdesired.
InductionHardening
D th f h d i (d ) Depth of hardening (d
0
)
Degree of flow of current on the outer surface of a component depends on the frequency,
resistivity and permeability of the component resistivity and permeability of the component.
For a given material, last two factors depend on temperature. The depth to which the current
penetrates (d in mm) and raises the temperature is given by:
At 800 C, d
800
= 500 / f (where, f is frequency in Hz)
I dditi t th di t h ti f th f ( ki ) b i d d t th i l In addition to the direct heating of the surface (skin) by induced current, there is also some
heating of the core due to conduction of heat. Hence, overall hardening-depth is greater than
d
800
:
(d
0
)
800
= (500 / f ) + (0.2*t )
(where, t is heating-time in seconds) mm
As frequency increases, hardening-depth decreases.
Pattern of heating obtained by induction is determined by:
InductionHardening
Patternofheatingobtainedbyinductionisdeterminedby:
theshapeofinductioncoilproducingmagneticfield,
thenumberofturnsinthecoil,
th ti f d theoperatingfrequency,and
thea.c.powerinput.
Figure: Patterns of magnetic Figure: Patterns of magnetic
field and induced current
produced by various
induction coils.
OD:outerdiameter
ID:innerdiameter
InductionHardening
Induction hardening is generally done at frequencies of 1000 cycles/second or higher.
Type of high frequency equipments used for induction heating:
Motor-Generator Unit: 1000 10 000 cycles/second (or Hz) Motor-Generator Unit: 1000 10,000 cycles/second (or Hz).
Spark-Gap Unit: 20,000 6000,000 cycles/second (or Hz).
Vacuum Table Unit: > 200,000 cycles/second (or Hz).
InductionHardening
Table: Guidelines for frequency and input-power selection during induction hardening.
kilocycles/second
(or kHz)
Low kw can be used
when generator
capacity is limited
For best
metallurgical
results
For higher production
when generator
capacity is available capacity is limited. results. capacity is available.
InductionHardening
S l ti f C il D i Selection of Coil Design:
Coils are usually made from copper tubes (or solid bus bar) and are water cooled
during induction heating during induction heating.
The success of induction heating applications is related to selection of the proper
work-coil (inductor) design.
The design of coil is influenced by:
- dimensions and configuration of the part to be heated,
- the heat-pattern desired: whether thepart is heated throughout its length at thesametimeor progressively,
- the number of the parts to be heated at one time - the number of the parts to be heated at one time,
- the amount of power available.
InductionHardening
S l ti f C il D i Selection of Coil Design:
Basic work-coil designs for use with high frequency units and the heat-patterns
developed by each: p y
(a) For external heating: (a) o e e a ea g
(b) For internal heating of bores
(c) Coil designed to provide high current densities (c) Coil designed to provide high current densities
in a narrow band for scanning applications
InductionHardening
S l ti f C il D i Selection of Coil Design:
A number of basic work-coil designs for use with high frequency units and the heat-
patterns developed by each:
(d) A single turn coil for scanning a rotating surface
p p y
(d) s g e u co o sca g a o a g su ace
(e) For spot heating
InductionHardening
S l ti f C il D i Selection of Coil Design:
Irregular shapes:
In constructing inductor coils for heating irregular shapes it should be - In constructing inductor coils for heating irregular shapes, it should be
remembered that the portion of the workpiece closest to the inductor will be in
strongest magnetic field and will heat more rapidly.
- Sometime it is necessary to increase air-gap around the section having least Sometime it is necessary to increase air gap around the section having least
mass to reduce the heating rate.
Figure: Influence of air-gap
on hardness pattern in
irregular shapes.
InductionHardening
H d i f i t Hardening for wear resistance:
Based on the depth (thickness) of hardened layer, induction hardening can be
l ifi d i t t t classified into two types
For shallow hardening:
- Depth: 0 01 - 0 06 inch; - Depth: 0.01 - 0.06 inch;
- Good wear resistance in light/moderate loading;
- Frequency range: 10*10
3
2000*10
3
cycles/second (Hz);
k h ft k d li d h ft - e.g. rocker-arm shafts, sucker-rod couplings, and pump shafts.
For deep hardening:
- Depth: 0.06 - 0.25 inch.
- Good for the parts under heavy or impact-type loading;
- Frequency range: 1*10
3
- 10*10
3
cycles/second (Hz);
- e.g. Gears, truck pins, heavy crankshaft bearings, camshafts, and bearing
races.
InductionHardening
Improving fatigue strength
Depending upon type of application, there can be: Depending upon type of application, there can be:
(i) Torsional fatigue, (ii) Bending fatigue, or (iii) Torsional+Bending fatigue.
Induction case hardening of bars and shafts to depths of 0.12 0.50 inch has
resulted in improved torsional and bending fatigue strength.
Long bars and shafts are passed through inductor coil; and they are rotated to
obtain more uniform results in processing.
e.g. Truck, tractor and automobile axle shafts and hydraulic piston rods.
Recommended current frequency: 1 10 kilocycles/second (kHz).
Selective hardening:
- Critically stressed areas of steering knuckles, flanged axle shafts are
selectively case-hardened to improve torsional and bending fatigue properties. y p g g p p
- Current frequency: 3 450 kilocycles/second (kHz).
InductionHardening
Improving fatigue strength
Compressive residual surface stress developed by induction hardening helps in p p y g p
improving fatigue properties:
Figure: Effect of induction
h d i b di f ti hardening on bending fatigue
strength of medium-carbon
steel tractor axles (2.7 in OD).
InductionHardening
How hardening occurs? g
Induction heating is done to rise temperature of workpiece to get austenitic structure at high
temperature: Austenizing-treatment.
After austenizing treatment, workpiece is quenched: Cooling-rate plays important role. e aus e g ea e , o p ece s que c ed Coo g a e p ays po a o e
Figure: Continuous cooling transformation
(CCT) diagram for a steel of a particular
composition. Only start curves are shown.
Figure: A portion of the FeFe
3
C
phase diagram. Temperature
composition diagram.
InductionHardening
How hardening occurs?
Morphology of martensite:
g
(a) Lath martensite: Common morphology in low
and medium carbon steel. Martensite crystals are
in the form of thin plates extending in one
direction. These crystals are parallel to each
other, together form dense packets.
(b) Accicular martensite: Common morphology in (b) Accicular martensite: Common morphology in
high carbon steels. Martensite crystals have the
form of thin lenticular plates. This shape
corresponds to the minimization of their elastic
energy Plates are not parallel to each other energy. Plates are not parallel to each other.
(a) And (b) are optical micrographs.
InductionHardening
How hardening occurs?
As the change of crystal structure (i.e. change in
atomic arrangements), =>
Change of slip-systems;
Why martensite is hard?
Each phase has its own properties and so of martensite.
g
Change in the resistance for the movement of
dislocation on its slip-plane.
Residual-stress is generated during phase-transformation. Deformation of lattice
involved in this transformation to change in crystal structure from f.c.c to b.c.t.: see below in
the figure the crystal geometry of austenite (f.c.c.) to martensite (b.c.t.) transformation.
The martensitic transformation occurs by regular
rearrangement of the lattice in which atoms do
not change places, but are merely displaces
relative to one another over distances not relative to one another over distances not
exceeding the interatomic distances.
relation between f.c.c. and b.c.t. cells of austenite
C
a
Figure: Lattice
parameter and
c/a ratio of
martensite in
Fe C alloys as
c/a = 1.4 (c/a)
martensite
< 1.4
Fe-C alloys as
a function of C
concentration.
InductionHardening
Quenching
To obtain hard surface layer, induction heated surface layer is quenched from
austenite temperature to form martensite. p
Quenching mediums:
- Water (easiest to handle, simple to install and maintain, and is less hazardous)
- Quenching oils (e.g. stock paraffin oil, fast quenching oil),
- Soluble oils (e.g. water emulsifiable oil, 10 to 12% oil in water),
- Plastic/polymer quench (e.g. polyvinyl alcohol solutions),
- Brine solution (sodium chloride solution salt water),
- Compressed air etc.,
Selection of Quenching Method depends upon:
- Geometry of the workpiece (part to be quenched)
- Number of the workpieces to be quenched (production-rate)
- Cooling rate
- Depth of hardening
InductionHardening
Quenching methods
Heat in coil; manually lift
part out of coil; submerge
part in tank of agitated
quench medium Suitable
Heat and quench in one
position; quench by means
of integral quench chamber
in inductor Single-shot
Heat in coil with part
stationary; quench ring
moves in place. Single-shot
adaptation of scanning quench medium. Suitable
for limited production.
in inductor. Single shot
method
adaptation of scanning
method
InductionHardening
Quenching methods
Part is hydraulically lowered into Vertical or horizontal Vertical or horizontal
quench tank after single-shot
heating. Quench media is
agitated by submerged spray
ring or propeller.
scanning with integral
spray quench. Single-
turn inductor. Used for
shallow hardening.
scanning with multiturn
coil and separate
multirow quench ring.
Used for deep-case or
through hardening.
InductionHardening
Quenching methods
C il d h t Coil scans and heats
workpiece; self-quench
**
or
compressed air quench. Used
in special applications with
hi h h d bilit t l
Horizontal cam-fed parts pushed through coil; dropped
onto submerged quench conveyor.
high-hardenability steels.
**
A special quenching technique
ti l d t ith sometimes employed on parts with
sufficient mass is referred to as self
quenching, because most of the heat at
the surface is rapidly absorbed by the
unheated mass of metal below the surface.
InductionHardening
Quenching methods
V ti l i ith i l
S.V. F.V.
Vertical scanning with single-
turn inductor in combination
with integral dual quench: one
quench ring for scan
h d i th d f
Vertical scanning with
single-turn inductor with
integral spray quench and
Split inductor and integral
split quenching. Used for
crankshaft bearing
hardening; the second for
stationary quenching when
the scanning travel stops.
Used for parts having a diameter of
a flange section too large to travel
submerged quench in tank. surfaces.
a flange section too large to travel
through the inductor, wherein it is
desired to harden up to the
shoulder or flange.
InductionHardening
P t l / P t Process control / Process parameters
I. Heating time: Heating time is the time for which workpieces are heated in a fixed position
relative to the inductor. For 10 sec or less heating, control should be within 0.1 sec. For g
10 to 60 sec heating, control should be within 0.2 sec. For more than 60 sec heating
control should be within 1.0 sec.
II. Power density: This should be carefully controlled if uniform heating of the workpieces
are req ired Po er densit is affected b electrical characteristics of high freq enc are required. Power density is affected by electrical characteristics of high-frequency
converter, by variation in line voltage and by symmetry of workpiece.
III. Delay time: Delay time for single-shot operation is the interval between the time when the
power is turned off and the time when the quenching medium contacts the worpiece. power is turned off and the time when the quenching medium contacts the worpiece.
IV. Quenching cycle: This involves accurate control of the quenching time, temperature of
the quenching medium, and, in spray quenching, the quenching pressure, velocity and
direction.
V. Setup aids: This is required to facilitate quick setup changes and to ensure reasonable
duplication of setup.
VI. Cooling of equipment: The volume, pressure and temperature of water supplied for g q p , p p pp
cooling of tube and frequency equipments should be controlled within certain limit. If
preset limits are exceeded, induction heating operation should be stopped without delay.
InductionHardening
S l ti f i i t t Selection of prior microstructure
Starting materials condition (microstructure) can have marked effect on the response to
induction hardening. g
o Furnace cooled structure contains free ferrite and
coarser pearlite.
Quenched and Tempered structure contains fine
and uniformly dispersed carbide in ferrite.
Lets say, at constant heating-time,
furnace cooled structure requires
higher temperature for complete
austenizing
Figure: Effect of prior microstructure on response of 1050 steel to induction hardening. Data
shown represents the time and temperature required when heating for hardening to achieve
austenizing.
shown represents the time and temperature required when heating for hardening to achieve
maximum hardness in steel after quenching.
InductionHardening
S l ti f i i t t Selection of prior microstructure
The Ac
3
temperature (i.e. the temperature at which transformation to austenite
occur) increases with coarseness of microstructure as well as with heating rate.
At a given heating rate, higher
austenizing temperature is required austenizing temperature is required
for coarser microstructure:
such behavior has a large effect on
surface hardening response.. surface hardening response..
InductionHardening
S l ti f i i t t Selection of prior microstructure
Figure: (a) Effect of starting microstructure in
AISI-1070 steel bars (2.54 cm diameter) on ( )
induction-hardening response using 450-kHz
induction generator operated at power density
of 2.5 KW/cm
2
. Bars were heated to 925 C
(1198 K) in 1 s and then water quenched. (b) ( ) q ( )
Temperature-depth profile corresponding to
hardness-depth profile.
925 C 1198 K Coarser is the microstructure,
higher is the Ac
3
temperature and
lower is the hardening-depth lower is the hardening depth.
Note: Quenching process is also important here. Transformation of
austenized region (of the depth) into martensite will occur only if
li t i t th iti l li t R f CCT di cooling-rate is grater than critical-cooling-rate: Refer CCT diagram.
Here, hardening-depth is less than 2 mm and so, easy to achieve
100% martensite (i.e. variation of cooling rate from surface to the
interior can be neglected) from the transformation of austenized
region.
InductionHardening
S l ti f i i t t Selection of prior microstructure
Now, it is clear that prior microstructures of steels has influence on its induction
h d Th f h l d d f d hardening response. Therefore, while deciding process parameters for induction
hardening, history of the workpiece must be taken into consideration.
For induction hardening, higher austenizing temperatures are generally chosen
than recommended for conventional austenizing and quenching treatment. This is than recommended for conventional austenizing and quenching treatment. This is
because of the higher Ac
3
temperatures due to rapid heating rates during induction
hardening (as we have seen in the video-clips) and short austenizing time.
FlameHardening
Simplest form of surface hardening method.
This process consists of heating the large workpiece, like crank shaft, axle, large
b di ll th li t d ti gear, cam, bending roller or any other complicated cross-section.
Process is similar to induction hardening in that surface layer of workpiece is rapidly
heated by high temperature flame, and then quenched. y g
Achievable depth of hardening: 0.8 mm to 6.0 mm.
Result of flame hardening depends process is controlled by: g p p y
- the fuel gas used,
- design of the flame head,
- gap between flame head and the surface, g p ,
- duration of heating,
- method of quenching, and
- hardenability of alloy (this depends on the composition of alloy) to be treated. hardenability of alloy (this depends on the composition of alloy) to be treated.
FlameHardening
What is Hardenability?: (Definition)
The relative ability of a ferrous alloy to form martensite when quenched
from or above Ac or Ac temperature (austenizing temperature) from or above Ac
1
or Ac
3
temperature (austenizing temperature).
It is commonly measured as the distance below the quenched surface at
which metal exhibits a specific hardness (e.g. 50 HRC) or percentage of
martensite phase martensite phase.
FlameHardening
Fuels for flame:
In flame hardening, heating is done by oxy-acetylene or oxy-fuel blow pipe,
followed by spraying of jet of water as coolant.
Fuels for flame:
For shallow hardening (case depth < 2 mm), high calorific value fuel-gases with
oxygen as burning agent are used to obtain high flame temperature. Here, oxy-
acetylene flame is normally used. Due to high temperature, shallow depth can be
achieved quickly achieved quickly.
For deeper case depths, air, instead of oxygen, can be used to burn the fuel gas,
so that flame temperature is lower and, therefore, overheating of the surface is
prevented Here gases of lower calorific value like natural gas propane etc can prevented. Here, gases of lower calorific value, like natural gas, propane, etc., can
be used along with oxygen or air as burning agent.
Table: Flame temperature
for different fuel gases
FlameHardening
Methods for flame hardening: Methods for flame hardening:
I. Stationary flame hardening: In this method, both burner and workpiece
are stationary. This method requires that the specified area be y q p
heated. Then the part is taken to quench or quench is brought to the part.
This method is particularly well-suited for shaft ends, special steel
casting configurations and large parts.
FlameHardening
Methods for flame hardening: Methods for flame hardening:
II. Progressive flame hardening: This is carried out by using a burner
combined with a water-spray. In this method, the burner moves over the p y
large stationary workpiece (sometimes called "scanning). This is followed
by quenching.
This method is particularly well-suited for ways, knives and flats.
FlameHardening
Methods for flame hardening: Methods for flame hardening:
III. Spin flame hardening: In this method, workpiece is rotated, while burner
remains stationary. After heating, flame is removed and quenching is y g q g
carried our by a water jet.
This method is particularly well-suited for gears, wheels and sprockets.
sprocket
FlameHardening
Methods for flame hardening: Methods for flame hardening:
IV. Progressive-Spin (combination) flame hardening: In this method, the
burner moves over a rotating workpiece and at the same time quench head g p q
also moves along the length of rotating workpiece.
This method is ideal for hardening shafts.
FlameHardening
As in induction hardening, flame hardening also involves short heating times
with high intensity heating source (high heat-rate), and therefore, prior
microstructure and composition affects the hardening response in the same microstructure and composition affects the hardening response in the same
manner as in induction hardening.
Flame hardening is generally used for one or more of the following reasons:
i. Workpieces are so large that conventional furnace heating and quenching is impractical
or uneconomical Typical examples include large gears machine ways large dies or or uneconomical. Typical examples include large gears, machine ways, large dies or
rolls, etc.
ii. Only a small segment or section of the part requires hardening.
iii Dimensional accuracy of the part is difficult to maintain or control by furnace heating and iii. Dimensional accuracy of the part is difficult to maintain or control by furnace heating and
quenching, due to distortion.
FlameHardeningversus InductionHardening
ElectronBeamHardening
Th k i i k t i t 0 06 b V i t The workpiece is kept in vacuum at 0.06 mbar pressure. Vacuum environment
protects the emitter (source of electron) from oxidizing and avoids scattering of the
electron-beams by air.
El t b i d f d th k i t h t th f I th Electron beam is defocused on the workpiece to heat the surface. In the
beginning, energy input is kept high. With time, power input is reduced as the
component gets heated up. This is done to avoid melting.
No separate q enching media is req ired since q ench is effected b the mass of No separate quenching media is required since quench is effected by the mass of
the surrounding unheated portion (self quenching). In this regard, mass of the
treating workpiece should be sufficient.
A mini computer is used to control voltage current beam dwell time and focus A mini-computer is used to control voltage, current, beam, dwell time and focus.
Achievable case-depth: 0.75 mm
The surface can be hardened very precisely both in depth and in location. y p y p
Electron beam processing is the most efficient for hardening steels, Ti-, Al-based
alloys, etc.
Ad t f l t b h d i li i th ibilit f t ti i t Advantages of electron beam hardening lies in the possibility of treating points,
lines or areas of surfaces without metallurgically affecting other adjacent areas of
the workpiece.
ElectronBeamHardening
Electron-
beam
generating
unit
Electromagnetic
coils
Interaction of electron-beam with workpiece
workpiece
LaserBeamHardening
LASER is an anachronism for Light g
Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation.
For certain specific applications, p pp ,
laser hardening offers a sensible
alternative to induction hardening.
In laser hardening process, less time g p
is required than in induction and flame
hardening process, and the effect of
heat on the surrounding surface is
less thus leading to less distortion less, thus leading to less distortion.
1 laser beam
2 workpiece surface
3 hardened zone
Procedural principle:
Heat: Short heating phase which varies
according to the austenitizing temperature 3 hardened zone
4 tempered-zone
according to the austenitizing temperature.
Hold: The temperature is held for a short
time in order to diffuse the heat to the
required depth required depth.
Cool: The high temperature gradient into the
workpiece results in self-quenching.
LaserBeamHardening
Case-depth can be given by:
Benefits of laser hardening:
LaserBeamHardening
Minimal distortion due to low thermal load (partial energy input).
Complex, bulky components can be hardened with extreme simplicity, e.g. inside cavities.
High degree of flexibility.
Precision hardening, high degree of hardening, finely dispersed, fine-grained but relatively
tough martinsite.
Minimized reworking, shortened process chain.
N d f t l hi i t t No need for external quenching, e.g. using water etc.
Possibility for integration in processing systems.
Optimum process control due to integrated temperature guidance.
Bodywork tool Injection nozzle holder Cutting tool
Hardening of cutting edges and bending
edges.
Hardened face surface without borehole
distortion.
Hardening of cutting edges.
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Ref.: Book by Joseph R. Davis on Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture
The through-hardening process is generally used for gears that do not require
What is Through Hardening Process?
g g p g y g q
high surface hardness.
Typical gear tooth hardness following through hardening ranges from 32 to 48
HRC HRC.
Most steels used for through-hardened gears have medium carbon content (0.3
to 0.6%) and a relatively low alloy content (up to 3%). The purpose of alloying is o 0 6%) a d a e a e y o a oy co e (up o 3%) e pu pose o a oy g s
to increase hardenability. The higher the hardenability, the deeper is the through
hardening of gear teeth.
Si t th i di tl ith h d hi h h d bilit i ti l Since strength increases directly with hardness, high hardenability is essential
for through hardening steels. High hardenability, again, has some adverse effect
on material ductility and impact resistance.
The other drawback of through-hardened gears is lower allowable contact
stresses than those of surface-hardened gears. This tends to increase the size of
through-hardened gears for the same torque capacity compared with those with
h d d f hardened surfaces.
Ref.: Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture(ASM International), Sep 2005, Pages: 155-162
Example:
Through-Hardening Steels for Gears:
Ref.: Book by Joseph R. Davis on Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture, ASM International
Example:
Through-Hardening Steels for Gears:
Ref.: Book by Joseph R. Davis on Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture, ASM International Ref.: Book by Joseph R. Davis on Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture, ASM International