Vector Algebra and Calculus

2nd year A1 Course

8 Lectures, Michaelmas 2013
Stephen Roberts
sjrob@robots.ox.ac.uk
Vector Calculus & Scalar Fields 0.2
Think about some scalar quantities
mass M, length L, time t, temperature T, etc
If r = [x, y, z] is a position in space, T(r) is a scalar eld
T might be time-varying the eld is T(r, t)
Keep y, z, t constant. What is T when you move x?
T =

T
x

x.
But suppose you moved of in a direction n. Would you multiply
T =
T
n
n ?
x y
z
Does T/n exist is it a vector or a scalar?
Vector Calculus & Vector Fields 0.3
A vector quantity v(r) that has a value at every r in a region is a vector eld.
Examples are:
The electric eld E(r) around stationary charges
The unsteady uid velocity eld v(r, t) in a stream.
Local stream velocity v(r, t) can be viewed using:
laser Doppler anemometry, or by dropping twigs in, or diving in
...
Youll be interested in
weirs (acceleration), &
vortices (curls)
Contents 0.4
1. Revision of vector algebra, scalar product, vector product.
2. Triple products, multiple products, applications to geometry.
3. Dierentiation of vector functions, applications to mechanics.
4. Scalar and vector elds. Line, surface and volume integrals, curvilinear co-ordinates .
5. Vector operators grad, div and curl.
6. Vector Identities, curvilinear co-ordinate systems.
7. Gauss and Stokes Theorems and extensions.
8. Engineering Applications.
Learning Outcomes 0.5
comfort with expressing systems using vector quantities
manipulating vectors as atomic entities without recourse to underlying coordinates
sound grasp of the concept of a vector eld
ability to link this idea to descriptions various physical phenomena
intuition of the physical meaning of the various vector calculus operators (div, grad, curl)
ability to interpret the formulae describing physical systems in terms of these operators
Reading 0.6
J Heading, Mathematical Methods in Science and Engineering, 2nd ed., Ch.13, (Arnold).
G Stephenson, Mathematical Methods for Science Students, 2nd ed., Ch.19, (Longman).
E Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 6th ed., Ch.6, (Wiley).
K F Riley, M. P. Hobson and S. J. Bence, Mathematical Methods for the Physics and Engineering Chs. 6, 8 and
9 (CUP).
A J M Spencer, et. al. Engineering Mathematics, Vol.1, Ch.6, (Van Nostrand Reinhold).
H M Schey, Div, Grad, Curl and all that, Norton
Course WWW Pages 0.7
Pdf copies of
these oheads
lecture notes
tutorial sheets
FAQs etc
will be accessible from
www.robots.ox.ac.uk/sjrob/Teaching/Vectors
If something is really not clear, and you are really stuck,
email sjrob@robots.ox.ac.uk
and the reply (if generally useful) will get stuck on the web FAQs.
Vector Algebra and Calculus
1. Revision of vector algebra, scalar product, vector product
2. Triple products, multiple products, applications to geometry
3. Dierentiation of vector functions, applications to mechanics
4. Scalar and vector elds. Line, surface and volume integrals, curvilinear co-ordinates
5. Vector operators grad, div and curl
6. Vector Identities, curvilinear co-ordinate systems
7. Gauss and Stokes Theorems and extensions
8. Engineering Applications
1. Vector Algebra
In which we explore ...
Free, sliding and position vectors
Coord frames and Vector components
Equality, magnitude, Addition, Subtraction
Scalar products, Vector Projection, Inner products
Vector Products
Vectors 1.2
In Linear Algebra vectors were lists of n numbers.
Often in the physical world, the numbers specify
magnitude (1 number) & direction (1 number in 2D, 2 in 3D)
There are three slightly dierent types of vectors:
Free vectors: Only mag & dirn are important. We can translate at will.
Sliding vectors: Line of action is important (eg. forces for moments)
Vector can slide with 1 degree of freedom.
Bound or position vectors: Tails all originate at origin O.
r
r
2
3
O
r
1
Free vectors Sliding vectors Position vectors
Coordinate frames 1.3
An advantage of vector algebra:
frees analysis from arbitrarily imposed coordinate frames.
Eg, two free vectors are equal if mags and dirns are equal. Can be done with a
drawing that is
independent of any coordinate system.
Try to spot things in the notes that are independent of coordinate system.
However, coordinate systems are useful,
so introduce the idea of vector components.
Vector components in a coordinate frame 1.4
x
2
x
1
a
1
a
2
3
a
k
a
i
j
In a Cartesian coordinate frame
a = [a
1
, a
2
, a
3
] = [x
2
x
1
, y
2
y
1
, z
2
z
1
]
Dene ,,

k as unit vectors in the x, y, z dirns

= [1, 0, 0] = [0, 1, 0]

k = [0, 0, 1]
then
a = a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3

k .
Remember, general vectors not stuck in 3 dimensions!
Notation 1.5
We will use bold font to represent vectors
a, ,
In written work, underline the vector
a,
We shall use the hat a to denote a unit vector.
a

denotes the transpose of a vector

i means if and only if
mag and dirn are my shorthands for magnitude and direction
Vector equality 1.6
Two free vectors are said to be equal i their lengths and directions are the same.
Using coordinates, two n-dimensional vectors are equal
a = b i a
1
= b
1
, a
2
= b
2
, . . . a
n
= b
n
This does for position vectors.
But for sliding vectors we must add the line of action must be the same.
Vector magnitude and unit vectors 1.7
Provided we use an orthogonal coordinate system, the magnitude of a 3-vector is
a = |a| =

a
2
1
+ a
2
2
+ a
2
3
and of an n-vector
a = |a| =

i
a
2
i
To nd the unit vector in the direction of a, simply divide the vector by its magnitude
a =
a
|a|
.
Vector Addition and Subtraction 1.8
Vectors are added/subtracted by adding/subtracting corresponding components (like matrices)
a + b = [a
1
+ b
1
, a
2
+ b
2
, a
3
+ b
3
]
Addition follows the parallelogram construction.
Subtraction is a + (b)
k
i
j
a
ab
b
a+b
a+b
c
b
a
b+c
c
Properties of addition/subtraction 1.9
The following results follow immediately from the above denition of vector addition (incl. subtraction).
1. a + b = b + a (it commutes)
2. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) = a + b + c
(it associates)
3. a + 0 = 0 + a = a
where the zero vector is 0 = [0, 0, 0].
4. a + (-a) = 0
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar 1.10
NOT the scalar product!
Just as for matrices, multiplication of a vector a by a scalar c is dened as multiplication of each component by c,
so that
ca = [ca
1
, ca
2
, ca
3
].
It follows that:
|ca| =

(ca
1
)
2
+ (ca
2
)
2
+ (ca
3
)
2
= |c||a|.
The direction of the vector will reverse if c is negative, but otherwise is unaected.
A vector where the sign is uncertain is called a director.
Example 1.11
The electrostatic force on charged particle Q due to another charged particle q
1
is
F = K
Qq
1
r
2
r where constant K =
1
4
r

0
where r is the vector from q to Q.
Question: Write down an expression for the force on Q at R due to N charges q
i
at r
i
, i = 1, . . . , N.
Answer:
The vector from q
i
to Q is R r
i
.
The unit vector in that direction is (R r
i
)/|R r
i
|, so
F(r) =
N

i =1
K
Qq
i
|R r
i
|
3
(R r
i
)
q
i
r
i
R
Q
Notice that we are thinking algebraically about vectors not fussing about their components. Not a coordinate
system in sight.
Scalar product or dot product 1.12
The scalar product of two vectors results in a
scalar quantity:
a b = a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ a
3
b
3
.
Note that
a a = a
2
1
+ a
2
2
+ a
2
3
= |a|
2
= a
2
.
These properties of the sprod follow immediately:
a b = b a
(it commutes)
a (b + c) = a b + a c
(it distributes w.r.t vector addition)
(a) b = (a b) = a (b)
(scalar multiple of a scalar product of two vectors)
Geometrical interpretation of scalar product 1.13
Consider the square magnitude of the vector (a b).
|a b|
2
= (a b) (a b) = a a + b b 2(a b)
= a
2
+ b
2
2(a b)
The cosine rule says length AB
2
is
|a b|
2
= a
2
+ b
2
2ab cos
Hence
a b = ab cos ,
independent of the coord system.
Conversely
cos = a b/ab

b
B
ab
a
A
O
Projection of one vector onto the other 1.14

b
direction of a
Projection of b onto
a
b cos is the component of b in the direction of a.
a cos is the component of a in the direction of b.
Projection is v. useful when the second vector is a unit vector.
a is the size of the component of a in the direction of .
To get the vector component of b in the dirn of a
(b a)a =
1
a
2
(b a)a .
So
(a ) is the vector component of a in the direction of .
Orthonormal vectors and coordinates 1.15
In the particular case a b = 0, the angle between the two vectors is a right angle.
The vectors are said to be orthogonal neither has a component in the direction of the other.
In 3D, an orthogonal coordinate system is characterised by
= =

k

k = 1
and
=

k =

k = 0
A scalar product is an inner product 1.16
We have been writing vectors as row vectors a = [a
1
, a
2
, a
3
]
Its convenient: it takes less space than writing column vectors
In matrix algebra, vectors are column vectors. So, Ma = v means

M
11
M
12
M
13
M
21
M
22
M
23
M
31
M
32
M
33

a
1
a
2
a
3

v
1
v
2
v
3

and row vectors are written as a

(a transpose).
Most times can be relaxed, but need to fuss to point out that the scalar product is also the inner product used
in linear algebra.
The inner product is dened as a

b
a

b = [a
1
, a
2
, a
3
]

b
1
b
2
b
3

= a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ a
3
b
3
= a b
Scalar Product Example 1 1.17
Question
A force F is applied to an object as it moves by a small amount r.
What work is done on the object by the force?
Answer
The work done is equal to the component of force in the direction of the displacement multiplied by the displacement
itself.
This is just a scalar product:
W = F r .
Later we will see how to integrate such elements over particular paths as line integrals.
Scalar Product Example 2 1.18
Question
A cube has four diagonals, connecting opposite vertices. What is the angle between an adjacent pair?
Answer
k
i
j
[1,1,1] [1,1,1]
The directions of the diagonals are [1, 1, 1]. The ones shown in
the gure are [1, 1, 1] and [1, 1, 1]. The angle is thus
= cos
1
[1, 1, 1] [1, 1, 1]

1
2
+ 1
2
+ 1
2

1
2
+ 1
2
+ 1
2
= cos
1
(1/3)
Scalar Product Example 3 1.19
Question: Pinball with velocity s bounces (elastically) from a bae whose endpoints are p and q. What is the velocity
vector after the bounce?
Answer
^
^
p
v
u
q
s
Refer to coord frame with principal directions along and perpendicular to the
bae:
u = [u
x
, u
y
] =
q p
|q p|
v = u

= [u
y
, u
x
]
Before impact: velocity is s
before
= (s. u) u + (s.v)v
After impact: component of velocity in dirn of bae u is same
. component normal to the bae along v is reversed
s
after
= (s. u) u (s.v)v
Scalar Product Example 3 1.20
Worth reecting on this example ...
Using vectors as complete entities (ie, not thinking about components) has made a tricky problem trivial to solve.
Several languages (including Matlab) allow one to declare vector objects
^
^
p
v
u
q
s
p=[3;4]
q=[1;-1]
s=[1;2]
diff = q-p
uhat = diff/norm(diff)
vhat = [-uhat(2);uhat(1)]
safter = dot(s,uhat)*uhat - dot(s,vhat)*vhat
You think in vectors, while built in routines handle the detail of components
... Reection over.
Direction cosines use projection 1.21
The quantities
=
a
a
, =
a
a
, =
a

k
a
are the cosines of the angles which the vector a makes with the coordinate vectors ,,

k
They are the direction cosines of the vector a.
Since a = a
1
etc, it follows immediately that
a = a( + +

k)

2
+
2
+
2
=
1
a
2
[a
2
1
+ a
2
2
+ a
2
3
] = 1
i
k
j
Vector or cross product 1.22
The vector product of two vectors a and b is
a b = (a
2
b
3
a
3
b
2
) + (a
3
b
1
a
1
b
3
) + (a
1
b
2
a
2
b
1
)

k.
You cannot remember the above! Instead use the pseudo determinant
a b =

k
a
1
a
2
a
3
b
1
b
2
b
3

where the top row consists of vectors not scalars.

A determinant with two equal rows has value zero, so
a a = 0
It is also easily veried that
(a b) a = (a b) b = 0
so that a b is orthogonal to both a and b.
Vector product 1.23
The magnitude of the vector product can be obtained by showing that
|a b|
2
+ (a b)
2
= a
2
b
2
from which it follows (independent of the coord system)
|a b| = ab sin ,
Proof?
The vector product does not commute
It anti-commutes: a b = b a.
The vector product does not associate:
a (b c) = (a b) c.
Vector Products 1.24
The vector product is orthogonal to both the vectors.
Need to specify the sense w.r.t these vectors.
Sense of the right handed screw ...
in righthand screw sense
Plane of vectors a and b
a x b
b
a
Also
=

k
1 0 0
0 1 0

=

k .
And in full: =

k,

k =, and

k =.
Note the cycle ordering here.
Geometrical interpretation of vector product 1.25
The magnitude of the vector product (a b) is equal to the area of the parallelogram whose sides are parallel to,
and have lengths equal to the magnitudes of, the vectors a and b.
Its direction is perpendicular to the parallelogram.

x a b
b
bsin
a
Example 1.26
Question
g is vector from A [1,2,3] to B [3,4,5].

l is the unit vector in dirn from O to A.

Find m, a UNIT vector along g

l
Verify that m is is perpendicular to

l.
Find n, the third member of a r-h coord set

l, m, n.
g
l
A
B
[1,2,3]
[3,4,5]
Answer
1) g = [3 1, 4 2, 5 3] = [2, 2, 2].
2)

l = [1, 2, 3]/

14
3) g l =

k
2 2 2
1 2 3

= [2, 4, 2]
m = [1, 2, 1]/

6
4)

l m = (1.1 + 2. 2 + 1.3)/(.) = 0
5) n =

l m =
1

14

k
1 2 3
1 2 1

Random question 1.27

Q: If

f and g are two unit vectors,
what is the magnitude of the vector product

f g
f x g
g
f

A: Magnitude is sin .
Summary 1.28
Weve revised and discussed ...
Free, sliding and position vectors
Coord frames and Vector components
Equality, magnitude, Addition, Subtraction
Scalar products, Vector Projection, Inner products
Vector Products
In Lecture 2 ...
Vector multiple products:
Geometry of Lines and Planes
Solving vector equations
Angular velocity and moments
Then the calculus starts