SERIES  ARTICLE
Snippets of Physics
1. Potentials of Potatoes: A Surprise in Newtonian Gravity*
T Padmanabhan works at
IUCAA, Pune and is
interested in all areas
of theoretical physics,
especially those which
have something to do with
gravity.
*
This is based on an article
originally published by the au-
thor in Physics Education, Vol
22, No. 4, p.263, 2006.
Keywords
Newtonian gravity, gravitational
force, cartesian coordinates,
symmetries of mass distribution,
asymmetric density distribution,
Poisson equation.
4 RESONANCE  January 2008
T Padmanabhan
It is w e ll k n o w n in N e w to n ia n g ra v ity th a t a
sp h e ric a lly sy m m e tric d e n sity d istrib u tio n p ro -
d u c e s a fo rc e o u tsid e it w h ic h fa lls a s th e sq u a re
o f th e d ista n c e . S u rp ris in g ly , th e c o n v e rse is
n o t tru e ! J u st b e c a u se th e fo rc e fa lls a s in v e rse
sq u a re o u tsid e a d e n sity d is trib u tio n , y o u c a n n o t
c o n c lu d e th a t it m u st b e sp h e ric a lly sy m m e tr ic .
T h is a rtic le , ¯ r st in a n e w se rie s, e x p lo r e s th is
a n d re la te d issu e s.
T h in k o f a p la n et sh a p ed lik e a d isea sed p o ta to , d is-
tin ctly n o n -sp h erica l. Is it p o ssib le th a t th e g rav ita -
tio n a l fo rce ex erted b y th a t p la n et, ev ery w h ere o u tsid e
it, fa lls a s r ¡ 2 ? M a n y p h y sicists ten d to th in k th a t
th is is im p o ssib le; th ere seem s to b e a b elief th a t if a
m a ss d istrib u tio n p ro d u ces a strictly 1 = r 2 fo rce o u tsid e
it, th en su ch a d istrib u tio n m u st b e sp h erica lly sy m -
m etric. N o th in g co u ld b e fa rth er fro m th e tru th ! It is
p o ssib le to co m e u p w ith co m p letely u n u su a l m a ss d is-
trib u tio n s w h ich ex ert a n in v erse sq u a re law fo rce o n
th e o u tsid e w o rld . I w ill d escrib e sev era l a sp ects o f th is
issu e in th is in sta llm en t.
T o b eg in w ith , let u s a g ree th a t th ere is n o `ch ea tin g '
in v o lv ed in th is p ro b lem . W e a re n o t ta lk in g a b o u t
g rav ita tio n a l ¯ eld fa r aw ay fro m th e b o d y w h ich fa lls
approxim ately a s 1 = r 2 . T h e resu lt sh o u ld b e exact a n d
m u st h o ld ev ery w h ere o u tsid e th e th e b o d y, rig h t fro m
its su rfa ce. Y o u a lso n eed n o t w o rry a b o u t silly th in g s
lik e lo o k in g a t a sp h erica lly sy m m etric d istrib u tio n in
a stra n g e co o rd in a te sy stem , etc. W e a re th in k in g o f
h o n est-to -g o d C a rtesia n co o rd in a tes w ith co n cep ts lik e
sp h erica l sy m m etry h av in g th e u su a l m ea n in g .
 SERIES  ARTICLE

T o u n d ersta n d th e im p lica tio n s o f th e q u estio n clea rly, Can you find a

let u s rev iew so m e b a sics o f N ew to n ia n g rav ity. T h e density distribution
N ew to n ia n g rav ita tio n a l ¯ eld F ca n b e ex p ressed a s th e  (x) which is not
g ra d ien t o f a p o ten tia l Á w h ich sa tis¯ es P o isso n 's eq u a - spherically
tio n . W e h av e symmetric (in some
chosen coordinate
r 2 Á = 4¼ G ½ ; F = ¡ r Á; (1 )
system) and
w h ere ½ (x ) is th e m a tter d en sity w h ich is a ssu m ed to b e vanishes outside
eith er p o sitiv e o r zero ev ery w h ere. In th ese m a th em a t- some compact
ica l term s o u r p ro b lem tra n sla tes to th e fo llo w in g : C a n region R around
y o u ¯ n d a d en sity d istrib u tio n ½ (x ) w h ich is n ot sp h eri- the origin, such that
ca lly sy m m etric (in so m e ch o sen co o rd in a te sy stem ) a n d outside R the
va n ish es o u tsid e so m e co m p a ct reg io n R a ro u n d th e o ri- potential falls as
g in , su ch th a t o u tsid e R th e p o ten tia l Á fa lls a s 1 = r ? 1/r?
O f co u rse, a n y sp h erica lly sy m m etric ½ (x ) w ill p ro d u ce
su ch a p o ten tia l b u t th e k ey q u estio n is: M u st it b e
sp h erica lly sy m m etric?
S o m e th in k in g w ill co n v in ce y o u th a t th ere is n o sim p le
w ay o f g o in g a b o u t a n a ly sin g th is p ro b lem . U su a lly w e
a re g iv en so m e ½ (x ) a n d a sk ed to ¯ n d th e Á (x ). W e
a re n ow in terested in th e in v erse q u estio n , w h ich { in
a b ro a d er co n tex t { is th e fo llow in g : If w e k n ow th e
g rav ita tio n a l fo rce in so m e ¯ n ite reg io n o f sp a ce, h ow
u n iq u e is th e d en sity d istrib u tio n p ro d u cin g th a t fo rce?
L et m e g iv e y o u so m e su rp risin g in sta n ces w h erein co m -
p letely d i® eren t d en sity d istrib u tio n s ca n p ro d u ce th e
sam e g rav ita tio n a l ¯ eld in so m e ¯ n ite reg io n . T h is w ill
b e a g o o d w a rm u p fo r th e o rig in a l q u estio n w e w a n t to
a tta ck .
O n e ex a m p le, b ea ten to d ea th in sta n d a rd tex tb o o k s, is
th e ¯ eld p ro d u ced b y a n in ¯ n ite, p la n e sh eet o f m a tter
o f su rfa ce m a ss d en sity ¾ . Y o u m ig h t n o t h av e lea rn t it
in th e co n tex t o f g rav ity b u t I a m su re y o u w o u ld h av e
en co u n tered it in so m e electro sta tics co u rse. T ra n sla t-
in g it to g rav ity, y o u see th a t su ch in ¯ n ite p la n es w ith
co n sta n t su rfa ce d en sity p ro d u ce a g rav ita tio n a l fo rce

RESONANCE  January 2008 5

 SERIES  ARTICLE

Is it possible to come F = ¡ 2 ¼ G ¾ n^ w h ich is co n sta n t ev ery w h ere a n d d i-

up with a density rected tow a rd s th e sh eet. (H ere n^ is th e u n it v ecto r
distribution which is in th e d irectio n p erp en d icu la r to th e sh eet.)
not plane-symmetric W e n ow a sk th e q u estio n : Is it p o ssib le to co m e u p w ith
but will produce a d en sity d istrib u tio n w h ich is n o t p la n e-sy m m etric b u t
constant gravitational w ill p ro d u ce co n sta n t g rav itatio n a l ¯ eld in so m e co m -
field in some compact p a ct reg io n o f sp a ce S ? T h e an sw er is \ y es" ; a n d so m e
region of space S? o f y o u m ig h t h av e ev en w o rk ed it o u t w ith o u t q u ite re-
a lizin g its im p o rta n ce.
T h e co n ¯ g u ra tio n is sh ow n in F igu re 1 . W e ta k e a
sp h ere, o f ra d iu s R a n d co n sta n t d en sity ½ 0 , cen tered
a t th e o rig in . In sid e it w e ca rv e o u t a n o th er sp h eri-
ca l reg io n o f ra d iu s L cen tered a t th e p o in t l. C o n -
sid er th e fo rce o n a p a rticle lo ca ted in sid e th e cav ity a t
(l + r). T h e fo rce d u e to a co n sta n t d en sity sp h ere is
F = ¡ (4 = 3 )¼ G ½ x (so th a t ¡ r :F = 4 ¼ G ½ ). H en ce, th e
fo rce w e w a n t is
4 4 4¼
F = F sp h ¡ F h o le = ¡¼ G ½ [l + r] + ¼ G ½ r = ¡ G ½ l;
3 3 3
(2 )
w h ich is clea rly a co n sta n t in sid e th e h o le. T h u s a sp h er-
ica l h o le in sid e a sp h ere is a reg io n w ith co n sta n t g rav -
ita tio n a l fo rce! S u p p o se y o u m ea su re th e g rav ita tio n a l

Figure 1.

6 RESONANCE  January 2008

 SERIES  ARTICLE

¯ eld in so m e ¯ n ite reg io n S a n d ¯ n d it to b e strictly Is it possible to come

co n sta n t. C a n y o u say a n y th in g a b o u t th e m a ss d istri-
up with a completely
b u tio n w h ich is p ro d u cin g th is fo rce? O f co u rse n o t. It
asymmetric
co u ld h av e b een p ro d u ced b y a n in ¯ n ite p la n e sh eet o r
distribution of matter
y o u co u ld b e liv in g in sid e a h o le-in -a -sp h ere; th ese a re
which exerts zero
ju st tw o o f in ¯ n itely m a n y p o ssib ilities. M o st o f th ese
gravitational force in
m a ss d istrib u tio n s, w h ich p ro d u ce a co n sta n t g rav ita -
some region?
tio n a l ¯ eld , w ill n o t h av e a n y sp eci¯ c sy m m etry. (If y o u
a re n o t co n v in ced , th in k o f th e su p erp o sitio n o f th e a n y
tw o su ch co n ¯ g u ra tio n s.)
T h e h o le-in -th e-sp h ere ex a m p le ca n b e tw isted a ro u n d
to lea d to a n o th er in terestin g co n clu sio n . Y o u m u st h av e
a g a in lea rn t, w h ile stu d y in g N ew to n ia n g rav ity, th a t a
sp h erica l sh ell o f m a tter ex erts n o g rav ita tio n a l fo rce o n
a p a rticle in sid e it. (T h is is ju st a sp ecia l ca se o f eq u a -
tio n (2 ); w h en l = 0 , th e fo rce va n ish es.) Is it p o ssib le to
co m e u p w ith a co m p letely a sy m m etric d istrib u tio n o f
m a tter w h ich ex erts zero g rav ita tio n a l fo rce in so m e re-
g io n ? T h e a n sw er is a g a in \ y es" a n d a ll y o u n eed to d o is
th e fo llo w in g : S u p p o se y o u m a k e tw o h o le-in -th e-sp h ere
d istrib u tio n s w ith d i® eren t valu es fo r th e p a ra m eters {
o n e w ith d en sity ½ 1 , ra d iu s R 1 , h o le ra d iu s L 1 a n d th e
cen tre o f th e h o le lo ca ted a t l1 w ith resp ect to th e cen tre
o f th e sp h ere; th e seco n d o n e w ith d en sity ½ 2 , ra d iu s R 2 ,
etc. W e su p erp o se th e sp h eres su ch th a t: (i) l1 a n d l2
a re p o in tin g in th e o p p o site d irectio n s; (ii)½ 1 l1 = ½ 2 l2 ;
a n d (iii) p a rt o f th e tw o sp h erica l cav ities ov erla p . T h e
resu ltin g d en sity d istrib u tio n is clea rly n o t sp h erica lly
sy m m etric. B u t in th e reg io n o f th e cav ity w h ich is
co m m o n to th e h o les o f b o th sp h eres, th e g rav ita tio n a l
fo rce is strictly zero . T h is is b eca u se ea ch sp h ere p ro -
d u ces a n eq u a l a n d o p p o site fo rce in th e cav ity w h en
½ 1 l1 = ½ 2 l2 .
T h e m o ra l o f th e sto ry is w o rth rem em b erin g . J u st
k n ow in g th e sy m m etries o f th e g rav ita tio n a l fo rce in
so m e ¯ n ite reg io n d o es n o t a llow y o u to co n clu d e a b o u t
th e sym m etries o f th e m a ss d istrib u tio n . T h is itself is a

RESONANCE  January 2008 7

 SERIES  ARTICLE

Are there density so u rce o f su rp rise fo r m a n y sin ce w e a re so a ccu sto m ed

distributions which to a ssu m in g th e sa m e sy m m etries fo r th e ¯ eld a n d its
are not spherically
so u rce.
symmetric but A ll th ese m u st h av e co n v in ced y o u th a t it is q u ite p o ssi-
produce an inverse b le to h av e co m p letely a sy m m etric d en sity d istrib u tio n s
square force? p ro d u cin g h ig h ly reg u la r g rav ita tio n a l ¯ eld s. W e a re
n ow rea d y to ta ck le th e q u estio n w e o rig in a lly sta rted
w ith : A re th ere d en sity d istrib u tio n s w h ich a re n o t sp h er-
ica lly sy m m etric b u t p ro d u ce a n in v erse sq u a re fo rce?
L et u s ¯ rst co n sid er th is p ro b lem in th e ca se o f electro -
sta tics. Is it p o ssib le to h av e a ch a rg e d istrib u tio n w h ich
is n o t sp h erica lly sy m m etric b u t p ro d u ces a n in v erse
sq u a re electric ¯ eld ? In cred ib ly en o u g h , y o u a lrea d y
k n ow su ch a d istrib u tio n fro m y o u r reg u la r electro sta -
tics co u rse! R em em b er th e p ro b lem o f a p o in t ch a rg e
a n d a co n d u ctin g sp h ere w h ich is so lv ed b y th e m eth o d
o f im a g es? W e sta rt w ith a co n d u ctin g sp h ere o f ra d iu s
a a n d a p o in t ch a rg e + Q lo ca ted o u tsid e th e sp h ere a t
a d ista n ce L fro m th e cen tre o f th e sp h ere. T h e ch a rg e
+ Q in d u ces a su rfa ce ch a rg e d istrib u tio n o n th e co n -
d u ctin g sp h ere a n d th e n et electric ¯ eld a t a n y p o in t is
th e su m o f th e electric ¯ eld s d u e to th e su rfa ce ch a rg e
d istrib u tio n ¾ a n d th e p o in t ch a rg e + Q . T h is p ro b -
lem is so lv ed b y sh ow in g th a t it is eq u iva len t to th a t o f
tw o p o in t ch a rg es: T h e rea l ch a rg e + Q a n d a n `im a g e'
ch a rg e q = ¡ (a = L )Q p la ced a t a d ista n ce l = (a 2 = L )
in sid e th e sp h ere in th e lin e jo in in g th e cen tre o f th e
sp h ere to th e ch a rg e + Q . T h e ¯ eld s o u tsid e th is sp h ere
p ro d u ced b y th e p o in t ch a rg es Q a n d q a re id en tica l to
th o se d u e to th e p o in t ch a rg e + Q a n d th e ch a rg e d is-
trib u tio n ¾ . It fo llow s th a t th e ch a rg e d istrib u tio n ¾
p ro d u ces a ¯ eld w h ich is eq u iva len t to th a t o f a p o in t
ch a rg e q ! O f co u rse th is d istrib u tio n ¾ is fa r fro m sp h er-
ica lly sy m m etric sin ce th e in d u ced ch a rg e o n th e sid e
n ea rer to + Q w ill b e d i® eren tly d istrib u ted co m p a red
to th e in d u ced ch a rg e o n th e fa rth er sid e. W e h av e th u s
co m e u p w ith a ch a rg e d istrib u tio n w h ich is n o t sp h eri-

8 RESONANCE  January 2008

 SERIES  ARTICLE

ca lly sy m m etric b u t p ro d u ces a n in v erse sq u a re law fo rce Given any

o u tsid e a ¯ n ite reg io n . electrostatic
configuration which
T h e k ey d i® eren ce b etw een electro sta tics a n d g rav ity
produces an inverse
is th a t in electro sta tics, th e ch a rg e d en sity n eed n o t
square law force, it is
b e p o sitiv e d e¯ n ite w h ile in g rav ity th e m a ss d en sity
h a s to b e p o sitiv e d e¯ n ite. S o y o u m ay th in k th a t th e possible to construct
a b ov e ex a m p le is ¯ n e a s fa r a s electro sta tics g o es b u t an everywhere-
m ay n o t h elp in m a tters o f g rav ity. A ctu a lly th a t is positive charge
n o t tru e. G iv en a n y electro sta tic co n ¯ g u ra tio n w h ich density which also
p ro d u ces a n in v erse sq u a re law fo rce, it is p o ssib le to produces such a
co n stru ct a n ev ery w h ere-p o sitiv e ch a rg e d en sity w h ich force.
a lso p ro d u ces su ch a fo rce. T a k e th e electro sta tic co n -
¯ g u ra tio n in th e p rev io u s ex a m p le a n d ¯ n d o u t w h ere
th e ch a rg e d en sity ¾ is m o st n eg a tiv e. S u p p o se th e low -
est va lu e o f th e ch a rg e d en sity is ¡ j¾ 0 j. W e n ow ta k e a
sp h erica lly sy m m etric ch a rg e d istrib u tio n m a d e o f p o s-
itiv e ch a rg e d en sity ½ 0 w ith ½ 0 > j¾ 0 j a n d p u t it o n to p
o f th e o rig in a l ch a rg e d istrib u tio n a n d cen tre it o n th e
lo ca tio n o f th e im a g e ch a rg e. W e n ow h av e a ch a rg e
d istrib u tio n w h ich is: (i) ev ery w h ere p o sitiv e d e¯ n ite,
(ii) p ro d u ces a n in v erse sq u a re law fo rce in th e o u tsid e
reg io n a n d (iii) is n o t sp h erica lly sy m m etric. T h e p ro p -
erty (ii) fo llow s fro m th e fa ct th a t b o th p ieces o f ch a rg e
d istrib u tio n in d iv id u a lly p ro d u ced a n in v erse sq u a re law
fo rce a n d th e p ro p erty (iii) is o b v io u s fro m th e fa ct th a t
y o u a re su p erp o sin g a sp h erica lly sy m m etric d istrib u tio n
w ith a n o n -sp h erica l o n e. S o th ere y o u a re; w e h av e a
n o n -sp h erica l, ev ery w h ere p o sitiv e, d en sity d istrib u tio n
p ro d u cin g a strictly in v erse sq u a re fo rce o u tsid e a ¯ n ite
reg io n .
If y o u a re still sh a k in g y o u r h ea d in d isb elief, let m e
a ssu re y o u th a t th ere is n o b la ck m a g ic in v o lv ed . It is
q u ite p o ssib le to h av e su ch d istrib u tio n s, a n d { in fa ct
{ th ere a re in ¯ n itely m a n y su ch co n ¯ g u ra tio n s. T h o se
o f y o u w h o a re m a th em a tica lly in clin ed m ig h t lik e th e
fo llow in g co n stru ctio n o f so m e su ch d istrib u tio n s u sin g
a p ro p erty o f P o isso n eq u a tio n k n ow n a s `in v ersio n '. In -

RESONANCE  January 2008 9

 SERIES  ARTICLE

v ersio n is a m a th em a tica l o p era tio n u n d er w h ich y o u

One can have very
a sso cia te to a n y p o in t x , a n o th er p o in t x in v ´ (a 2 = x 2 )x
asymmetric density
w h ere a is th e ra d iu s o f th e `in v ertin g sp h ere'. F ro m
distributions which
th is d e¯ n itio n it im m ed ia tely fo llow s th a t p o in ts in sid e
can produce zero
a sp h ere o f ra d iu s a a re m a p p ed to p o in ts o u tsid e a n d
gravitational force
v ice-v ersa .
inside an empty
compact region of T h ere is a n in terestin g co n n ectio n b etw een in v ersio n a n d
space A . th e so lu tio n s to P o isso n eq u a tio n . S u p p o se Á [x ;½ (x )] is
th e g rav ita tio n a l p o ten tia l a t a p o in t x d u e to a d en -
sity d istrib u tio n ½ (x ). C o n sid er n ow a n ew d en sity d is-
trib u tio n ½ 0(x ) = (a = x )5 ½ (x in v ) o b ta in ed b y ta k in g th e
o rig in a l d en sity a t th e in v erted p o in t x in v ´ (a 2 = x 2 )x
a n d m u ltip ly in g b y (a = x )5 . It ca n b e sh ow n th a t th e
g rav ita tio n a l p o ten tia l d u e to ½ 0(x ) is g iv en b y Á 0(x ) =
(a = x )Á (x in v ). T h a t is, th e n ew g rav ita tio n a l p o ten tia l
a t a n y g iv en p o in t is th e o ld g rav ita tio n a l p o ten tia l a t
th e in v erted p o in t x in v m u ltip lied b y (a = x ).
W e ca n u se th is resu lt to p ro d u ce stra n g e lo o k in g m a ss
d istrib u tio n s w ith strictly in v erse sq u a re law fo rce. W e
sta rt w ith th e resu lt, o b ta in ed ea rlier, th a t o n e ca n h av e
v ery a sy m m etric d en sity d istrib u tio n s w h ich ca n p ro -
d u ce zero g rav ita tio n a l fo rce in sid e a n em p ty co m p a ct
reg io n o f sp a ce A . In F igu re 2 , w e a ssu m e th a t th ere
a re so u rces o u tsid e o f A (w h ich a re n o t sh ow n ) th a t p ro -
d u ce a co n sta n t g rav ita tio n a l p o ten tia l in sid e th e reg io n
o f sp a ce A . T h e ex a ct sh a p e o f th is reg io n is im m a teria l
fo r o u r d iscu ssio n .
L et C b e a n im a g in a ry sp h erica l su rfa ce o f ra d iu s a w ith
cen tre so m ew h ere in sid e A . L et u s n ow in v ert th e su r-
fa ce o f th e reg io n A u sin g th e in v ertin g sp h ere C a n d
o b ta in th e su rfa ce A 0. In th is p ro cess, th e reg io n in sid e
A g ets m a p p ed to reg io n o u tsid e A 0. S in ce th e reg io n
in sid e A w a s o rig in a lly em p ty, th e reg io n o u tsid e A 0w ill
b e em p ty in th e in v erted co n ¯ g u ra tio n ; a ll th e so u rces
w h ich w ere o rig in a lly o u tsid e A a re n ow m a p p ed to th e
reg io n in sid e A 0. C o n sid er n ow th e g rav ita tio n a l p o ten -

10 RESONANCE  January 2008

 SERIES  ARTICLE

Figure 2. Schematic picture

showing the effect of inver-
sion under which a given
point x is mapped to an-
other point (x inv a 2 /x 2 )x.
When the points in surface
of a compact region A is
inverted using the invert-
ing sphere C, we obtain the
surface A . In this process,
the region inside A gets
mapped to region outside
A  and vice versa.

tia l o u tsid e A 0 d u e to th is so u rce ½ 0 w h ich is n ow in sid e

A 0. T h is p o ten tia l is o b ta in ed b y ta k in g th e p o ten tia l
d u e to th e in v erted p o in t in sid e A a n d m u ltip ly in g it b y
(a = x ). B u t sin ce th e p o ten tia l ev ery w h ere in sid e A is a
co n sta n t it fo llo w s th a t th e p o ten tia l o u tsid e A 0 fa lls a s
jx j¡ 1 . W e n ow h av e a reg io n A 0 o u tsid e w h ich th e g rav -
ita tio n a l fo rce is strictly in v erse sq u a re a n d th e d en sity
d istrib u tio n p ro d u cin g th is fo rce is fa r fro m sp h erica l!
T o th e ex ten t I ca n ¯ g u re o u t, th is p ro b lem w a s ¯ rst
ra ised a n d a n sw ered b y L o rd K elv in . It seem s th a t N ew -
to n n ev er w o rried a b o u t th is q u estio n . (S o I a m to ld b y
ex p erts o n N ew to n .) T h is is so m ew h a t su rp risin g sin ce
N ew to n w o rried a lo t a b o u t th e o rig in a l p ro b lem , v iz.,
w h eth er a sp h erica lly sy m m etric m a ss d istrib u tio n w ill
p ro d u ce a fo rce a s th o u g h a ll its m a ss is co n cen tra ted a t
Address for Correspondence
th e o rig in .
T Padmanabhan
IUCAA, Post Bag 4
Suggested Reading
Pune University
Campus
[1] Some of these issues are discussed in classical, geometrical, style in older
Ganeshkhind
books on potential theory, like W Thompson (Lord Kelvin) and P G Tait,
Pune 411 007, India.
Principles of Mechanics and Dynamics, Dover, 1962.
Email:
[2] A simple proof for the inversion theorem can be found in T Padmanabhan,
paddy@iucaa.ernet.in
Cosmology and Astrophysics - Through Problems, Cambridge University
nabhan@iucaa.ernet.in
Press, p.151, 1996.

RESONANCE  January 2008 11