Fuel Consumption Tabulation in Laboratory Conditions

M. Alghadhi
1
. A. Ball. L. E. Kollar. R. Mishra. T. Asim
1
University of Huddersfield
1
m.alghadhi@hudd.ac.uk
Abstract This paper examines the fuel economy displayed by
passenger vehicles and attempts to connect vehicular fuel
consumption to such easily measurable parameters as vehicle
speed, acceleration, gear and throttle position. The central
contention is to understand how fuel consumption is
connected to driving parameters in order to utilise such
findings to reduce vehicle fuel consumption in future vehicle
design. The New European Drive Cycle NEDC! has been
utilised as the testing framewor" to derive the mathematical
relationship between fuel consumption and measurable
driving parameters. The NEDC was simulated under
laboratory conditions, and driving parameters together with
the fuel consumption were measured. # few driving phases
were identified so that any drive cycle may be composed by
these phases$ and mathematical relationships have been fitted
on measured data for each of the phases.

Keywords NEDC, standard driving cycle, mathematical
model, real life driving, testing.
. !TR"#$CT"!
The %orld population is &.' billion at the moment and
rising. Climate (hange has (aused %idespread greenhouse
e))e(ts li*e global %arming+ higher a(id le,els in o(eans
and redu(ed i(e (o,er at the poles -.arrabin+ /0112. The
ma3or (auses o) greenhouse e))e(t are the by4produ(ts o)
industriali5ation+ and espe(ially (arbon dio6ide -7amimi 8
9arinabadi+ /0112. The le,el o) (arbon dio6ide+ the main
(onstituent o) emission by ,ehi(les+ is lin*ed to
(onsumption o) )uel by the ,ehi(le. #ue to this there is
need to regulate the amount o) greenhouse gases that are
emitted into the atmosphere and this is e))e(ti,e by )uel
e(onomy.
The )uel e(onomy -FE2 o) any ,ehi(le (an be (al(ulated
as a ratio o) distan(e tra,elled per unit ,olume o) )uel
(onsumed or as the ratio o) )uel (onsumption per distan(e
tra,elled -:FE+ /0112. Fuel e(onomy standards (an be o)
,arious )orms su(h as litres o) )uel (onsumed per hundred
*ilometres o) distan(e tra,elled or distan(e tra,elled per
unit ,olume o) ,ehi(le )uel -An+ et al.+ /011+ p. ;2. The
regulations pertaining to )uel e(onomy )ollo%ed by the )our
largest automobile mar*ets+ namely+ the $7+ the E$+ <apan
and China di))er signi)i(antly )rom ea(h other leading to a
la(* o) global standards on the issue -An+ et al.+ /011+ p. ;2.
Resear(h has sho%n that road net%or* as %ell as tra))i(
(onditions tend to impa(t di,er=s (hoi(es o) dri,ing. An
e(o4dri,ing style %as sho%n as being dependant on
a((eleration+ speed+ (hange o) gears and de(leration
-Eri(sson+ /0012. Chasis dynamometer based testing )or
,ehi(le emissions has been (arried out and it has been
)ound that the emissions per unit distan(e depend on
,ehi(le speed+ idling or stop pat(hes as %ell as a((eleration
and )uel type -Andre 8 Rapone+ /00>2.
This paper %ill )o(us on de,eloping a method )or the
estimation o) )uel (onsumption o) passenger (ars as a step
to%ard impro,ing the ?uality o) li)e in the urban (entres. n
parti(ular+ laboratory dri,ing obser,ations %ill be used to
propose a )ormulation )or predi(ting )uel (onsumption
under di))erent dri,ing phases %hen the ,ehi(le speed+
a((eleration and throttle position are *no%n.
. F$EL EC"!"M@
Fuel e(onomy has been )ound to play an important role
in the redu(tion o) greenhouse gases and espe(ially (arbon
dio6ide. #ue to this+ it is pursued by (ountries see*ing to
redu(e their le,els o) emissions. Automobile mar*ets as
%ell as manu)a(turers need to (onsider the )uel e(onomy
set standards %ithin a mar*et or (ountry in ma*ing and
distributing more e))i(ient ,ehi(les. There has been a shi)t
in the priority o) impro,ing )uel e(onomy %ith pre)eren(e
to redu(ing the emission o) greenhouse gases by ,ehi(les as
a %ay o) redu(ing the greenhouse e))e(t. E,en %ith the
reno,ation o) )uel e(onomy standards in de,eloped
(ountries+ the in(reasing demands on oil and in(reased
emission o) greenhouse gases is still a ma3or (hallenge
%hi(h is yet to be )ully addressed -An+ et al.+ /0112.
Fuel e(onomy (an be measured mainly by the amount o)
)uel (onsumed in order to (o,er a gi,en distan(e by an
automobile %hi(h di))ers )rom (ar to (ar -:FE+ /0112.
This is a(hie,ed by the use o) dri,e (y(les %ith
(onsideration )or e6ternal )a(tors that may a))e(t results.
These )a(tors in(lude di))erent designs o) (ars %hi(h gi,e
,arying results and ,arying operating (onditions. "perating
(onditions either on a high%ay+ an urban en,ironment or a
(ombination o) both+ %ould ha,e di))erent results on
dri,ing (y(les e,en on the same ,ehi(le. 7e,eral )a(tors
that in)luen(e the )uel e(onomy o) a ,ehi(le in(lude the
engine (hara(teristi(s+ gear train (hara(teristi(s+ %eight and
aerodynami(s+ rolling resistan(e+ dri,ing (y(le and dri,er
habits.
1
There has been a global initiati,e aimed at redu(ing the
)uel (onsumption globally )rom highs o) A litres )or e,ery
100 *m (orresponding to />.; mpg do%n to ; litres
(orresponding to 'A.A mpg )or e,ery 100 *m in the ne6t ;0
years -:FE+ /0112. An adoption o) similar )uel e(onomy
regulations by ma3or automobile mar*ets %hi(h di))er
signi)i(antly %ould ser,e to standardi5e the issue globally
-An+ et al.+ /0112. Bhile in(reasing )uel e))i(ien(y in
,ehi(les %ould in(rease e(onomi( (osts to the (ustomer+
the ultimate impro,ements on automobile %ould be o)
(onsiderable e(onomi( bene)it to both the manu)a(turer
and (ustomer. The (ustomer %ould sa,e more on )uel
e6penses %hile the manu)a(turer %ould sa,e on potential
e6penses on penalties )or )ailing to (omply %ith the
international )uel e))i(ien(y standards. The en,ironment
%ould be the greatest %inner in that the emissions o)
(arbon %ould be redu(ed (onsiderably.
. LAB"RAT"R@ 7M$LAT"! "F #RCE C@CLE7
A test rig %as utilised to test ,ehi(les in(luding a
transmission dynamometer lo(ated in the ad,an(ed
Automoti,e Laboratory at the $ni,ersity o) .udders)ield.
The parti(ular dynamometer used )or this study %as a
generator type dynamometer. The test rig is e?uipped %ith
t%o AAB 11/K% AC #ynamometers+ %ith a ; a6is robot
gear shi)t all (ontrolled by sierra CD EngineeringEs C1;
so)t%are.
n order )or the (orre(t load to be applied to the ,ehi(le
as i) it %ere in the ,ehi(le the system runs in Road la%
%hi(h enables the dynamometers to (hange dependent on
aerodynami( and tyre )ri(tional )or(es that %ould be
e6perien(ed. The system is integrated %ith speed+ pressure+
)uel and temperature transdu(ers to enable all aspe(ts o) the
po%er train to be measured a((urately. The engine utilised
in the testing is a /00' !issan Mi(ra ; (ylinder 1.;L1&,
engine that is atta(hed to a standard ' speed manual
gearbo6. The engine and its dri,e train are instrumented
%ith ,arious sensors and the re?uired dri,e (y(les %ere
programmed using the Cadet C1; so)t%are.
F:$RE 1 4 TE7T R: EMDL"@E# F"R E!:!E TE7T!: F"R
T.E C$RRE!T RE7EARC.
A number o) di))erent logged and deri,ed parameters
%ere as(ertained in order to ,eri)y the )uel (onsumption at
,arious engine loads. The ,arious primary parameters noted
)or this study %ere the throttle position+ de,eloped tor?ue+
engine head assembly+ (oolant and oil temperatures+ (ran*
angle+ sha)t position+ )uel emissions and engine speed. n
addition+ a number o) other engine parameters %ere logged
su(h as the (ombustion pressure+ engine (omponent
a((eleration+ ,ibration le,els+ stress le,els o) (omponents+
inta*e and e6haust pressure+ ignition timing+ ,al,e li)t+
engine *no(*ing et(. These parameters %ere manipulated in
order to de(ipher a )itting mathemati(al model )or ,arious
engine operating ranges. Moreo,er+ these parameters %ere
manipulated to )ind out the )uel (onsumption at ,arious
per)orman(e le,els o) the engine.
F:$RE / 4 7"FTBARE $7E# F"R M"!T"R!: DARAMETER7
#$R!: TE7T!:
A. Air and Water Cooling
The e6(ess energy produ(ed by the engine %as remo,ed
using the (oolant as %ell as engine oil. 7in(e the engine
%as stationary during testing+ air had to be pro,ided to
assist (ooling. For this purpose+ t%o Bo%man heat
e6(hangers+ %ith a (ontrolled %ater supply that is (ooled
,ia a '00*B air blast (ooler %ere utili5ed using a
pneumati(ally (ontrolled three %ay ,al,e using a D# loop.
B. Fuel Flow
Fuel )lo% tends to ,ary transiently as the engine testing
pro(eeds. Fuel )lo% %as measured along %ith )uel
temperature and pressure through a D# loop reporting to
the C1; so)t%are. The system=s maintained a((ura(y
remained F0.GH.
C. Speed Measurement
7peed is typi(ally measured using a ,ariable relu(tan(e
sensor that operates on indu(ti,e prin(iples. :ear teeth are
employed to register speed on an indu(tion type probe. For
)urther pro(essing+ the time domain is (on,erted into the
2
)re?uen(y domain %hi(h is then in turn (on,erted to
angular ,elo(ity. t is (ommon to use gears %ith si6ty teeth
to per)orm measurements sin(e this allo%s e?uating the
measured )re?uen(y to the angular ,elo(ity.
Mathemati(ally -:itano4Briggs+ /00A+ p. ;;2I
BhereI
is the angular ,elo(ity in re,olutions per minute
is the number o) teeth read by the indu(tion probe
is the distan(e bet%een the same points on t%o
(onse(uti,e sinusoidal %a,es
F:$RE 1 4 T@DCAL :EAR T""T. $7E# F"R E!:!E 7DEE#
MEA7$REME!T 7"$RCE# FR"M -:TA!"4BR::7+ /00A+ D.;;2
D. Aeleration Measurement
A((eleration measurements are not (arried out dire(tly
on the dynamometer sin(e it %ould tend to (ompli(ate the
o,erall sensor inter)a(e by employing too many sensors in
a limited spa(e. A more (on,enient approa(h %ould be to
use deri,ed measurements su(h as speed to (al(ulate the
a((eleration as re?uired. The a((eleration is obtained using
the mathemati(al relationship )or speed as )ollo%sI
BhereI
is the amount o) time )or %hi(h the
a((eleration re?uires (omputation
!. "#rottle $osition Measurement
The throttle position is (hanged in order to ,ary engine
speed and needs to be monitored (ontinuously during
testing. A ,ariable resistor is used in order to sense the
throttle position. The potentiometer is mounted on the
throttle itsel) at one end o) the throttle sha)t (ontrolled by
the throttle (able. A simple 'C #C po%er supply is used to
per)orm these measurements that respond to (hanges in
resistan(e at the potentiometer as the throttle (able (hanges
the throttle position. The )inal output parameter is the
throttle position signal -TD72 that dire(tly measures the
throttle position as a distin(t ,oltage le,el %hen the throttle
(hanges its state. A throttle and throttle sensor arrangement
is sho%n belo%I
F:$RE ; 4 T.R"TTLE A!# T.R"TTLE 7E!7"R D"7T"!!:
7"$RCE# FR"M -:TA!"4BR::7+ /00A+ D.;&2
F. "or%ue Measurement
Tor?ue measurements %ere (arried out by installing
tor?ue )langes (oupled to the motor and the output sha)t o)
the gearbo6. Tabulation o) the rolling radius o) the tyre
allo%s the C1; so)t%are to (al(ulate the tor?ue being
deli,ered by the engine.
&. "emperature Measurement
Temperature measurements %ere (arried out using a t%o
pronged approa(h. Temperature o) oil+ %ater and inta*e air
%ere measured utili5ing DRT sensors sin(e they a))ord
greater a((ura(y and resolution at lo% temperatures. n
(ontrast+ e6haust gas temperatures %ere tabulated using K4
type thermo(ouples sin(e they pro,ide a((urate readings up
to 1/'0
o
C. All temperature readings %ere integrated
through the C1; inter)a(e.
H. Data A%uisition
The signals produ(ed by most sensors are analogue and
re?uire digital (on,ersion be)ore they (an be pro(essed.
The sampling rate o) the sensors is also o) prime
importan(e. 7ampling rate %as *ept at '0 .5 per (hannel
and the sampling %as di,erted to C1; )or pro(essing into
C7C )ormat so that data (ould be e6tra(ted and analysed
any%here by a spreadsheet pro(essor.
3
C. #RCE C@CLE
:as emission )rom ,ehi(les is a big (ontributor to the
o,erall (on(entration o) greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere and espe(ially (arbon dio6ide. :reen house gas
emissions are responsible )or both global %arming and the
resulting (limate (hange patterns. :lobal %arming is
in(reasing the global temperatures in(rementally annually.
Moreo,er+ (limate based disturban(es su(h as )loods+
droughts et(. are threatening the sur,i,al o) entire
(ommunities. Cehi(le e6hausts are one o) the ma3or
(ontributors o) greenhouse gases globally. As a response to
this threat to the en,ironment+ ma3or ,ehi(le mar*ets are
introdu(ing standards to ensure )uel e(onomy in their
(ountries %ith the main aim o) redu(ing the emission o)
greenhouse gases )rom ,ehi(les. A number o) di))erent
measures su(h as the introdu(tion o) hybrid ,ehi(les and
engines %ith lo%er emissions ha,e been initiated to redu(e
the s(ale and (ontribution o) ,ehi(le e6haust. Fuel
e(onomy %hi(h is measured by the amount o) )uel
(onsumed per unit distan(e by an automoti,e is en)or(ed
by the use o) dri,e (y(les. Fa(tors that %ould result in
di))ering obser,ations in the same ,ehi(le are noted and the
,ehi(le is tested in di))erent en,ironments su(h as on a
high%ay+ an urban region or a (ombination o) both. 7e,eral
)a(tors that in)luen(e the )uel e(onomy o) a ,ehi(le in(lude
the engine (hara(teristi(s+ gear train (hara(teristi(s+ %eight
and aerodynami(s+ rolling resistan(e+ dri,ing (y(le and
dri,er habits -:FE+ /0112.
C. EJDERME!TAL 7M$LAT"! "F #RCE C@CLE7
A test rig %as utilised to test ,ehi(les %hi(h is lo(ated in
the ad,an(ed Automoti,e Laboratory at $ni,ersity o)
.udders)ield. The test rig is e?uipped %ith t%o AAB
11/K% AC #ynamometers+ %ith a ; a6is robot gear shi)t
all (ontrolled by sierra CD EngineeringEs C1; so)t%are. A
thorough (omparison o) ,arious dynamometers %as (arried
out in order to as(ertain the optimal dynamometer )or the
(urrent resear(h. As a (onse?uen(e o) this in,estigation+ a
generator type dynamometer %as )ound to be the best
possible resear(h tool.
n order )or the (orre(t load to be applied to the engine
as i) it %ere in the ,ehi(le+ the system runs in Road la%
%hi(h enables the dynamometers to (hange depending on
the aerodynami( load and tyre )ri(tional )or(es that %ould
be e6perien(ed. The system is integrated %ith speed+
pressure+ )uel and temperature transdu(ers to enable all
aspe(ts o) the po%er train to be measured a((urately. The
engine utilised in the testing is a /00' !issan Mi(ra ;
(ylinder 1.;L1&, engine that is atta(hed to a standard '
speed manual gearbo6. The engine and its dri,etrain is
instrumented %ith ,arious sensors and the re?uired dri,e
(y(les %ere programmed using the Cadet C1; so)t%are.
The sensors integrated %ith the testing e?uipment in(luded
pressure+ temperature+ ,elo(ity+ a((eleration et(. so that
reliable data (ould be e6tra(ted )or analysis.
C. ADDLCAT"! "F T.E !EB E$R"DEA! #RCE C@CLE
A. 'ew !uropean Drive Cyle
The !E#C (onsists o) )our di))erentiated (y(les o)
urban dri,ing and one (y(le o) e6tra urban dri,ing. The
(entral (ontention is to emulate the dri,e (y(le %hi(h
represents di))erent modes o) dri,ing in European (ities.
The urban dri,ing (y(le is (omposed o) (onse(uti,e
a((elerations+ steady speed pat(hes+ de(elerations as %ell as
idling pat(hes. The o,erall (ombination o) these pat(hes
allo%s a repli(ation o) the o,erall dri,e (y(le using an
in(remental approa(h. n (ontrast+ the e6tra urban dri,ing
(y(le is (omposed o) steady speed testing bet%een G'
*mKhr and 1/0 *mKhr as sho%n in Figure ;-a2 belo%.
(a)
(b)
F:$RE ' 4 T.E !EB E$R"DEA! #RCE C@CLE -A2 A7 #EF!E#
FR"M -BERR@+ /00G+ D. 11/2+ -B2 A7 7M$LATE#
EJDERME!TALL@
B. !(perimental simulation of 'ew !uropean Drive
Cyle
The entire !E#C %as simulated in laboratory (onditions
in order to e6tra(t ?uanti)iable results )or predi(tion o) )uel
4
(onsumption. A generator type dynamometer %as utili5ed
in order to test the engine to e6tra(t data )or analysis. The
resulting ,ehi(le speed time history is plotted in Figure
'-a2+ and (ompared to the de)ined dri,e (y(le that is sho%n
in Figure ;-a2. More details about the )irst urban dri,ing
(y(le+ i.e. appro6imately the )irst /00 s in the !E#C+ are
pro,ided in Figures '-a24-d2 sho%ing time histories o) o)
dri,e4(y(le parameters that are the most in)luen(ing on )uel
(onsumption+ i.e. ,ehi(le speed+ a((eleration+ and throttle
position+ together %ith )uel (onsumption -or more
pre(isely+ the )uel mass )lo% rate in gKs2. The ,arious
dri,ing modes %ere utili5ed in order to tabulate the )uel
(onsumption )or the o,erall dri,ing (y(les tested. The
a,erage )uel mass )lo% rate during this (y(le is 0.1; gKs.
The )uel density is A00 gKlL thus+ the (onsumption is A.'
lK100 *m. The (onsumption in the )urther three urban
(y(les and the last e6tra4urban (y(les are A.1+ A./+ A./ and
'.' l K 100 *m+ respe(ti,ely. The a,erage (onsumption in
the entire !E#C is &.' l K 100 *m.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
F:$RE & 4 TME .7T"R@ "F T.E #RCE4C@CLE DARAMETER7
#$R!: A! $RBA! #RCE C@CLE "F T.E !E#C+ -A2 CE.CLE
7DEE#+ -B2 ACCELERAT"!+ -C2 T.R"TTLE D"7T"!+ -#2 F$EL
C"!7$MDT"!
C. MAT.EMATCAL M"#EL F"R DRE#CT"! "F F$EL
C"!7$MDT"! #$R!: #RCE C@CLE7
The )uel e(onomy o) ,ehi(les (an be e,aluated ,ia
measuring the )uel (onsumption during dri,e (y(les. The
!e% European #ri,e Cy(le -!E#C2 -Berry+ /00G2 %as
simulated e6perimentally and those results are used here to
de,elop an empiri(al relationship. For the purposes o)
mathemati(al modelling the !E#C (lassi)i(ations o) urban
dri,ing and e6tra urban dri,ing %ere de(omposed into
smaller more ?uanti)iable dri,ing phases as )ollo%sI
4 (onstant speedL
4 a((elerationL
4 de(eleration due to gradient %ith throttleL
4 de(eleration %ithout throttleL
4 gear (hanges.
These phases may be used to (onstru(t any random
dri,ing (y(le that emulates the di))erent *inds o) dri,ing
(onditions and dri,ing beha,iour e6perien(ed on both
urban and e6tra urban roads. The )uel (onsumption o) any
,ehi(le dri,en in these phases depends on se,eral di))erent
parameters that are used to des(ribe the dri,ing (y(le. An
5
e6amination o) multiple )a(tors %as (arried out to (lassi)y
%hi(h )a(tors made the greatest (ontributions to )uel
(onsumption. Bithin the e6amined parameters+ the
)ollo%ing parameters %ere obser,ed to e6ert a large
in)luen(eI
4 ,ehi(le speed -,2L
4 a((eleration -a2L
4 throttle position -p2L
4 gear -:2.
These parameters ha,e been used e6tensi,ely throughout
the analysis presented belo% to propose a mathemati(al
model that (an predi(t )uel (onsumption -(2 in a ,ariety o)
di))erent dri,ing (onditions.
The least s?uares method is used to )it )un(tions on
e6perimentally obtained data. #i))erent )ormulae are
de,eloped )or the )i,e dri,ing phases listed abo,e.
Re)eren(e ,alues o) ea(h re(orded parameterL ,elo(ity+
a((eleration+ throttle position and )uel (onsumption -,0+ a0+
p0+ and (02 %ere determined be)orehand and these %ere
then used )or relating to the o,erall relationship. This
allo%ed the (reation o) mathemati(al relationships that
(ould be used independently in a number o) situations no
matter %hat units %ere used to e6press these parameters.
A. Constant speed
Bhen a passenger (ar mo,es %ith a (onstant speed+ the
a((eleration is 5ero+ and the throttle position is (onstant+
although this (onstant depends on the ,ehi(le speed. The
)uel (onsumption in this (ase is a ?uadrati( )un(tion o) the
,ehi(le speed. Thus+ it (an be assumed in the )ollo%ing
)ormI
/
0
1/
0
11 10
0

+ + =
v
v
)
v
v
) )

-12
Figure & sho%s measured data in (onstant speed phases
together %ith the ?uadrati( (ur,e that is )itted on those data
using the (onstants obtained a)ter applying least s?uares
)ittingI
*10 M 0.10&1L
*11 M 0.&'1/L
*1/ M /.1>11.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Constant speed
Vehicle speed (km/h)
F
u
e
l

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
k
g
/
h
)


measured
computed
F:$RE G 4 F$EL C"!7$MDT"! ! NC"!7TA!T 7DEE#O
D.A7E7 ! T.E !EB E$R"DEA! #RCE C@CLE
B. Aeleration
n the (ase o) a((eleration+ the )uel (onsumption is
proportional to the parameter 1K-a,2/. The )uel
(onsumption o) the ,ehi(le (an be assumed to beha,e in
the )ollo%ing )ormI
//
/
/
0
0
/1
0
)
v
v
a
a
)

=
-/2
Figure G sho%s measured data in a((eleration phases
together %ith the (ur,e that is )itted on those data %ith the
)ollo%ing (onstantsI
*/1 M 10.1G1>L
*// M P0.1/>'.
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Acceleration
Acceleration/Vehicle speed
2
(h/(s*km))
F
u
e
l

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
k
g
/
h
)


measured
computed
F:$RE A 4 F$EL C"!7$MDT"! ! NACCELERAT"!O D.A7E7
! T.E !EB E$R"DEA! #RCE C@CLE
C. Deeleration due to gradient wit# t#rottle
n the (ase o) de(reased throttle opening+ the )uel
(onsumption is proportional to the produ(t o) throttle
position and ,ehi(le speed ,p. This indi(ates that the
relationship %ould be linear in nature and (an be e6pressed
in the )orm o) a simple linear e?uation. Thus+ the
relationship bet%een throttle opening and )uel (onsumption
)or de(eleration (an be assumed to be o) the )ollo%ing
)ormI
0 0
11 10
0
p v
vp
) )

+ =
-12
Fig. A sho%s measured data in de(eleration due to
gradient %ith throttle phases together %ith the (ur,e that is
)itted on those data. The (orresponding (onstants are
(omputed as )ollo%sI
*10 M 0.;&G'L
*11 M 1;.1;&1.
6
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Deceleration/gradient with throttle
Throttle position*speed (%*(km/h))
F
u
e
l

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
k
g
/
h
)


measured
computed
F:$RE > 4 F$EL C"!7$MDT"! ! N#ECELERAT"! #$E T"
:RA#E!T BT. T.R"TTLEO D.A7E7 ! T.E !EB E$R"DEA!
#RCE C@CLE
D. Deeleration wit#out t#rottle
The ,ehi(le may slo% do%n %hile it is still in gear+ but
the dri,er released the throttle pedal. n this (ase+ the )uel is
not in3e(ted+ thus+ the )uel (onsumption drops to 5ero.
Finally+ the ,ehi(le may slo% do%n %hile the gear is in
neutral. n this (ase+ the )uel (onsumption is appro6imately
the same as during idling+ %hi(h is a spe(ial (ase o) the
(onstant speed phase+ i.e. %hen the speed is 5ero.
!. &ear #ange
#uring gear (hange+ the (onsumption may ,ary
(onsiderably+ but this ,ariation o((urs during ?uite short
time inter,als -141 s2. There)ore+ during this phase the
(onsumption is appro6imated by a linear relationship %ith
,ehi(le speed in the )ollo%ing )ormI
0
;1 ;0
0
v
v
) )

+ =
-;2
Figure > sho%s measured data in gear (hange phases
together %ith the (ur,e that is )itted on those data. The
(orresponding (onstants are as )ollo%sI
*;0 M 0.;'01L
*;1 M 1.;;>;.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
Gear change
Vehicle speed (km/h)
F
u
e
l

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
k
g
/
h
)


measured
computed
F:$RE 10 4 F$EL C"!7$MDT"! ! N:EAR C.A!:EO D.A7E7
! T.E !EB E$R"DEA! #RCE C@CLE
F. Funtional representation of t#e omplete drive
yle
The )un(tional relationships proposed in this se(tion (an
be applied )or an arbitrary dri,e (y(le. The dri,e (y(le is
di,ided into short phases+ lasting 14' s ea(h+ and the
(onsumption in ea(h o) those short phases is determined by
the (orresponding )ormula. Then+ the total (onsumption
during the %hole (y(le (an be (al(ulated. The appli(ation
o) the obtained relationships to the !E#C pro,ides a )uel
(onsumption o) 1/.1' lK100*m. The (onsumption during
the same (y(le %as measured 11.'1 lK100*m in laboratory.
Thus+ the error in the predi(tion using the proposed )ormula
is '.;H.
F:$RE 11 4 F$EL C"!7$MDT"! ! C"!7TA!T 7DEE# D.A7E7
#$R!: TE7T 1 A!# TE7T /+ A!# T7 DRE#CT"! B@ T.E
MAT.EMATCAL RELAT"!7.D
n simple terms+ the algorithm deri,ed )or )uel
(onsumption (al(ulations based on se,eral (onstraints and
di))ering situations (an be e6pressed as belo%I
4 The program )irst e6amines i) the gear (hanges
)rom the )irst till last sample in a gi,en short phase+ and i)
so+ then e?uation -;2 is used to determine (onsumption in
that phase.
7
4 ) the gear does not (hange -or it is (hanged )rom
neutral2+ then ,elo(ity ,ariation is in,estigated. ) it is
smaller than a pres(ribed limit -
/
*mKh2+ then e?uation
-12 is applied to determine (onsumption.
4 ) the ,elo(ity ,ariation is greater than the
pres(ribed limit+ then it is e6amined %hether the
a((eleration is positi,e or negati,e. ) it is positi,e+ then
e?uation -/2 is used to determine (onsumption.
4 ) the a((eleration is negati,e and the gear is in
neutral+ then e?uation -12 is used to determine
(onsumption.
4 ) the a((eleration is negati,e+ the gear is not in
neutral+ and throttle is not applied -or+ throttle position is
lo%er than a pres(ribed limit2+ then the (onsumption is
5ero.
4 ) the a((eleration is negati,e+ the gear is not in
neutral+ but throttle is applied -or+ throttle position is
greater than the pres(ribed limit2+ then the (onsumption is
determined by e?uation -12.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Time (s)
F
u
e
l

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
g
/
s
)


measured
computed
F:$RE 1/ 4 MEA7$RE# A!# C"MD$TE# F$EL
C"!7$MDT"!7 #$R!: FFT. 7$B4C@CLE "F !E#C
BT."$T !"7E
C. C"!CL$7"!
The (urrent paper has loo*ed into the deri,ation o) a
mathemati(al model )or the (al(ulation o) )uel (onsumption
%hen applied to the !E#C. Results indi(ate that both
laboratory testing pro,ided reliable ,alidation %ith the
mathemati(al model proposed abo,e. The spe(ulated
di))eren(e bet%een laboratory test results and tabulations o)
the proposed mathemati(al model remain around 'H. This
indi(ates good reliability and ,alidity on the part o) the
mathemati(al model. The de(omposition o) the larger
dri,ing (y(les into short dri,ing phases pro,ides that this
method (an be used to analyse any dri,ing (y(le. n the
)uture+ the appli(ation o) this mathemati(al model to other
dri,e (y(les %ould also be in,estigated to determine its
appli(ability.
8
*eferenes
Q1R Andre+ M. 8 Rapone+ M.+ /00>. Analysis and modelling o) the
pollutant emissions )rom European (ars regarding the dri,ing
(hara(teristi(s and test (y(les. Atmospheri( En,ironment+ Colume
;1+ pp. >A&4>>'.
Q/R An+ F.+ Robert+ E. 8 Lu(ia+ :.+ /011. :lobal ",er,ie% on Fuel
E))i(ien(y and Motor Cehi(le Emission 7tandardsI Doli(y "ptions
and Derspe(ti,es )or nternational Cooperation+ !e% @or*I $nited
!ations #epartment o) E(onomi( and 7o(ial A))airs.
Q1R An+ F.+ Robert+ E. 8 Lu(ia+ :.4B.+ /011. :lobal ",er,ie% on Fuel
E))i(ien(y and Motor Cehi(le Emission 7tandardsI Doli(y "ptions
and Derspe(ti,es )or nternational Cooperation+ !e% @or*I $nited
!ations #epartment o) E(onomi( and 7o(ial A))airs.
Q;R Berry+ . M.+ /00G. The E))e(ts o) #ri,ing 7tyle and Cehi(le
Der)orman(e on the Real4Borld Fuel Consumption o) $.7. Light
#uty Cehi(les+ s.l.I s.n.
Q'R #EFRA+ /011. Re,ie% o) Test Dro(edures EM7te(K0/K0/G ssue 1.
Q"nlineR
A,ailable atI httpIKKu*4
air.de)ra.go,.u*KreportsK(at1'K0;0A1G11/;SAppendi6/ssue1toDhase
/report.pd)
QA((essed > <une /011R.
Q&R Eri(sson+ E.+ /001. ndependent #ri,ing Dattern Fa(tors and their
n)luen(e on Fuel4$se and E6haust Emission Fa(tors. Transportation
Resear(h+ #-1;2+ pp. 1/'41;'.
QGR Fontaras+ :. 8 #ilara+ D.+ /01/. The e,olution o) European
passenger (ar (hara(teristi(s /000P/010 and its e))e(ts on real4%orld
C"/ emissions and C"/ redu(tion poli(y. Energy Doli(y+ Colume
;>+ pp. G1>4G10.
QAR :FE+ /011. Auto Fuel E(onomy. Q"nlineR
A,ailable atI
httpIKK%%%.unep.orgKtransportKg)eiKautotoolKunderstandingStheSprob
lemKAboutSFuelSE(onomy.asp
QA((essed 1> 7eptember /011R.
Q>R :FE+ /011. Auto Fuel E(onomy. Q"nlineR
A,ailable atI
httpIKK%%%.unep.orgKtransportKg)eiKautotoolKunderstandingStheSprob
lemKAboutSFuelSE(onomy.asp
QA((essed / August /011R.
Q10R :ia*oumis+ E. :. 8 Lioutas+ 7. C.+ /010. #iesel4engined ,ehi(le
nitri( o6ide and soot emissions during the European light4duty
dri,ing (y(le using a transient mapping approa(h. Transportation
Resear(h Dart #+ Colume 1'+ p. 11;P1;1.
Q11R :itano4Briggs+ ..+ /00A. #ynamometry and Testing o) nternal
Combustion Engines. s.l.+ $ni,ersity o) 7(ien(e Malayasia+ pp. 14>A.
Q1/R .arrabin+ R.+ /011. Ar(ti( "(ean Na(idi)ying rapidlyO. Q"nlineR
A,ailable atI httpIKK%%%.bb(.(o.u*Kne%sKs(ien(e4en,ironment4
//;0A1;1
QA((essed 1> 7eptember /011R.
Q11R 7amimi+ A. 8 9arinabadi+ 7.+ /011. Redu(tion o) :reenhouse :ases
Emission and E))e(t on En,ironment. Australian <ournal o) Basi( 8
Applied 7(ien(es '-1/2+ pp. G'/4G'&.
Q1;R @u+ L.+ Bang+ 9. 8 7hi+ T.+ /010. DEM74Based Approa(h To
#e,eloping And E,aluating #ri,ing Cy(les For Air Tuality
Assessment. Te6asI 7outh%est Region $ni,ersity Te6asI
Transportation Center Te6as Transportation nstitute+ Te6as A8M
$ni,ersity 7ystem.
Q1'R Bo%man+ M.+ #ebray+ 7. K.+ and Deterson+ L. L. 1>>1. Reasoning
about naming systems. .
Q1&R #ing+ B. and Mar(hionini+ :. 1>>G A 7tudy on Cideo Bro%sing
7trategies. Te(hni(al Report. $ni,ersity o) Maryland at College
Dar*.
Q1GR FrUhli(h+ B. and Dlate+ <. /000. The (ubi( mouseI a ne% de,i(e )or
three4dimensional input. n Dro(eedings o) the 7:C. Con)eren(e
on .uman Fa(tors in Computing 7ystems
Q1AR Ta,el+ D. /00G Modeling and 7imulation #esign. AK Deters Ltd.
Q1>R 7annella+ M. <. 1>>; Constraint 7atis)a(tion and #ebugging )or
ntera(ti,e $ser nter)a(es. #o(toral Thesis. $M "rder !umberI
$M "rder !o. :AJ>'40>1>A.+ $ni,ersity o) Bashington.
Q/0R Forman+ :. /001. An e6tensi,e empiri(al study o) )eature sele(tion
metri(s )or te6t (lassi)i(ation. <. Ma(h. Learn. Res. 1 -Mar. /0012+
1/A>4110'.
Q/1R Bro%n+ L. #.+ .ua+ ..+ and :ao+ C. /001. A %idget )rame%or* )or
augmented intera(tion in 7CADE.
Q//R @.T. @u+ M.F. Lau+ VA (omparison o) MCK#C+ M$MC$T and
se,eral other (o,erage (riteria )or logi(al de(isionsV+ <ournal o)
7ystems and 7o)t%are+ /00'+ in press.
Q/1R 7pe(tor+ A. 9. 1>A>. A(hie,ing appli(ation re?uirements. n
#istributed 7ystems+ 7. Mullende
9