Gathering Information: Secondary Sources

After you have determined the purpose of your report and identified the problem, you will
need to gather information to complete the report. As a report writer, you will need to
research all the information sources available in preparing the report so that you can make
decisions about which sources would be most appropriate. Sources of information are either
secondary or primary.
Secondary sources provide information collected by other investigators. Such published
materials as the following are examples of secondary sources with which you should be
familiar:
almanacs documents (print and online)
annual reports encyclopedias
articles (print and online) newspapers
books pamphlets and monographs
brochures periodicals (magazines)
dictionaries yearbooks
Gathering Information: Primary Sources
When secondary sources do not provide the answers, you will need to uncover the
information for yourself. Collecting data for yourself is known as primary research. The
three principal methods of collecting primary, or original, data are experimentation,
observation, and surveys.
Experimentation
Although experimentation was originally the tool of scientists, business and industry are now
using it more frequently. Of course, many business problems do not lend themselves to
experimental research, but those in business can use experimentation to determine the effects
of one variable on another under certain conditions. To test the marketing effectiveness of a
new packaging concept, for example, an experimenter would change the packaging
(the independent variable) to see how the change influenced sales (the dependent variable).
Observation
In research, observation means recognizing and noting facts. Unlike the experimenter, an
observer does not manipulate the environment. In a bookstore, for example, you could
determine book preferences by observing shoppers as they make their selections.
Observation can also apply to certain kinds of studies of published documents. You might be
interested, for example, in examining annual reports for the use of certain words and phrases,
such as reengineering, to see when organizations first began using the expressions and the
way in which the frequency of use increased over time.
One disadvantage of observation is that because we have a tendency to interpret what we see
or hear based on our previous experience, information obtained by means of observation
may not be totally accurate. Although it is often used alone to record factsraw data
observation is more often used in conjunction with experimentation and surveys to help
ensure accuracy and reliability and to help explain what the observations mean.
Surveys
Although what people say and what they do may not always be in perfect agreement, when
you need information about what people think about a variety of issues, one of the best ways
to obtain it is to ask. Most adults have completed a survey questionnaire at sometime in their
lives. If you buy a car or have one serviced, you may receive a survey form from the
dealership or the manufacturer asking about your experience. Or, you may have received a
phone call soliciting your opinion about a product, service, or political issue.

Questionnaires
Survey instruments need to be both valid and reliable. A valid instrument is one that
measures what it is intended to measure; a reliable instrument is one that will produce the
same results when repeated. Constructing survey questionnaires so that they will be both
valid and reliable requires both skill and practice. It is easy, for example, to ask questions
that lead the respondent to answer in a particular way. The questions you ask, and the way
you ask them, will determine the quality and usability of the results.
Anticipate the kinds of responses you might receive to each question and determine whether
the question is likely to produce useful results. If you have been asked to determine what
people like and dislike about their automobile buying experiences, for example, and were
tempted to ask, What color car did you purchase? you can quickly see that the list of
probable answers wont help you determine their likes and dislikes about the purchasing
experience.
Common Question Types. Questionnaires typically employ one or more of the following
question types:
1. Either-or. An either-or question gives a respondent a choice between two answers:
yes or no, true or false, like or dislike, and so on. In many cases, a third option such as
dont know or not sure is added for those who arent sure of their opinion.
Do you own a car? Yes ______ No _____
Would you favor a four-day work week?
Yes ______ No _____ Not Sure _____
Are well-developed reading skills essential for career
success?
True ______ False _____ Dont Know _____
What is your attitude toward traveling?
Like _____ Dislike _____

2. Checklist. A checklist provides the respondent with a list of possible answers to be
checked. Checklists are common because they are easy for the respondent to complete
and for the researcher to tabulate. In most cases, the respondent is asked to check all
the items that apply.
What communication activities do you engage in every day?
Check all that apply.
_____ Informal, face-to-face oral communication.
_____ Formal, face-to-face oral communication (interviews).
_____ Telephone conversations (two people).
_____ Telephone conference calls.
_____ Small group meetings (seven or fewer people).
_____ Large group meetings (more than seven people).
_____ Electronic mail (reading or writing).
_____ Memos (reading or writing).
_____ Letters (reading or writing).
_____ Reports (reading or writing).
_____ Video conferencing.
_____ Other (please describe below).

Personal Interviews and Focus Groups
Personal interviews and focus groupsa group of people brought together to focus on a
particular topicare additional methods of obtaining primary information. The same care
needs to be taken in developing questions for personal interviews and focus groups as for
mailed questionnaires. Preparing questions in advance helps ensure that you will cover all
the important topics. You may, of course, ask additional questions along the way, and thats
one of the principal advantages of personal interviews and focus groups.
Although personal interviews and focus groups allow greater flexibility for asking in-depth
questions than mail questionnaires typically do, they can be both time-consuming and costly.
They are best used when the population to be sampled is small and is in one geographic area.
Another disadvantage is that in face-to-face situations people have an increased tendency to
express a popular view of a subject rather than their own true attitudes and beliefs. Also,
unless the interviewer is skilled in interviewing techniques, his or her own biases may
influence the respondents answers.
Telephone Interviews
Telephone interviews are widely used because
1. They can provide a random sample when all members of the group being studied can
be presumed to have telephones.
2. They are fast. You can reach a lot of people quickly and easily.
3. They are relatively inexpensive. When the calls are local, telephone interviews may
actually cost less than mailed questionnaires, and they are certainly less expensive
than personal interviews or focus groups.
4. They are flexible. Telephone interviews permit the same ability to ask follow-up
questions as personal interviews with less risk that the interviewers own biases will
influence the respondents answers.
The principal disadvantage of telephone interviews is that, because telephones are so often
used for sales, people are inclined to hang up when they receive calls asking for a few
minutes of their time. Even when they agree initially, people are impatient on the phone and
are reluctant to answer more than just a few questions. For these reasons, most telephone
interviews need to be brief, and the questions need to be easy to answer. The exceptions
would be interviews about issues of extreme importance to the population being studied.
As with mailed questionnaires and personal interviews, the basic questionnaire needs to be
prepared in advance, and the same care needs to be taken to ensure that answers to the
questions will provide data that are reliable, valid, and useful.
Documenting Information
Many reports require that sources of information be documented so that readers may verify
the accuracy of the data presented. When ideas, opinions, and statements of fact are obtained
from previously published sources, the sources should be cited in one of four ways: (a)
within the text, (b) as a footnote, (c) as an end note, or (d) in a reference to a bibliographic
entry.
Regardless of the form of the documentation, references to secondary sources should include
as much of the following information as known:
1. Name(s) of author(s).
2. Title of book or titles of the article and the publication in which the article appears.
3. Place and date of publication.
4. Appropriate edition or volume and issue numbers.
5. Appropriate page references.
.



What Is A Periodical Index?
A periodical index is a type of reference source that lists periodical articles by subject or author. If you
have a topic in mind, a periodical index can help you find articles about that topic. An index will point you
to the right periodical, the specific date or issue copy, and even the pages for a specific article. A
periodical index works like a subject catalog for the articles within a group of magazines and journals. The
process of using an index is similar to the process of doing subject or keyword searches for items in a
library catalog. Rasmuson Library has both print indexes in book form and computer-based indexes
available on CD-ROM or through the Internet.
Parts of an Index
1. Searching mechanism: In a print index, the searching mechanism is simply an alphabetical list of
authors, titles, or subjects that refer to a master list of citations. On-line or CD-ROM indexes use software
that search a database by author, title, subject, or keyword.
2. Citations: brief descriptions of an item that identify specific articles. No matter what kind of index you use,
citations follow a similar format and contain the same basic parts.
Parts of a Citation
The information appearing in an index about an article is called a citation. The citation usually includes:
1. Title of the article
2. Author's name or names if there is more than one author (sometimes a shorter article or news item has
no named author)
3. Title of the periodical. Some indexes label the periodical title as the "source" (abbreviated as "so")
because the periodical is the source for the article.
4. Volume and issue number of the periodical in which the article appears.
A volume often covers one year of publication and an issue is an individual copy within a volume.
A volume and/or issue may not be included.
5. Date of the periodical issue in which the article appears.
6. Pages on which the article appears.
7. Additional information about the article such as illustrations, maps, charts that appear in the article.
Sample Citations:
Here's an example of a citation from ArticleFirst, an online index that includes periodicals covering a wide
range of subjects. (ArticleFirst can be accessed through OCLC FirstSearch.)
Author(s): Keenan, Jeremy
Title: The theft of Saharan rock-art
Source: Antiquity. 74, no. 284, (2000): 287 (2 pages)
Additional Info: Antiquity Publications [etc.]
Alt Journal: Key Title: Antiquity
Standard No: ISSN: 0003-598X CODEN: ATQYAF
OCLC No: 1481624





encyclopedia
[en-sahy-kluh-pee-dee-uh] Spell Syllables
Examples
Word Origin
noun
1.
a book or set of books containing articles on various topics, usually inalphabetical arr
angement, covering all branches of knowledge or, lesscommonly, all aspects of one s
ubject.
2.
(initial capital letter) the French work edited by Diderot andD'Alembert, published in
the 18th century, distinguished by itsrepresentation of the views of the Enlightenmen
t.
directory
direktr/
noun
plural noun: directories
1. 1.
a book listing individuals or organizations alphabetically or thematically with details such as names,
addresses, and telephone numbers.
synonyms: index, list, listing, register, address book, catalog, record, archive,inventory;
blogroll;
trademarkdaytimer
almanac
lmnak,al-/
noun
1. an annual calendar containing important dates and statistical information such as astronomical data
and tide tables.

Personal knowledge management (PKM) is a collection of processes that a person uses to gather,
classify, store, search, retrieve, and share knowledge in his or her daily activities (Grundspenkis 2007)
and the way in which these processes support work activities (Wright 2005).
Topics:
1. Determine advantages and disadvantages of recycling and propose a recycling plan for your business.

Why gather information?
Gathering information about a project and its impacts can help a project in a
variety of creative and strategic ways. Gathering information can help to:
observe what is happening in the project, its activities and effects; provide
material with which to reflect on the project and its effects; provide evidence
to help inform future planning of the project; communicate about activities
and impacts, including reporting to funding bodies and auspice agencies;
include multiple perspectives about the community and the project; and
increase participation in the project.
The purpose of information gathering is to support the planning of your organization's work to become
more fully inclusive.
It is important to look at available facts -- objective information, including demographics and best
practices.
It is also important to look at stakeholder perspectives -- subjective information, including the opinions of
your clients, potential clients, staff, board members, donors, etc. regarding the work that you do and how
you do it.




Conducting research for specific types of information
The topic of your research paper likely influences the type of information that is necessary to
write it, but you still have many options. Asking yourself what types of information, whether you
intend to conduct primary research, secondary research or both makes the process of gathering
information and conducting research much easier. Consider all types of information, including
the following types:
Analyses
Documentaries
Facts
Government research
History
Interviews
Laws/legislative information
News stories/reports
Observation studies
Opinions
Personal narratives or reflections
Research studies
Surveys
Videos
This list is not exhaustive, but it is a good place to start when considering what you are looking for
with your information search.
Deciding where to look for sources while conducting research
Once you have an idea of the type of information to seek while gathering information, decide
where to find it. Your school or local library and the internet are where you are likely to conduct
most of your research, unless you incorporate primary research into your paper. Potential sources
of information are found in many places:
Archives in the county library, government offices or local newspapers
Books
Government agencies and organizations
Government records or publications
Interviews
Magazines
Newspaper articles
Online databases
Personal communications
Reliable websites
Scholarly journals
These are just some of the sources from which you can gather information. When conducting
research, evaluate sources of information to make sure they are credible. Similarly, think
creatively for untraditional, yet reliable sources of information.
Evaluating the amount of information you need for gathering
information
Before conducting research, you also want to consider the amount of information you need. The
length of your paper largely dictates the number of sources and amount of information necessary
to write a well-developed paper. Take both into consideration as you write to ensure you have an
adequate amount of information from conducting research to write a well-thought-out and top-
notch paper.
Through the process of gathering information and conducting research, you are likely to develop
additional questions to add to the ones with which you start. Through the process of taking notes,
you record the information you need as your research progresses in order to make outlining and
writing your first draft easier. The important thing is to have a plan and ask questions to know
what information you seek, where to find it and how to evaluate the amount of research data you
need.



Primary Sources
A primary source provides direct or firsthand evidence about an event, object, person, or work of art.
Primary sources include historical and legal documents, eyewitness accounts, results of experiments,
statistical data, pieces of creative writing, audio and video recordings, speeches, and art objects.
Interviews, surveys, fieldwork, and Internet communications via email, blogs, listservs, and newsgroups
are also primary sources. In the natural and social sciences, primary sources are often empirical studies
research where an experiment was performed or a direct observation was made. The results of empirical
studies are typically found in scholarly articles or papers delivered at conferences.
Secondary Sources
Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and
process primary sources. Secondary source materials can be articles in newspapers or popular
magazines, book or movie reviews, or articles found in scholarly journals that discuss or evaluate
someone else's original research.
Serials
Journals, magazines, and newspapers are serial publications that are published on an ongoing basis.
Many scholarly journals in the sciences and social sciences include primary source articles where the
authors report on research they have undertaken. Consequently, these papers may use the first person
("We observed"). These articles usually follow a standard format with sections like "Methods," "Results,"
and "Conclusion."
In the humanities, age is an important factor in determining whether an article is a primary or secondary
source. A recently-published journal or newspaper article on the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme
Court case would be read as a secondary source, because the author is interpreting an historical event.
An article on the case that was published in 1955 could be read as a primary source that reveals how
writers were interpreting the decision immediately after it was handed down.
Serials may also include book reviews, editorials, and review articles. Review articles summarize research
on a particular topic, but they do not present any new findings; therefore, they are considered secondary
sources. Their bibliographies, however, can be used to identify primary sources.
Books
Most books are secondary sources, where authors reference primary source materials and add their own
analysis. "Lincoln at Gettysburg: the Words that Remade America" by Gary Wills is about
Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. If you are researching Abraham Lincoln, this book would be a
secondary source because Wills is offering his views about Lincoln and the Gettysburg Address.

Books can also function as primary sources. For example,Abraham Lincoln's letters, speeches, or
autobiography would be primary sources. To locate primary sources in the library catalog, do a keyword
search and include "sources" in your search. The search results for "Abraham Lincoln" and "Sources"
would include include "The Civil War: the First Year Told By Those Who Lived It", a book that includes
letters written by Abraham Lincoln.
Visual and Audio Materials
Visual materials such as maps, photographs, prints, graphic arts, and original art forms can provide
insights into how people viewed and/or were viewed the world in which they existed.

Films, videos, TV programs, and digital recordings can be primary sources. Documentaries, feature films,
and TV news broadcasts can provide insights into the fantasies, biases, political attitudes, and material
culture of the times in which they were created. Radio broadcast recordings, oral histories, and the
recorded music of a particular era can also serve as primary source material.
Archival Material
Manuscripts and archives are primary sources, including business and personal correspondence, diaries
and journals, legal and financial documents, photographs, maps, architectural drawings, objects, oral
histories, computer tapes, and video and audio cassettes. Some archival materials are published and
available in print or online.
Government Documents
Government documents provide evidence of activities, functions, and policies at all government levels.
For research that relates to the workings of government, government documents are primary sources.

These documents include hearings and debates of legislative bodies; the official text of laws, regulations
and treaties; records of government expenditures and finances; and statistical compilations of economic,
demographic, and scientific data.





Definitions

Humanities Sciences
Primary Source
Original, first-hand account of an event or time period
Usually written or made during or close to the event or
time period
Original, creative writing or works of art
Factual, not interpretive
Report of scientific discoveries
Results of experiments
Results of clinical trials
Social and political science research
results
Factual, not interpretive
Secondary
Source Analyzes and interprets primary sources
Second-hand account of an historical event
Interprets creative work
Analyzes and interprets research
results
Analyzes and interprets scientific
discoveries

Examples

Humanities Sciences
Primary
Sources
Diaries, journals, and letters
Newspaper and magazine articles (factual accounts)
Government records (census, marriage, military)
Photographs, maps, postcards, posters
Recorded or transcribed speeches
Interviews with participants or witnesses (e.g., The
Civil Right Movement)
Interviews with people who lived during a particular
time (e.g., genocide in Rwanda)
Songs, Plays, novels, stories
Published results of research studies
Published results of scientific
experiments
Published results of clinical trials
Proceedings of conferences and
meetings
Paintings, drawings, and sculptures
Secondary
Sources
Biographies
Histories
Literary Criticism
Book, Art, and Theater Reviews
Newspaper articles that interpret
Publications about the significance of
research or experiments
Analysis of a clinical trial
Review of the results of several
experiments or trials

Specific Examples

Primary Source Secondary Source
Literature Song of Myself (Poem)
Journal article about the poems historical
importance
Psychology
Results of clinical trial to treat ADD by
modifying diet
Book about ways to treat childhood ADD without
drugs
Politics and
Government
U.S. Census Statistics Book about suburban population changes in U.S.
History
Recorded interview with Choctaw
American Indian
Journal article about Native Americans who
served in WWII
Social Science Diary of Anne Frank Book about diaries kept during the Holocaust
Art Photographs by Diane Arbus
Magazine article about 20th century female
photographers

Websites of Primary Resources
The Library of Congress American Memory Project
AMP is a rich, searchable database of written and spoken words, sound recordings, still and moving images, prints, maps,
and sheet music that document the American experience.
The Historical Text Archive
HTA is a well-designed, searchable database with three sections: full-text articles (also includes essays and
photographs), e-books, and links to other digitized primary resources.
Digital Collections: Michigan State U. Libraries and Digital & Multimedia Center
DC is a collaborative, ongoing project to digitize selected materials from MSU Libraries' Special Collections. Browsable
collections include Africana, American Radicalism, Applied and Life Sciences, and History and Social Sciences.
Repositories of Primary Sources
A directory of over 5,000 websites describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and
other primary sources for the advanced research scholar. Includes links to libraries and other institutions with digitized
primary resources.
Using Primary Sources on the Web
A brief guide to evaluating primary internet resources with excellent examples of specific documents and image files.
A primary source is a document or physical object which was written or created during the time
under study. These sources were present during an experience or time period and offer an inside
view of a particular event. Some types of primary sources include:
ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS (excerpts or translations acceptable): Diaries, speeches,
manuscripts, letters, interviews, news film footage, autobiographies, official records
CREATIVE WORKS: Poetry, drama, novels, music, art
RELICS OR ARTIFACTS: Pottery, furniture, clothing, buildings
Examples of primary sources include:
Diary of Anne Frank - Experiences of a Jewish family during WWII
The Constitution of Canada - Canadian History
A journal article reporting NEW research or findings
Weavings and pottery - Native American history
Plato's Republic - Women in Ancient Greece
What is a secondary source?
A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps
removed from the event. Secondary sources may have pictures, quotes or graphics of primary
sources in them. Some types of seconday sources include:
PUBLICATIONS: Textbooks, magazine articles, histories, criticisms, commentaries,
encyclopedias
Examples of secondary sources include:
A journal/magazine article which interprets or reviews previous findings
A history textbook
A book about the effects of WWI
Primary Sources
A primary source provides direct or firsthand evidence about an event, object, person, or work of
art. Primary sources provide the original materials on which other research is based and enable
students and other researchers to get as close as possible to what actually happened during a
particular event or time period. Published materials can be viewed as primary resources if they
come from the time period that is being discussed, and were written or produced by someone with
firsthand experience of the event. Often primary sources reflect the individual viewpoint of a
participant or observer. Primary sources can be written or non-written (sound, pictures, artifacts,
etc.). In scientific research, primary sources present original thinking, report on discoveries, or
share new information.

Examples of primary sources:
Autobiographies and memoirs
Diaries, personal letters, and correspondence
Interviews, surveys, and fieldwork
Internet communications on email, blogs, listservs, and newsgroups
Photographs, drawings, and posters
Works of art and literature
Books, magazine and newspaper articles and ads published at the time
Public opinion polls
Speeches and oral histories
Original documents (birth certificates, property deeds, trial transcripts)
Research data, such as census statistics
Official and unofficial records of organizations and government agencies
Artifacts of all kinds, such as tools, coins, clothing, furniture, etc.
Audio recordings, DVDs, and videorecordings
Government documents (reports, bills, proclamations, hearings, etc.)
Patents
Technical reports
Scientific journal articles reporting experimental research results

Secondary Sources
Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and
process primary sources. A secondary source is generally one or more steps removed from the
event or time period and are written or produced after the fact with the benefit of
hindsight. Secondary sources often lack the freshness and immediacy of the original material. On
occasion, secondary sources will collect, organize, and repackage primary source information to
increase usability and speed of delivery, such as an online encyclopedia. Like primary sources,
secondary materials can be written or non-written (sound, pictures, movies, etc.).

Examples of secondary sources:
Bibliographies
Biographical works
Reference books, including dictionaries, encyclopedias, and atlases
Articles from magazines, journals, and newspapers after the event
Literature reviews and review articles (e.g., movie reviews, book reviews)
History books and other popular or scholarly books
Works of criticism and interpretation
Commentaries and treatises
Textbooks
Indexes and abstracts






Examples of Primary Sources
Some examples of original, first-hand, authoritative accounts include:

Letters, diaries or journals
(Personal thoughts)

Original photographs

First-hand newspaper reports

Speeches, autobiographies
or memoirs

Creative works like plays,
paintings and songs

Research data and surveys
Examples of Secondary Sources
Some examples of works that interpret or critique primary sources include:

Textbooks (May also
be considered tertiary)

Essays or reviews

Articles that analyze or
discuss ideas and events

Criticisms or commentaries