1 B. Austin and D.A.

Austin, Bacterial Fish Pathogens: Disease of Farmed and Wild Fish,

DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4884-2_1, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2012
Abstract There has been a progressive increase in the number of new bacterial
taxa associated with sh diseases, with examples including Pasteurella skyensis and
Francisella noatunensis and the emergence of so-called unculturables, e.g.
Candidatus, intact cells of which have been observed in diseased tissue but culture
has not yet been achieved .
Within the realm of sh diseases, it is all too apparent that the names of bacterial
species are often used with little supporting evidence to justify the use of those
names. Over the last two decades, there has been a trend away from the conven-
tional phenotypic approach of characterising sh pathogens to molecular methods;
and the description of new taxa is often based on minimal phenotypic data, which
poses problems for determining reliable diagnostic traits. In many laboratories,
identi cation is now routinely accomplished by means of sequencing of the 16S
rRNA gene; a move that has led to greater con dence in the outputs although this
will re ect the accuracy of the data in the databases. However, whereas the use of
new technologies is to be encouraged, an on-going dilemma remains about the
authenticity of isolates. Also, many studies are based on the examination of single
isolates the relevance of which to sh pathology or science in general is doubtful.
Certainly, too many conclusions result from the examination of too few isolates.
Nevertheless, the study of pathogenicity mechanisms, diagnostics and disease control
by means of vaccines have all bene ted from molecular approaches.
It is apparent that there has been a progressive increase in the number of new
bacterial taxa associated with sh diseases, with examples including Pasteurella
skyensis and Francisella noatunensis. However, some elementary questions/
concerns about bacterial sh diseases remain to be addressed:
Why are so few anaerobes associated with sh diseases? Could this re ect a lack
of interest/expertise/suitable methods as opposed to a lack of occurrence?
Are the majority of diseases really caused by single bacterial taxa or could there
be many more incidences of infections caused by two or more taxa either acting
Chapter 1
Introduction
2 1 Introduction
simultaneously or sequentially? [Would diagnosticians recognise infections
caused by more than one pathogen?]
Unculturables, e.g. Candidatus, are becoming associated with sh diseases,
i.e. situations where pathogens may be detected microscopically or serologically
but not cultured. The question to be resolved is whether such organisms are
incapable of growing outwith a host or if suitable media have not been developed.
It is speculative how many more of these unculturable organisms remain to be
recognised. Then, there is the situation such as with red mark syndrome whereby
an organism may be detected by serology, but not observed.
Lastly, it is well worth highlighting that the isolation of an organism from a
disease situation does not infer recovery of the actual pathogen, but could re ect
the presence of a secondary invader of already damaged tissues or even a con-
taminant. It may be expected that where isolation from an active disease situation
is attempted the result on laboratory media will be dense virtually pure culture
and not a comparatively few diverse colony types; the latter being indicative of
the presence of contaminants. Certainly, an initial weakening process to the host
may be possible in the absence of pathogens, and involve pollution or a natural
physiological state (e.g. during the reproductive phase) in the life cycle of the
sh. A weakened host is then prone to infection.
Notwithstanding these concerns, representatives of many bacterial taxa have, at
one time or another, been associated with sh diseases. There remains doubt about
whether some of these bacteria should really be considered as true sh pathogens.
In some cases, the supportive evidence is either weak or non-existent, or there have
been only single reports of disease without any repeat cases over many years.
Possibly, such organisms constitute contaminants or even innocuous saprophytes.
However, it is readily apparent that there is great confusion about the precise meaning
of disease. A de nition, from the medical literature, states that:
a disease is the sum of the abnormal phenomena displayed by a group of living organisms
in association with a speci ed common characteristic or set of characteristics by which they
differ from the norm of their species in such a way as to place them at a biological
disadvantage
(Campbell et al . 1979 )
This de nition is certainly complex, and the average reader may be excused for
being only a little wiser about its actual meaning. Dictionary de nitions of disease
are more concise, and include an unhealthy condition and infection with a pathogen
[= something that causes a disease]. One conclusion is that disease is a complex
phenomenon, leading to some form of measurable damage to the host. Yet, it is
anticipated that there might be profound differences between scientists about just
what constitutes a disease. Fortunately, infection by micro-organisms is one aspect
of disease that nds ready acceptance within the general category of disease.
For his detailed treatise on diseases of marine animals, Kinne ( 1980 ) considered
that disease might be caused by
genetic disorders
physical injury
3 Introduction
nutritional imbalance
pathogens
pollution.
This list of possible causes illustrates the complexity of disease. An initial con-
clusion is that disease may result from biological (= biotic ) factors, such as patho-
gens, and abiotic causes, e.g. the emotive issue of pollution. Disease may also be
categorised in terms of epizootiology (Kinne 1980 ) , as:
Sporadic diseases, which occur sporadically in comparatively small members of
a sh population;
Epizootics , which are large-scale outbreaks of communicable disease occurring
temporarily in limited geographical areas;
Panzootics, which are large-scale outbreaks of communicable disease occurring
over large geographical areas;
Enzootics, which are diseases persisting or re-occurring as low level outbreaks in
certain de ned areas.
The study of sh diseases has concentrated on problems in sh farms (= aqua-
culture), where outbreaks either begin suddenly, progress rapidly often with high
mortalities, and disappear with equal rapidity (= acute disease) or develop more
slowly with less severity, but persist for greater periods (= chronic disease). As we
move into the twenty- rst century, issues about global warming/climate change are
discussed could this impact on the emergence and spread of sh diseases? A situation
could easily arise in which the host becomes stressed by increasing temperature, and
more prone to disease. Clearly, the deteriorating situation in the natural environment
is of increasing concern. Indeed, there is already concern about the health of corals,
worldwide, and the initial evidence that some coral pathogens may also infect sh. In
another example, it is curious why mycobacteria appear to have increased in
signi cance in sh within con ned areas, notably the Chesapeake Bay, USA.
This text will deal with all the diseases caused by bacteria. Cases will be dis-
cussed where infectious disease is suspected but not proven. An example includes
red mark syndrome/disease (also known as winter strawberry disease) of rainbow
trout in the UK where the causal agent is suspected but not proven to be bacteria
of which rickettsia is suspected to be the possible aetiological agent.
Disease is usually the outcome of an interaction between the host (= sh), the
disease causing situation (= pathogen) and external stressor(s) (= unsuitable changes
in the environment; poor hygiene; stress). Before the occurrence of clinical signs of
disease, there may be demonstrable damage to/weakening of the host. Yet all too
often, the isolation of bacteria from an obviously diseased sh is taken as evidence
of infection. Kochs Postulates may be conveniently forgotten.
So, what are the bacterial sh pathogens? A comprehensive list of all the bacte-
ria, which have been considered to represent sh pathogens, has been included in
Table 1.1 . Some genera, e.g. Vibrio , include many species that are acknowledged to
be pathogens of freshwater and/or marine sh species. Taxa (highlighted by quota-
tion marks), namely Catenabacterium , H. piscium and Myxobacterium are of
doubtful taxonomic validity. Others, such as Pr. rettgeri and Sta. epidermidis , are of
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Table 1.1 Bacterial pathogens of freshwater and marine sh
Pathogen Disease Host range Geographical distribution
Anaerobes
Catenabacterium sp Grey mullet ( Mugil auratus ), USA
Clostridiaceae representative Red sh ( Sebastes sp.)
Clostridium botulinum Botulism Salmonids Denmark, England, USA
Eubacteriaceae representative
Eubacterium tarantellae Eubacterial meningitis Striped mullet ( Mugil cephalus ) USA
Gram-Positive bacteria the Lactic Acid bacteria
Carnobacteriaceae representative
Carnobacterium maltaromaticum -like organism Lake white sh (Coregonus
clupeaformis)
USA
Carnobacterium piscicola Lactobacillosis, pseudokid-
ney disease
Salmonids North America, UK
Aerococcaceae representative
Aerococcus viridans Tilapia China
Enterococcaceae representatives
Enterococcus (Streptococcus) faecalis subsp.
liquefaciens
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) , cat sh
Italy
Vagococcus salmoninarum Lactobacillosis, pseudokid-
ney disease, peritonitis,
septicaemia
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) ,
brown trout (Salmo trutta) ,
rainbow trout
Australia, France, North
America,
Turkey
Lactobacillaceae representative
Lactobacillus spp. Lactobacillosis, pseudokid-
ney disease
Salmonids North America, UK
Leuconostocaceae representative
Weissella sp. Haemorrhagic septicaemia Rainbow trout Brazil, China
Streptococcaceae representatives
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(continued)
Pathogen Disease Host range Geographical distribution
Lactococcus garvieae (= Enterococcus seriolicida) Streptococcicosis/
streptococcosis
Many sh species Australia, Brazil, Europe,
Israel, Japan, Saudi
Arabia, Red Sea, South
Africa, Taiwan, USA
Lactococcus piscium Lactobacillosis, pseudokid-
ney disease
Rainbow trout North America
Streptococcus dysgalactiae Streptococcosis Amur sturgeon ( Acipenser
schrenckii ), amberjack
(Seriola dumerili) , Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus),
yellowtail (Seriola
quinqueradiata)
Brazil, China, Japan
Streptococcus agalactiae (= Str. dif cilis) Meningo-encephalitis Carp (Cyprinus carpio), grouper
(Epinephelus lanceolatus),
rainbow trout, silver pomfret
(Pampus argenteus), tilapia
(Oreochromis spp.)
Australia, Columbia, Israel,
Kuwait, USA
Streptococcus ictaluri Streptococcosis Channel cat sh USA
Streptococcus iniae (Str. shiloi) Acute septicaemia,
meningoencephalitis,
streptococcicosis/
streptococcosis
Various freshwater and marine
sh species
Australia, Bahrain, China,
Europe, Israel, Japan,
Saudi Arabia, South
Africa, USA
Streptococcus milleri Koi carp (Cyprinus carpio ) UK
Streptococcus parauberis Streptococcicosis/
streptococcosis
Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) Spain
Streptococcus phocae Streptococcosis Atlantic salmon Chile
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Table 1.1 (continued)
Pathogen Disease Host range Geographical distribution
Aerobic Gram-Positive Rods and Cocci
Renibacterium salmoninarum Bacterial kidney disease
(BKD; Dee disease;
corynebacterial kidney
disease)
Salmonids Europe, Japan, North and
South America
Bacillaceae representatives
Bacillus spp. Septicaemia; bacillary
necrosis
Various freshwater sh species
including cat sh (Pangasius
hypophthalmus)
Nigeria, Vietnam
Bacillus cereus Branchio-necrosis Carp (Cyprinus sp.), striped bass
(Morone saxatilis )
USA
Bacillus mycoides Ulceration Channel cat sh (Ictalurus
punctatus)
Poland, USA
Bacillus subtilis Branchio-necrosis Carp Poland
Corynebacteriaceae representatives
Corynebacterium aquaticum Exophthalmia Striped bass USA
Coryneform bacteria Corynebacteriosis Salmonids England
Micrococcaceae representative
Micrococcus luteus Micrococcosis Rainbow trout England
Mycobacteriaceae representatives
Mycobacterium spp . (Myc. abscessus, Myc. anabanti,
Myc. chelonei subsp. piscarium, Myc. fortuitum,
Myc. gordonae, Myc. marinum, Myc. monte orense,
Myc. neoaurum, Myc. piscium, Myc. platypoeci-
lus, Myc. poriferae. Myc. pseudoshottsii, Myc.
ranae, Myc. salmoniphilum, Myc. shottsii, Myc.
scrofulaceum, Myc. simiae, Myc. smegmatis, Myc.
ulcerans)
Mycobacteriosis ( sh
tuberculosis)
Most sh species worldwide
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Pathogen Disease Host range Geographical distribution
Nocardiaceae representatives
Nocardia spp. (Noc. asteroides, Noc. salmonicida; Noc.
seriolae)
Nocardiosis Most sh species worldwide
Rhodococcus sp. Ocular oedema Chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha) Canada
Rhodococcus erythropolis ? Atlantic salmon Norway, Scotland
Rhodococcus qingshengii Peritonitis Atlantic salmon Chile
Planococcaceae representative
Planococcus sp. Salmonids England
Staphylococcaceae representatives
Staphylococcus aureus Eye disease Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys
molitrix)
India
Staphylococcus epidermidis Gilthead sea bream (Sparus
aurata), red sea bream
(Chrysophrus major),
yellowtail (Seriola
quinqueradiata )
Japan, Turkey
Staphylococcus warneri Ulcerations Rainbow trout Spain
Gram-Negative Bacteria
Aeromonadaceae representatives
Aeromonas allosaccharophila Elvers Spain
Aeromonas bestiarum USA
Aeromonas caviae Septicaemia Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) Turkey
Aeromonas hydrophila (= Aer. liquefaciens, Aer.
punctata)
Haemorrhagic septicaemia,
motile aeromonas
septicaemia, redsore
disease, n rot
Many freshwater sh species worldwide
Aeromonas jandaei Eel (Anguilla sp.) Spain
Aeromonas salmonicida (subsp. achromogenes,
masoucida, salmonicida and smithia)
{= Haemophilus piscium}
Furunculosis, carp
erythrodermatitis, ulcer
disease
Salmonids, cyprinids, and marine
species (dabs, cod)
worldwide
(continued)
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Pathogen Disease Host range Geographical distribution
Aeromonas sobria Garra rufa ( Garra rufa ), perch
(Perca uvialitis), gizzard shad
( Dorosoma cepedianum),
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
China, Slovakia,
Switzerland, USA
Aeromonas schubertii Tuberculous lesions Snakehead (Ophiocephalus
argus)
China
Aeromonas veronii biovar sobria Epizootic ulcerative
syndrome, infectious
dropsy
African cat sh ( Clarias
gariepinus) , rajputi (Puntius
gonionotus), rui (Labeo
rohita), catla ( Catla catla ),
shole (Channa striatus), oscar
(Astronotus ocellatus)
Bangladesh, India
Alteromonadaceae representatives
Pseudoalteromonas piscicida Egg disease Damsel sh USA
Pseudoalteromonas undina Sea bass, sea bream Spain
Shewanella putrefaciens Septicaemia Rabbit sh (Siganus rivulatus) Saudi Arabia
Campylobacteriaceae representative
Arcobacter cryaerophilus Rainbow trout Turkey
Enterobacteriaceae representatives
Citrobacter freundii Salmonids, sun sh (Mola mola),
carp (Cyprinus carpio)
Europe, India, USA
Edwardsiella ictaluri Enteric septicaemia of
cat sh
Ayu, bagrid cat sh ( Pelteobagrus
nudiceps ), brown bullhead
( Amieurus nebulosus), channel
cat sh, freshwater cat sh
(Pangasius hypophthalmus),
danio (Danio devario), striped
cat sh (Pangasius hypophthal-
mus) , yellow cat sh
( Pelteobagrus fulvidraco )
China, Indonesia, Japan,
USA, Vietnam
Table 1.1 (continued)
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Pathogen Disease Host range Geographical distribution
Edwardsiella tarda (Paracolobactrum anguillimor-
tiferum, Edw. anguillimortifera)
Redpest, edwardsiellosis,
emphysematous
putrefactive disease
of cat sh
Freshwater and some sh species Japan, Spain, USA
Enterobacter cloacae Mullet ( Mugil cephalus ) India
Escherichia vulneris Septicaemia Various freshwater sh species Turkey
Hafnia alvei Haemorrhagic septicaemia Cherry salmon (O. masou),
rainbow trout
Bulgaria, England, Japan
Klebsiella pneumoniae Fin and tail disease Rainbow trout Scotland
Plesiomonas shigelloides African cat sh (Heterobranchus
bidorsalis), eel, gourami
(Osphyronemus gourami),
rainbow trout, sturgeon
(Acipenser sturio)
Germany, Portugal, Spain
Pantoea (= Enterobacter) agglomerans Dolphin sh (Coryphaena
hippurus)
USA
Providencia (Proteus) rettgeri Silver carp Israel
Salmonella enterica subsp. arizonae (= Sal. cholerae-
suis subsp. arizonae = Sal. arizonae)
Septicaemia Pirarucu (Arapaima gigas) Japan
Serratia liquefaciens Septicaemia Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus),
Atlantic salmon, turbot
France, Scotland, USA
Serratia marcescens White perch (Morone
americanus)
USA
Serratia plymuthica Rainbow trout Poland, Scotland, Spain
Yersinia intermedia Atlantic salmon Australia
Yersinia ruckeri Enteric redmouth (ERM),
salmonid blood spot
Salmonids Australia, Europe, North
and South America
Flavobacteriaceae representatives
Chryseobacterium balustinum (= Flavobacterium
balustinum)
Flavobacteriosis Marine sh USA
(continued)
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Pathogen Disease Host range Geographical distribution
Chryseobacterium piscicola Skin and muscle ulceration Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout Chile, Finland
Chryseobacterium scophthalmum (= Flavobacterium
scophthalmum)
Gill disease; generalised
septicaemia
Turbot Scotland
Flavobacterium branchiophilum Gill disease Salmonids Europe, Korea, Japan, USA
Flavobacterium columnare (= Flexibacter/Cytophaga
columnaris)
Columnaris, saddleback
disease
Many freshwater sh species worldwide
Flavobacterium hydatis (= Cytophaga aquatilis) Gill disease Salmonids Europe, USA
Flavobacterium johnsoniae (= Cytophaga johnsonae) Gill disease, skin disease Barramundi (Lates calcarifer),
koi carp, rainbow trout,
long n eel ( Anguilla
mossambica )
Australia, France, South
Africa
Flavobacterium oncorhynchi Rainbow trout Spain
Bacterial gill disease Salmonids Europe, USA
Flavobacterium psychrophilum (= Cytophaga
psychrophila)
Coldwater disease, rainbow
trout fry syndrome,
necrotic myositis
Perch ( Perca uviatilis ),
salmonids, sea lamprey
(Petromyzon marinus)
Australia, Europe, Japan,
North America
Tenacibaculum dicentrarchi Sea bass Spain
Tenacibaculum discolor Sole ( Solea senegalensis ) Spain
Tenacibaculum gallaicum Turbot ( Psetta maxima ) Spain
Tenacibaculum maritimum (=Flexibacter maritimus) Bacterial stomatitis, gill
disease, black patch
necrosis
Many marine sh species Europe, Japan, North
America
Tenacibaculum ovolyticum (= Flexibacter ovolyticus) Larval and egg mortalities Halibut (Hippoglossus
hippoglossus)
Norway
Tenacibaculum soleae Tenacibaculosis Sole ( Solea senegalensis ), wedge
sole ( Dicologoglossa
cuneata ), brill ( Scophthalmus
rhombus )
Spain
(Cytophaga rosea) Gill disease Salmonids Europe, USA
Table 1.1 (continued)
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Pathogen Disease Host range Geographical distribution
Sporocytophaga sp. Saltwater columnaris Salmonids Scotland, USA
Francisellaceae representatives
Francisella sp. Granulomatous
in ammatory disease
Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua),
hybrid striped bass (Morone
chrysops x M. saxatilis),
three-line grunt
(Parapristipoma trilineatum),
tilapia
Costa Rica, Japan, Norway,
USA
Francisella asiatica Francisellosis Tilapia, three-line grunt Costa Rica, England, Japan
Francisella noatunensis (= Fr. philomiragia subsp.
noatunensis = Fr. piscicida)
Francisellosis, visceral
granulomatosis
Atlantic cod, Atlantic salmon, Chile, Norway
Halomonadaceae representative
Halomonas (= Deleya) cupida Black sea bream (Acanthopagrus
schlegeli)
Japan
Moraxellaceae representatives
Acinetobacter sp. Acinetobacter disease Atlantic salmon, channel cat sh Norway, USA
Moraxella sp. Striped bass USA
Moritellaceae representatives
Moritella marina (V. marinus) Skin lesions Atlantic salmon Iceland
Moritella viscosa Winter ulcer disease/
syndrome
Atlantic salmon Iceland, Norway, Scotland
Mycoplasmataceae representative
Mycoplasma mobile Red disease Tench (Tinca tinca) USA
Myxococcaceae representative
Myxococcus piscicola Gill disease Green carp (Ctenopharyngodon
idelluls)
China
Neisseriaceae representative
Aquaspirillum sp. Epizootic ulcerative
syndrome
Snakeheads (Ophicephalus
striatus) and cat sh (Clarias
batrachus)
Thailand
(continued)
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Pathogen Disease Host range Geographical distribution
Oxalobacteraceae
Janthinobacterium lividum Anaemia Rainbow trout Scotland
Pasteurellaceae representative
Pasteurella skyensis ? Atlantic salmon Scotland
Photobacteriaceae representatives
Photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae (=
Photobacterium histaminum)
Vibriosis Damsel sh (Chromis punctipin-
nis), redbanded sea bream
(Pagrus auriga) rainbow trout,
sea bass ( Lates calcarifer ),
sharks, turbot, yellowtail
Asia, Europe, USA
Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida (=
Pasteurella piscicida)
Pasteurellosis,
pseudotuberculosis
Blue n tuna (Thunnus thynnus),
gilthead sea bream (Sparus
aurata), sole (Solea senega-
lensis), striped bass (Morone
saxatilis ), white perch (Roccus
americanus ), yellowtail
Europe, Japan, USA
Piscirickettsiaceae representative
Piscirickettsia salmonis Coho salmon syndrome,
salmonid rickettsial
septicaemia
Salmon, sea bass (Atractoscion
nobilis)
Canada, Chile, Greece,
Norway, Scotland, USA
Rickettsia -like organism Red mark syndrome/
strawberry disease
Rainbow trout UK, USA
Pseudomonadaceae representatives
Pseudomonas anguilliseptica Red spot (Sekiten-byo),
winter disease
Rainbow trout, marine sh
species, and particularly cod,
eels (Anguilla anguilla, A.
japonica) , black spot sea
bream ( Pagellus bogaraveo ),
gilthead sea bream (Sparus
aurata)
Finland, France, Japan,
Portugal, Scotland,
Spain
Table 1.1 (continued)
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Pathogen Disease Host range Geographical distribution
Pseudomonas baetica Wedge sole ( Dicologoglossa
cuneata )
Spain
Pseudomonas chlororaphis Amago trout (Oncorhynchus
rhodurus)
Japan
Pseudomonas uorescens Generalised septicaemia Most sh species Worldwide
Pseudomonas luteola Generalised septicaemia Rainbow trout Turkey
Pseudomonas plecoglossicida Bacterial haemorrhagic
ascites
Ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis),
pejerrey (Odonthestes
bonariensis)
Japan
Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes Skin ulceration Rainbow trout Scotland
Pseudomonas putida Haemorrhagic ascites,
ulceration
Ayu, rainbow trout Japan, Turkey
Vibrionaceae representatives
Aliivibrio scheri Gilthead sea bream , turbot Spain
Ali. logei Skin lesions Atlantic salmon Iceland
Ali. salmonicida Coldwater vibriosis, Hitra
disease
Atlantic salmon Canada, Norway, Scotland
Vibrio aestuarianus Tongue sole ( Cynoglossus
semilaevis )
China
V. alginolyticus Eye disease, septicaemia Cobria (Rachycentron canadum),
gilthead sea bream, grouper
(Epinephelus malabanicus),
sea bream (Sparus aurata)
Asia, Europe, Israel
V. anguillarum (= Listonella anguillarum) Vibriosis Most marine sh species worldwide
V. cholerae (non-01) Septicaemia Ayu, gold sh (Carassius aurata) Australia, Japan
V. furnissii Eel Spain
(continued)
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Pathogen Disease Host range Geographical distribution
V. harveyi (= V. carchariae and V. trachuri) Eye disease (blindness),
necrotising enteritis,
vasculitis, granuloma
Gilthead sea bream, sea bass,
common snook (Centropomus
undecimalis), horse mackerel
( Trachurus japonicus ),
milk sh, red drum (Sciaenops
ocellatus), sharks
(Carcharhinus plumbeus,
Negaprion breviorstris) , sole
(Solea senegalensis) , summer
ounder ( Paralichthys
dentatus), tiger puffer
(Takifugu rubripes)
Europe (notably Spain),
Japan, Taiwan, USA
V. ichthyoenteri Intestinal necrosis/enteritis Japanese ounder (Paralichthys
olivaceus), summer ounder,
olive ounder
Japan, Korea, USA
V. ordalii Vibriosis Most marine sh species worldwide
V. pelagius Turbot Spain
V. ponticus Ulcerative disease Japanese sea bass ( Lateolabrax
japonicus )
China
V. splendidus Septicaemia, vibriosis Corkwing wrasse (Symphodus
melops), gilthead sea bream,
turbot
Norway, Spain
V. tapetis Vibriosis Corkwing wrasse, ovate pompano
(Trachinotus ovatus)
Norway
V. vulni cus Septicaemia Eel Europe, Japan, P.R.C., USA
V. wodanis Winter ulcer disease/
syndrome
Atlantic salmon Iceland, Norway, Scotland
Table 1.1 (continued)
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Pathogen Disease Host range Geographical distribution
Miscellaneous pathogens
Candidatus Arthromitus Summer enteritic
syndrome, Rainbow
trout gastroenteritis
Rainbow trout Croatia, France, Italy, Spain,
UK
Candidatus Branchiomonas cysticola Epitheliocystis Atlantic salmon Norway
Candidatus Clavochlamydia salmonicola Epitheliocystis Freshwater salmonids North America, Norway
Candidatus Piscichlamydia salmonis Epitheliocystis Atlantic salmon Norway
Candidatus Renichlamydia lutjani Epitheliocystis-like Blue-striped snapper (Lutjanus
kasmira)
Hawaii, USA
Chlamydiales representative Epitheliocystis Leopard sharp ( Triakis
semifasciata )
Swiss aquarium
Streptobacillus Atlantic salmon Ireland
unidenti ed Gill lesions Rock sh Japan
unidenti ed Varracalbmi Atlantic salmon Norway
unidenti ed Ulceration Rainbow trout Scotland
16 1 Introduction
questionable signi cance in sh pathology insofar as their recovery from diseased
animals has been sporadic. A heretical view would be that enteric bacteria, e.g.
Providencia, comprise contaminants from water or from the gastro-intestinal tract
of aquatic or terrestrial animals. Certainly, many of the bacterial pathogens are
members of the normal micro ora of water and/or sh. Others have been associated
only with clinically diseased or covertly infected (asymptomatic) sh. Examples of
these obligate pathogens include Aer. salmonicida and Ren. salmoninarum , the
causal agents of furunculosis and bacterial kidney disease (BKD), respectively. It
will be questioned whether or not bacteria should be considered as obligate pathogens
of sh, at all. It is a personal view that the inability to isolate an organism from the
aquatic environment may well re ect inadequate recovery procedures. Could the
organism be dormant/damaged/senescent in the aquatic ecosystem; a concept which
has been put forward for other water-borne organisms (Stevenson 1978 ) ?
It is undesirable that any commercially important species should suffer the problems
of disease. Unfortunately, the aetiology of bacterial diseases in the wild is often
improperly understood. Moreover, it seems that little if anything may be done to aid
wild sh stocks, except, perhaps, by controlling pollution of the rivers and seas,
assuming that when environmental quality deteriorates this in uences disease cycles.
In contrast, much effort has been devoted to controlling diseases of farmed sh.
Conclusions
The list of sh pathogens has extended substantially since 1980. Current
interest focuses on the enterics, vibrios, CLBs, francisellas and streptococci-
lactococci.
A question mark hangs over the signi cance of some organisms to sh
pathology are they truly pathogens or chance contaminants?
There has been considerable improvement in the taxonomy of some groups,
for example vibrios, particularly with the widespread use of sequencing of
the 16S rRNA gene.
The have been substantive advances in the understanding of pathogenicity
mechanisms as a result of molecular approaches.
The advent of molecular methods has revolutionised diagnostics, particularly
in terms of accuracy.
There has been a shift from emphasis on culture-dependent to culture-
independent techniques as molecular methods have become commonplace
in laboratories.