Microalge in Alimentatie

Microalgae for Healthy FoodsPossibilities
and Challenges
T.L. Chac on-Lee and G.E. Gonz alez-Mari no
Abstract: Microalgae have the potential to become a novel source of bioactive molecules, especially for those who
might wish to enhance the nutritional and functional quality of foods. Spirulina, one of the most popular microalgae, has
been described by the World Health Organization as one of the greatest superfoods on earth serving as an example of the
potential of microalgae. This review provides background on current and future uses of microalgae in the human diet,
lists the most common species of microalgae used to this end, and describes some production methods used in research
and industrial production and recovery. The review also discusses some of the difculties so far encountered such as low
productivities and recovery rates, as well as challenges in the production of compounds of interest. Many scientists and
engineers in research centers around the globe are currently dedicated to solve these problems as the various capabilities
of microalgae have caught the attention of the energy, environmental, and agricultural industries, we propose that the
food industry should as well evaluate the potential of microalgae as a novel source of health promoting compounds.
Introduction
Microalgae are microscopic photosynthetic organisms that are
found in both marine and freshwater environments. Their pho-
tosynthetic mechanism is similar to that of land-based plants.
They are generally more efcient in converting solar energy into
biomass, mainly because of their simple cellular structure and being
submerged in an aqueous environment with access to water, CO
2
,
and other nutrients. These organisms constitute a polyphyletic and
highly diverse group of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. The
classication into divisions is based on various properties such as
pigmentation, chemical nature of photosynthetic storage prod-
uct, the organization of photosynthetic membranes, and other
morphological features. The most abundant microalgal classes
are Cyanophyceae (blue-green algae), Chlorophyceae (green al-
gae), Bacillariophyceae (including the diatoms), and Chryso-
phyceae (including golden algae) (Carlsson and others 2007).
Since the end of the Second World War (1945), many pri-
vate and public research groups have dedicated time and effort to
present microalgae to the public as a very important and plen-
tiful source of protein, based on its quality, and as one of the
best to be encountered. Since Tamiya and others (1963), who
under the sponsorship of the Carnegie Inst. reported that the mi-
croalgae Chlorella could be cultivated on a large scale, a great
deal of research has been reported regarding these tiny but very
special species. In the last 3 decades, there have been numerous
attempts by researchers and prot-seeking companies to commer-
MS 20100409 Submitted 4/14/2010, Accepted 7/3/2010. Authors are with the
Grupo de Procesos Agroindustriales at the Faculty of Engineering at the Univ. de
La Sabana, Campus Univ. Puente del Com un, Km 7 Autopista Norte de Bo-
got a, ChaCundinamarca, Colombia. Direct inquiries to author Gonz alez-Mari no
(E-mail: Gloria.gonzalez@unisabana.edu.co).
cialize production of microalgae and cyanobacteria. Some of these
companies have been in business for many years and are success-
fully producing biomass of these organisms and marketing it in
various forms (Gantar and Svir cev 2008). Despite this, microalgae
have not become the major source of food that was expected by
scientists when their nutritional properties were discovered.
It is important to agree upon common ground regarding what
we consider as food. According to author Hutton (2002) from the
Royal Society of Chemistry, Food is derived from plants, animals,
and microbes which are, in essence, highly organized chemical
systems. Many of the chemicals within food are essential for human
lifeothers just happen to be associated with the material we
actually want to eat. Some (avor and texture components and
color) actually persuade us to eat the food. We choose to eat
certain foods because of a combination of the chemicals they
contain that give it a pleasant taste and appearance and those that
we actually need in order to survive.
Humans are no strangers to the use of microalgae as a food
source, even if the commercial exploitation of this resource is only
a few decades old, since the early 1950s, when the focus was set
on a possible insufcient protein supply due to the rapid increase
of the world population (Spolaore and others 2006). Microalgae
appeared then as a good source of protein and has continued as
such, but with an increased interest due to the unique bioactive
ingredients recently found in these small microorganisms, which
gives them great potential as a food source and as a source of
functional molecules.
This review intends to give a critical point of view on the
technological possibilities of microalgae, an untapped resource
waiting to be exploited by professionals in the food science and
technology arena. The scope of the review goes beyond the highly
agreed-upon opinions about the use of species such as Chlorella,
Spirulina, Dunaliella, and others as a nutritional supplement and
c
2010 Institute of Food Technologists
doi: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00132.x Vol. 9, 2010

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ComprehensiveReviewsinFoodScienceandFoodSafety 655
Microalgaepossibilities and challenges . . .
more, and regarding them as a food or as a food ingredient. It pro-
vides information regarding the most common production systems
of microalgae biomass, open and closed photo bioreactors, their
advantages and disadvantages, as well as references of interest for
further research, as well as information regarding biomass recov-
ery problems and other downstream processing challenges, thus
highlighting the opportunities for food scientists and engineers to
improve the current technologies in critical areas.
Current Trends in the Market for Healthy Foods
Generally, the consumer classies many products, ingredients,
or compounds as healthy or good for you. Their consumption
may benet, prevent, help, or cure common diseases or grave
sickness such as cancer or Alzheimers disease. Those consumers
wishing to fortify their health, and prevent sickness, look for and
try to incorporate into their daily diet these foods, ingredients,
and compounds (Sloan 2008). These are the same consumers who
look for functional foods. The number of them is growing daily,
since healthy living, natural products, and better eating habits are
becoming a collective conscience in search of health and wellness
(Kuhn 2008). Among the healthy food sector, we can nd various
categories such as functional foods and nutraceuticals.
Functional foods may be dened as foods that are similar in ap-
pearance to conventional foods, are consumed as part of a regular
diet, and can contribute to increase the health condition of a per-
son to a higher degree of that expected from regular nutrition
from a common food source.
From a similar perspective, nutraceuticals instead are obtained
from food, but are not associated with these, they are found in
the form of capsules, tablets, pills, syrups, powders, and such, and
are known to benet the health of the consumer by increasing
the bodys response to infections, disease, and sickness. Generally,
these products are commercialized as diet supplements. Nutraceu-
tical and functional foods are concepts not usually used by the
nonprofessional, but have started to appear in television commer-
cials and other publicity resources in relation to health products.
With the growing trend toward convenience foods, there has
been much consumer pressure in recent years for formulated foods
to be even more nutritious (Pszczola 2008), but reformulated prod-
ucts with higher ber content, low fat, or low sugar might soon
not be enough. With the emerging and exciting advances occur-
ring in the eld of nutrigenomics, customized foods are not far
away from becoming a reality (Fogg-Johnson and Kaput 2003).
Therefore, the food industry is being called upon to match future
consumer requirements, which will undoubtedly continue to be
sensory satisfaction from all kinds of foods, even foods targeted
to protect them from specic diseases and such (Bech-Larson and
Scholderer 2007).
This increased demand for healthy foods could nd a nontra-
ditional ally in microalgae as a novel source of natural ingredients
and compounds. Microalgae-produced bioactive compounds and
molecules are being actively researched to determine their capa-
bilities and potential benets to consumers, and results so far point
to promising future developments (Shahidi 2004).
Current Uses of Microalgae as Food
Microalgae are not a new food. They have been part of the
human diet for centuries. For example, Nostoc has been used in Asia
and Spirulina by certain tribes in Africa. Gantar and Svir cev (2008)
reported interesting and explicit accounts of documented culture
methods and uses of microalgae and cyanobacteria by indigenous
populations in Mexico and other native populations.
Figure 1Most common presentation forms of microalgae.
During the past decades, microalgae biomass has been used
almost exclusively in the health food market. Over 75% of the
annual biomass production has been solely dedicated to the man-
ufacture of powders, tablets, and capsules of microalgae production
(Figure 1) (Pulz and Gross 2004; Hudson 2008). All of this mi-
croalgae biomass and much more could be incorporated into food-
based products, allowing this industry to diversify and growin ways
previously unrealized. Liang and others (2004) mention that even
if microalgal tablets are the most popular algal products, it is nec-
essary to diversify to other end products to ensure the continuing
development of microalgal biotechnology.
Pulz and Gross (2004) pointed out that in order to achieve a
successful algal biotechnology industry, it was necessary to choose
the right alga, one that possesses the relevant properties regarding
culture conditions and products. As evidence of this necessity, a
great deal of research has been performed on a small number of
species. Even though it was a small number of species, much has
been learned. The use of this knowledge is sufcient to create a
wider area of inuence of microalgae in the food industry. Liang
and others (2004) agree with this statement, and report that there
are over a 100 research institutes and manufacturing enterprises
in China alone concerned with the study and development of
microalgae as food. Table 1 provides a reference list of authors that
have carried out research regarding production, extraction, and
use of some compounds of interest found in microalgae.
China is not the only country where microalgae have gained
interest, there have been many investigations regarding the use of
microalgae biomass and extracts for human consumption (Toku-
soglu and

Unal 2003; Becker 2004; Shimamatsu 2004; Sawraj
and Bhushan 2005; Geppert and others 2006; Colla and others
2007; Doughman and others 2007; Gouveia and others 2007b;
Valencia and others 2007). The average protein quality of most of
the algae examined is equal, sometimes even superior, to that of
conventional plant proteins (Becker 2007) (Table 2). Due to the
high protein content of various species of microalgae, these organ-
isms were initially considered only as an unconventional source of
protein, but currently protein is no longer the sole argument to
propagate them and promote their utilization as food or as a food
supplement.
Because all of these compounds are of interest to consumers,
Pulz and Gross (2004) make a point on mentioning: There is
an increasing demand for sophisticated products from microal-
gae. More importantly, their biomass is known as a natural
656 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
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Table 1Microalgae classied according to compounds of interest.
Topic of information Microalgae species Reference
Pigments for food and cosmetics, Spirulina platensis Valderrama and others 2003
carotenoids: astaxanthin, Wang and others 2007
phycocyanine, -carotene Gouveia and others 2008a
Antelo and others 2008
Chlorella vulgaris Gouveia and others 2006, 2007a, 2008a
Bertoldi and others 2006
Dunaliella salina G omez and others 2003
Dufosse and others 2005
Jaime and others 2007
Zhu and Jiang 2008
Haematococcus pluvialis Kobayashi and others 1997
Lorenz and Cysewski 2000
Mendes-Pinto and others 2001
Olaizola 2003
Valderrama and others 2003
Brinda and others 2004
Dufosse and others 2005
Sarada and others 2006
Gouveia and others 2006, 2008a
Porphyridiumcruentum Arad and Yaron 1992
Bermejo and others 2002
Isochrysis galbana Valenzuela-Espinoza and others 2002
Scenedesmus almeriensis S anchez and others 2007
Phaeodactylumtricornutum S anchez and others 2002
Anabaena Loreto and others 2003
Dunaliella bardawil G omez and others 2003
Various Arad and Yaron 1992
Wrolstad 2004
van Leeuwe and others 2006
del Campo and others 2007
Antioxidant activity Spirulina platensis Mendiola and others 2005
Jaime and others 2005
Wang and others 2007
Ib a nez and others 2008
Chlorella vulgaris Rodriguez-Garcia and Guil-Guerrero 2008
Dunaliella salina Jaime and others 2007
Synechococcus sp. Li and others 2007
Nostoc ellipsosporum
Chlamydomonas nivalis
Porphyridiumcruentum Rodriguez-Garcia and Guil-Guerrero 2008
Phaeodactylumtricornutum
Fatty acids Spirulina platensis Sajilata and others 2008
Chlorella vulgaris Bertoldi and others 2006
Haematococcus pluvialis Rosa and others 2005
Scenedesmus obliquus Makulla 2000
Porphyridiumcruentum F abregas and others 1998
Durmaz and others 2007
Chlorella minutissima Rosa and others 2005
Tetraselmis suecica
Various Piorreck and others 1984
Geppert and others 2006
Nutrient proles Spirulina platensis Tokusoglu and

Unal 2003
Mendiola and others 2007
Chlorella vulgaris Tokusoglu and

Unal 2003
Porphyridiumcruentum Rebolloso-Fuentes and others 2000
Nannochloropsis Rebolloso-Fuentes and others 2001
Tokusoglu and

Unal 2003
Scenedesmus Becker 1984
Quevedo and others 2008
Various Becker 2007
Various functional metabolites Spirulina platensis Desmorieux and Hernandez 2004
frommicroalgae Khan and others 2005
Colla and others 2007
Mendiola and others 2007, 2008
Gouveia and others 2008
Chlorella vulgaris Quintana and others 1999
Mendes and others 2003
Haematococcus pluvialis Garca-Malea and others 2006
Dunaliella salina Mendes and others 2003
(Continued)
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Table 1(Continued)
Topic of information Microalgae species Reference
Botryococcus braunii Mendes and others 2003
Arthrospira maxima
Various Burja and others 2001
Molina and others 2003
Pulz and Gross 2004
Singh and others 2005
Cardozo and others 2007
Plaza and others 2009
Inclusion of microalgae in foods or as food Spirulina platensis Morist and others 2001
Desmorieux and Hernandez 2004
Gouveia and others 2008a
Chlorella vulgaris Gouveia and others 2006, 2007a, 2008a
Andrade and others 2007
Schizochytriumsp. ANZFA 2002
Valencia and others 2007
Haematococcus pluvialis Gouveia and others 2006, 2008a
Gouveia and others 2008b
Scenedesmus sp. Quevedo and others 2008
Porphyridiumcruentum Guil-Guerrero and others 2004
Nannocloropsis spp.
Phaeodactylumtricornutum
Spirulina maxima Gouveia and others 2008a
Diacronema vlkianum
Various Liang and others 2004
Lee 1997
Table 2General composition (N% of dry matter) of different algae and comparison values with traditional sources of food.
Species Protein Carbohydrates Lipids
Spirulina platensis 63 (a) 15 (a) 11 (a)
61.32 to 64.43 (d) 15.09 to 15.81 (d) 7.09 to 8.03 (d)
Arthrospira maxima 60 to 71 (a) 13 to 16 (a) 6 to 7 (a)
Chlorella vulgaris 51 to 58 (a) 12 to 17 (a) 14 to 22 (a)
47.82 (d) 8.08 (d) 13.32 (d)
Chlorella pyreinodosa 57 (a) 26 (a) 2 (a)
Dunaliella salina 57 (a) 32 (a) 6 (a)
Porphyridiumcruentum 28 to 39 (a) 40 to 57 (a) 9 to 14 (a)
34.1 (c) 32.1 (c) 6.53 (c)
Scenedesmus obliquus 50 to 56 (a) 10 to 17 (a) 12 to 14 (a)
Aphanizomenon os-aquae 62 (a) 23 (a) 3 (a)
Chlamydomonas rheinhardtii 48 (a) 17 (a) 21 (a)
Anabaena cylindrica 43 to 56 (a) 25 to 30 (a) 4 to 7 (a)
Euglena gracilis 39 to 61 (a) 14 to 18 (a) 14 to 20 (a)
Spirogyra sp. 6 to 20 (a) 33 to 64 (a) 11 to 21 (a)
Synechococcus sp. 46 to 63 (a) 8 to 14 (a) 4 to 9 (a)
Nannocloropsis spp. 28.8 (b) 35.9 (b) 18.36 (b)
Haematococcus pluvialis 48 (e) 27 (e) 15 (e)
Isochrisis galbana 26.99 (d) 16.98 (d) 17.16 (d)
Conventional foods
Bakers yeast 39 (e) 38 (e) 1 (e)
Meat 43 (e) 1 (e) 34 (e)
Egg 47 (e) 4 (e) 41 (e)
Milk 26 (e) 38 (e) 28 (e)
Rice 8 (e) 77 (e) 2 (e)
Soya 37 (e) 30 (e) 20 (e)
Values expressed as percent dry matter.
(a) Becker 2007.
(b) Rebolloso-Fuentes and others 2001.
(c) Rebolloso-Fuentes and others 2000.
(d) Tokusoglu and

Unal 2003.
(e) Gouveia and others 2008a.
source of unlimited potent biologically active compounds, such
as carotenoids, phycobilins, fatty acids, polysaccharides, vitamins,
and sterols, which all deliver important benets to the human
consumer (Gouveia and others 2007a).
Micro- and macronutrients found in microalgae
Many analyses of gross chemical composition have been pub-
lished for different strains of microalgae under different growth
conditions (Tokusoglu and

Unal 2003; Becker 2004; Liang
and others 2004; Shimamatsu 2004; Spolaore and others 2006;
Rodriguez-Garcia and Guil-Guerrero 2008).
There are new evaluations of microalgal protein content, such
as the protein efciency ratio, the apparent biological value, and
the true digestibility value of protein content (Becker 2004). In
all of these tests, microalgae have compared favorably with the
reference and other food proteins in the amino acid content and
proportion and availability of amino acids in their protein prole
(Table 3).
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Vol. 9, 2010
r
Microalgae are also a ne source of carbohydrates, found in
the form of starch, cellulose, sugars, and other polysaccharides.
The available carbohydrates have good overall digestibility and,
therefore, few limitations on their uses and applications.
The average lipid content in microalgae varies between 1% and
40% and, according to growing conditions, can be as high as 85%
of dry weight. Algal lipids are typically composed of glycerol, sug-
ars, or bases esteried to fatty acids, with carbon numbers in the
range of C
12
to C
22
. The most important lipids are the essen-
tial polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic, eicosapentaenoic
(EPA), and docosahexaenoic (DHA). Probably the most valuable
compounds found in microalgae are the polyunsaturated fatty acids
because they are of great importance to human health (Table 4).
They are slightly higher in concentration than in sh oil, have less
chemical contamination than seafood lipids, and may have greater
purity after extraction (Pulz and Gross 2004). Oil from algae shows
additional benets as a long-chain PUFA supplier over sh oils,
including low taste intensity and off-odor problems (Valencia and
others 2007). Microalgae represent a valuable source of nearly all
important vitamins, which improve the nutritional value of algal
biomass.
Due to their phototrophic life, microalgae are often exposed to
high oxygen and free-radical stresses, which has resulted in the
evolution of numerous efcient protective systems against oxida-
tive and radical stressors. Among these protective systems is the
production of pigments, such as carotenes, chlorophylls, and phy-
cobiliproteins, all having high antioxidant and protective properties
(Pulz and Gross 2004).
Many toxicological trials are required for any new food item
before it can be declared safe for human consumption. Most of
these investigations are detailed toxicological tests to prove the
harmlessness of the product, like in the case of unconventional
protein sources, such as microalgae. By considering the available
information on possible toxic properties, or any other adverse
effects of the different algae tested so far, it can be stated that none
of them have shown negative effects. All tests, including human
studies, have failed to reveal any evidence that would restrict the
utilization of properly processed algal material (Becker 2007).
Commonly utilized microalgal species used for human
consumption
Microalgae such as Spirulina, Chlorella, Dunaliella, Haematococcus,
and Schizochytrium are classied as food sources falling into the
GRAS (Generally Regarded as Safe) category by the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration. Consequently, many high-value com-
pounds produced by microalgae can be administered as a powder
of dried or freeze-dried biomass with no extraction undertaken
(Walker and others 2005).
Among the most used microalgae are Chlorella and Spirulina,
in addition, Dunaliella, Haematococcus, Schizochytrium, Scenedesmus,
Aphanizomenon, Odontella, and Porphyridiumare gaining acceptance
in the food and health-food market. It might be useful to take a
brief look at what makes each of these microalgae special, both
from the consumer point of view, and from the point of view of
the food industry (Table 5), since their individual attributes will
allow for an adequate selection according to the need at hand.
Spirulina is one of the richest algal sources of -linolenic acid
(GLA). GLA is an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid and a po-
tent nutraceuticaI (Sajilata and others 2008). Various studies have
asserted its pharmaceutical value, especially in lowering the low-
density lipoprotein in hypercholesterolemic patients (Ishikawa and
others 1989) and alleviation of symptoms of premenstrual syn-
drome (Horrobin 1983) and atopic eczema (Biagi and others
1988). In vitro and in vivo studies have shown GLA to selectively
kill tumor cells without harming normal cells (Reddy and others
1998). GLA is also implicated in the amelioration of a number
of diseased states including schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, der-
matitis, diabetes, and rheumatoid arthritis (Ziboh 1989; Sajilata
and others 2008).
Spirulina is an excellent source of phycobiliproteins. These com-
pounds are being studied due to their high free-radical scavenging
capacity, which could make them a potential antitumor and an-
ticancer drug (Hu 2004). Spirulina is a good source of vitamin
B1 (Desai and Sivakami 2004). Due to the easy bioavailability of
nutrients, including minerals, Spirulina may be a good choice for
women during pregnancy and lactation and is also benecial for
malnourished children. The World Health Organization (WHO)
has called Spirulina as one of the greatest superfoods on earth and
NASA considers it as an excellent compact food for space travel,
as a small amount can provide a wide range of nutrients (Khan and
others 2005). Spirulina has been incorporated in noodles, cook-
ies, nutritional bars, and other functional food products (Pulz and
Gross 2004). Spirulina also supports digestive functions and helps
to maintain bacteria in the gut.
Chlorella cells contain -1,3-glucan, an active immunostimula-
tor, which acts as a free-radical scavenger and as a reducer of blood
lipids (Becker 2004). A polysaccharide also found in Chlorella has
been linked to antitumor effects (Iwamoto 2004). Chlorella vulgaris
is also a rich source of proteins, 8 essential amino acids, vita-
mins (B-complex, ascorbic acid), minerals (potassium, sodium,
magnesium, iron, and calcium), -carotene, chlorophyll, CGF
(Chlorella growth factor), as well as other health-promoting sub-
stances (Rodriguez-Garcia and Guil-Guerrero 2008).
Dunaliella is known for its capacity to produce high concen-
trations of carotenes, especially -carotene. Among the other
carotenoids produced by Dunaliella are lutein, neoxanthin, zeaxan-
thin, violaxanthin, cryptoxanthin, and -carotene, which are gen-
erally marketed together as a carotenoid mix (Ben-Amotz 2004).
Haematococcus produces a carotenoid known as astaxanthin.
There is increasing evidence that astaxanthin surpasses -carotene,
zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin, vitamin C, and vitamin E regarding an-
tioxidant benets. Animal studies have shown that astaxanthin can
protect skin from UV radiation effects, protect against chemically
induced cancers, and enhance the immune system (Cysewski and
Lorenz 2004). It also has antiinammatory properties, which may
help alleviate arthritis, muscle pain, and carpal tunnel syndrome
(Walker and others 2005). Astaxanthin is a product of recent com-
mercialization and is sold under many different names, one of
which is BioAstin by Cyanotech Corp. (Kailua-Kona, Hawaii,
U.S.A.).
Porphyridium cruentum contains relatively rare polyunsaturated
fatty acids such as arachidonic acid and EPA, both important in
human nutrition (Arad and Richmond 2004).
Aphanizomen os-aquae is a cyanobacterium with a rather short
history of human consumption. Aphanizomen has many benecial
health effects such as antiinammatory, exhaustion relief, assisting
digestion, and general improvement of overall well being (Hu
2004).
Current Biomass Production Systems and Downstream
Processes
The chemical composition of microalgae is not an intrinsically
constant factor, it varies among strains and batch cultures, and
according to environmental parameters such as temperature, pH,
r
Vol. 9, 2010
c

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Vol. 9, 2010
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Vol. 9, 2010
r
mineral content of water, light exposure, and agitation, all of which
come down to the type of culturing method used, open or closed,
indoors or outdoors.
The factors to be considered in this selection include the biology
of the alga, the cost of land, labor, energy, water, and nutrients,
as well as climate (if the culture is outdoors) and the type of nal
product desired. These parameters can be controlled in such a way
that the metabolism of the microalgae will favor a high production
of the particular compound of commercial interest, such as fatty
acids or antioxidants among others (Sierra and others 2008).
An efcient algal separation process should be able to process
a large volume of broth, yield a product with a high dry weight
percentage, and require modest investment, low consumption of
energy, and low maintenance cost (Poelman and others 1997).
Currently, recovery of biomass operations from culture broth can
account up to 20% to 30% of the total cost of production of the
biomass (Molina and others 2003), thus there is need for future
research directed to diminish costs and increase efciencies in this
step of the production. Figure 2 compiles information regarding
commonly used production systems, with the parameters that af-
fect productivity of microalgae and the biomass recovery systems
currently in use.
Photobioreactor designs for biomass production
Most commercial systems used today are open-air systems. The
4 major types of open-air systems currently in use are shallow
big ponds, tanks, circular ponds, and raceway ponds. Open-pond
systems for microalgae are of easy construction and operation
(Borowitzka 1999), but have been inappropriate when high pro-
ductivity is desired. Before the 1990s, most systems for growing
microalgae were open pond and carrousel (circular) types, which
allowed cellular densities of up to 0.7 g cells per liter (Contreras-
Flores and others 2003). An open system usually was a closed-
circuit canal about 15 to 20 cm deep, with a paddle rotation
system able to move the culture medium all around the circuit.
It required a large area of land, but was economical to build and
operate (Borowitzka 1999). Unfortunately, productivity of these
systems seems to have reached its maximum, impairing somewhat
the further development of microalgae biotechnology.
Culturing microalgae in open ponds and raceways has been
well developed and is still in use, but only a few species can
be maintained in the traditional open systems, those that control
contamination by using highly alkaline or saline selective envi-
ronments (Molina and others 2001). An example of this kind of
system would be a Cyanotech Corp. (www.cyanotech.com) open-
pond operation for Spirulina and Haematococcus in Hawaii, and of
Earthrise Nutritionals (www.earthrise.com) for the production of
cyanobacteria for food in California (Spolaore and others 2006).
Open systems have other disadvantages, such as ease of contam-
ination, difculties with the recovery of biomass, and problems
with temperature control, which all must be taken into account
when selecting an outdoor system. These problems have led to the
Figure 2Commonly used production systems, parameters, and recovery operations for the production of microalgae.
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development of closed photobioreactors using transparent materi-
als such as glass and polycarbonate. The rst photobioreactors of
this kind were those suggested by Pirt and others (1983), Gudin
(1983), and Torzillo and others (1986).
Tubular and at-plate photobioreactors have become very pop-
ular in the last decade. They have been able to obtain high-
density cultures, up to 3 times higher than with open-pond systems
(Contreras-Flores and others 2003). These closed photobioreac-
tors have additional advantages. They allow for an easier recovery
of biomass, help keep the culture to stay free of contaminants,
and help to better control growth conditions; but they are usually
more expensive to build, operate, and to maintain than open-pond
systems (Borowitzka 1999).
Sierra and others (2008) made a good point in favor of closed
photobioreactors and pointed out their advantages over open-
pond systems. They permit the production of strains rich in
high-value products, which otherwise would not be possible in
open-pond systems. Thanks to the metabolic exibility of mi-
croalgae and the controlled conditions allowed by closed pho-
tobioreactors, these high-value products can then be maximized
in the culture (Table 6). Therefore, the design of closed pho-
tobioreactors must be optimized, for each species, to obtain high
production yields of the microalga or of the metabolites of interest,
according to its physiological and growth conditions (Richmond
and Cheng-Wu 2001).
For a proper design of photobioreactors, many factors require
substantial attention, such as an adequate supply of sunlight and
temperature control, as well as light and heat and mass transfer
(Sierra and others 2008).
Eriksen (2008) described a series of considerations that also
must be taken into account at the moment of design, such as
the photosynthetic productivity proles inside the cultures due to
cell shadowing and scattering, and the photoinhibition effect on
photosynthetic efciency caused by them.
A wide variety of closed photobioreactors have been proposed
to suit the particular characteristics of each microalga. Sierra and
others (2008) mention the most popular types of closed systems
and reference those who have conducted work regarding their de-
sign, such as the very popular tubular photobioreactors described
by Gudin (1983) and Molina and others (1994), the helical tubular
reactors (Watanabe and Hall 1996), cascade reactors (Doucha and
Livansky 1995), alveolar at panels (Tredici and others 1991), ver-
tical at panels (Samon and Leduy 1985), bubble columns (S anchez
and others 1999), and the at panel photobioreactor described in
various publications (Tredici and others 1991; Pulz and others
1995; Hu and Richmond 1996; Hu and others 1996; Sierra and
others 2008). Table 7 provides a list of papers that can be consulted
on the operation of different types of photobioreactors.
The development of closed photobioreactors with control
mechanisms, designed with consideration for the particularities
of each microalgal strain, will allow for a more constant growth
and composition of microalgae cultures. Figure 3 shows a tubu-
lar photobioreactor designed at the Univ de La Sabana, it takes
advantage of solar energy captured during the day via solar con-
centrators to power the illumination system during night hours,
thus diminishing the electrical energy bill while providing the re-
quired light cycles for the production of biomass and compounds
of interest. Briey, this pilot scale production unit, named UNIS-
ABANA 1 WPA, is a closed horizontal tubular fotobioreactor, it
has a working capacity of 40 L, the tubes are made of DURAN
Borosilicate glass 3.3, with a diameter of 1.5 inches joined by

stainless steel 304 U bends, accessory equipment includes a heat
reservoir in a module separate from the tubular section that al-
lows temperature control and functions as a degasication unit as
well. The culture medium is made to circulate through the sys-
tem with the help of a double diaphragm pneumatic pump. A
mixture of air and CO
2
is injected directly into the tubular sec-
tion, the proportion and pressure of this mix are regulated and
controlled using FESTO (Festo AG&Co.) valves and manometers.
The illumination is solar-powered. During the day exposure is to
natural daylight and during the night hours illumination is by a
solar module that includes a polycrystalline photovoltaic cell that
powers high potency LEDs, the functioning period of nighttime
lighting can be modied as well (P erez 2009).
In the outskirts of Kl otze in Germany, a photobioreactor for
the production of C. vulgaris has been built. It is the largest closed
photobioreactor built so far. It relies solely on sunlight as a source of
energy and has a capacity of 700 cubic meters, covering an area of
over 1 hectare. The Kl otze plant (www.bioprodukte-steinberg.de)
produces around 150 metric tons (dry weight) anually of Chlorella
biomass in its 500 km of naturally lit piping (Moore 2001).
Downstream processes for biomass recovery
One of the major difculties encountered during the produc-
tion of microalgae is nding a low-cost, high-efciency harvest-
ing procedure. Cost-effective harvesting of microalgae biomass is
a challenging operation mainly because of technical difculties.
Among the main obstacles are the small size of microalgae cells (3
to 30 m dia), small density differential between the microalgae
and the growth media allowing cells to remain in suspension in
the culture broth, very dilute cell concentration (<0.5 kg.m
3
dry
biomass), high ionic strength in salt water and brackish water cul-
ture broth applications, and the necessity of managing very large
volumes of culture broth (Sukenik and others 1988; Petrusevski
and others 1995; Molina and others 2003; Lee and others 2009).
No single harvest method is suitable to every case or species of
microalgae (Molina and others 2003). One or more solidliquid
separation steps can be used for the recovery of microalgae biomass.
These separation steps are usually centrifugation, occulation,
gravity sedimentation, and ltration, used single or in combi-
nation. Usually, the end use of the biomass will determine if one
or more methods result in a more cost-effective operation than
others.
Centrifugation is an operation commonly used during research
studies where very small volumes of culture broth are involved,
but that on a commercial scale of production requires both a
high initial investment and energy and running costs, therefore, is
usually used in operations where the intention is the recovery of
high-value products (Becker 1995; Lee and others 2009); even so,
it is one of the most preferred methods for recovery of algal biomass
(Benemann and others 1980; Richmond 1986; Molina and others
2003). Among the advantages of using centrifugation as means
for concentrating biomass are the possibility of processing large
volumes of culture broth in a relatively short time, maintaining
the biomass contained and therefore diminishing the introduction
of contaminants, and by an adequate selection of centrifugation
parameters, maintaining viability of the cells (Molina and others
2003). Chisti and Moo-Young (1991) provide guidelines of interest
for the selection and operation of centrifuges, and Molina and
others (2003) present a comparison among centrifugal methods
used for the harvesting of microalgae.
Conventional ltration operations, under pressure or vacuum, is
a suitable operation for colony-forming species and larger sized
microalgae such as Coelastrum proboscideum and lamentous like
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Table 6Processing parameters for the production of microalgae.
Processing parameters Microalgae used Reference
Culture medium Spirulina Soletto and others 2005
Oliveira and Vieira Costa 2006
Colla and others 2007
Chlorella vulgaris/emersonii Scragg and others 2002
Bertoldi and others 2006
Dunaliella salina/Bardawil G omez and others 2003
Zhu and Jiang 2008
Haematococcus pluvialis Kobayashi and others 1997
Brinda and others 2004
Scenedesmus obliquus/almeriensis/sp. Becker 1984
Martnez and others 1999
Makulla 2000
Porphyridiumcruentum F abregas and others 1998
Various Piorreck and others 1984
Janssen and others 2000
Carbon dioxide consumption efciency Spirulina platensis Greque de Morais and Vieira Costa 2007
Soletto and others 2008
Chlorella vulgaris/sp./Buitenzorg Wijanarko and others 2004
Cheng and others 2006
Chiu and others 2008
Scenedesmus Greque de Morais and Vieira Costa 2007
General Camacho and others 1999
Kurano and Miyachi 2004
Biomass production Spirulina platensis Oliveira and Vieira Costa 2006
Oliveira and others 2009
Chlorella vulgaris/emersonii Scragg and others 2002
Haematococcus pluvialis Brinda and others 2004
Scenedesmus almeriensis/sp. S anchez and others 2008
Isochrysis aff. Galbana Valenzuela-Espinoza and others 2002
General Grobbelaar 2000
Light source/supply/cycle/irradiance Spirulina platensis Wu and others 2005
Soletto and others 2008
Chlorella sorokiniana Ugwu and others 2007
Haematococcus pluvialis Garca-Malea and others 2006
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Janssen and others 2000
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Cyanobacteria Jacob-Lopes and others 2009
Simmer and others 1994
General Pulz and others 1995
Ogbonna and others 1999
Kommareddy and Anderson 2004
Grobbelaar 2009
Mass transfer General Thomas and Gibson 1990
Dissolved oxygen Chlorella sorokiniana Ugwu and others 2007
General Camacho and others 1999
Temperature Spirulina platensis Colla and others 2007
Chlorella sorokiniana Ugwu and others 2007
Scenedesmus almeriensis/obliquus Martnez and others 1999
S anchez and others 2008
General Hancke and others 2008
Biomass recovery and downstreamprocessing Spirulina platensis Morist and others 2001
Desmorieux and Hernandez 2004
Oliveira and others 2008
Chlorella vulgaris Hee-Mock and others 2001
Dunaliella salina Orset and others 1999
Ben-Amotz 2004
Zhu and Jiang 2008
General Bilanovic and Shelef 1988
Sukenik and others 1988
Chisti and Moo-Young 1991
Petrusevski and others 1995
Poelman and others 1997
Borowitzka 1999
Olaizola 2003
Danquah and others 2009
Lee and others 2009
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Table 7Microalgae production vessels commonly used.
Types of photobioreactors Microalgae used in research Authors
Design aspects Spirulina Masojdek and others 2003
Cyanobacteria Marxen and others 2005
Nedbal and others 2008
General Pulz and Scheibenbogen 1998
Pulz 2001
Contreras-Flores and others 2003
Sierra and others 2008
Production systems Spirulina spp./platensis Duerr and others 1997
Habib and others 2008
Dunaliella salina Hejazi and Wijfferls 2004
General Borowitzka 1999
Eriksen 2008
Grobbelaar 2000, 2009
Tubular Spirulina and Scenedesmus Greque de Morais and Vieira Costa 2007
Chlorella vulgaris and C. emersonii Scragg and others 2002
Porphyridiumcruentum Rebolloso and others 1999
Phaeodactylumtricornutum Molina and others 1994, 2001
General Acien and others 1997
Gudin 1983
Sastre and others 2007
Acien and others 1998
Tredici and Zittelli 1998
Camacho and others 1999
Helical Spirulina platensis Soletto and others 2008
General Watanabe and Hall 1996
Airlift Phaeodactylumtricornutum S anchez and others 2002
Chlorella Xu and others 2002
General Vunjak-Novakovic and others 2005
Acien and others 2001
Bubble colums Phaeodactylumtricornutum S anchez and others 2002
General S anchez and others 1999
Flat plate Chlorella sp. Doucha and Livansky 1995
General Tredici and Zittelli 1998
Pulz and others 1995
Tredici and others 1991
Samon and Leduy 1985
Hu and Richmond 1996
Hu and others 1996
Sierra and others 2008
Stirred tank Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Janssen and others 2000
Dunaliella tertiolecta Janssen and others 2000
General Ogbonna and others 1996
Open Scenedesmus obliquus Becker 1984
Spirulina platensis/spp. Duerr and others 1997
Shimamatsu 2004
General Borowitzka 1999
Contreras-Flores and others 2003
Spirulina platensis, but presents difculties with the smaller unicel-
lular kind such as Chlorella and Dunaliella. It has the disadvantage
that tends to be a slower operation than centrifugation. Membrane
microltration and ultraltration are possible alternatives to con-
ventional ltration methods, but their costs are still high, up to the
point that for treatment of large volumes, costs are comparable to
those of centrifugation (Molina and others 2003). The effect of
growth state of the microalgae on the efciency of tangential ow
ltration has been evaluated by Danquah and others (2009). They
found that a mixed culture of Tetraselmis suecica/Chlorococum sp.
(a species of microalgae evaluated for biodiesel production) har-
vested during the low growth rate phase required less energy per
cubic meter of supernatant removed, and that operation in a xed
time allowed for a higher concentration of biomass than those
cells harvested during the high growth rate phase. This research
is indicative that the growth state in which a microalgae culture
is at the moment of harvesting might improve the efciency of
cell recovery and at the same time help diminish operational costs
of biomass recovery, therefore, further studies regarding this phe-
nomenon are necessary for microalgae species of interest for the
food industry.
Gravity-assisted sedimentation is a slow method for dewatering
microalgae cultures, and therefore one that is not frequently used.
It has the advantage of being a method that has low operational
cost, but with the disadvantage of being time consuming and
not working for all species. If there is no danger of ocurrence of
decomposition in the microalgae biomass this is an easy method for
dewatering microalgae biomass, and is now commonly used with
microalgae of larger sized cells or with those that form colonies.
Danquah and others (2009) found that microalgae left to settle in
a glass container presented different settling velocities according to
the light condition at which they were left to settle, and according
to the growth rate at which they were harvested. The microalgae
culture left to settle under dark conditions settled faster than those
under daylight conditions, as well as those harvested under low
growth rate phase. The explanation Danquah and others gave
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Figure 3Solar energy operated tubular photobioreactor.
to this observations was that, in the presence of daylight and/or
high growth rate phase (exponential phase), the microalgal cells
are actively photosynthesizing with a high metabolism rate and
unicellular mobility, and this retards their agglomeration rate and
therefore lowers their settling rate. On the other hand, microalgal
cells exposed to darkness and/or low growth rate phase (stationary
phase) do not photosynthesize, hence their metabolism rate is low
and this causes the cells to agglomerate and settle faster.
Flocculation is a method that has gained popularity for dewater-
ing microalgae biomass, but with limited applications in the food
industry because of the addition of substances to promote the
formation of aggregates or occules that are not allowed in food
processing, for example multivalent metal salts or cationic poly-
mers (Bilanovic and Shelef 1988). Bioocculation is an interesting
option, but one that has been considered to be unreliable (Bene-
mann and Oswald 1996). It is based on the possibility of inducing
the aggregation of cells by environmental stresses such as extreme
pH, nutrient depletion, or temperature changes. The difculty of
this method is achieving the desired aggregation of cells without
modifying the cell composition. In applications such as biodiesel
production from algal biomass, microbial occulation has rendered
very good results (Al-Shahwani and others 1986; No ue and others
1992; Hee-Mock and others 2001; Lee and others 2009). Finding
microbial occulants safe for human use would be of great interest
for the recovery of microalgal biomass.
Downstreamprocesses for biomass drying and preservation
Biomass drying can be achieved using sunlight shining onto heat
trays containing biomass and thus evaporate the residual water;
conventional ovens are used as well. But the most commonly used
methods are spray-drying and freeze-drying, the latter usually is
not economically feasible.
Desmorieux and Hernandez (2004) compiled information re-
garding traditional drying methods of spirulina at an industrial
level, according to their report paper, spray-drying is the com-
monly used method at the most important farms. Cyanotechs
patented Ocean Chill method is a process that combines the use
of spray-drying with air that has a very low concentration of oxy-
gen to protect sensitive nutrients from oxidation by this element.
Hot air is commonly used on semiindustrial farms and artisanal
production farms where the biomass paste is extruded into small
cylinders, placed on trays, and dried by convective hot air, or di-
rectly by sun exposure. Another method reported by Desmorieux
and Hernandez (2004) is that of adding freshly ltrated spirulina
to precooked and dried hot our, mixed, and dried until a low
moisture content is achieved.
Not much information can be found regarding the operational
parameters of these processes, since on a laboratory scale, freeze-
drying and oven-drying are commonly used as means of obtaining
dried weight measurements, and preserving the biomass for fur-
ther analysis, and these methodologies are not easily scalable or
economically feasible. Once the production of microalgae turns
to commercial and industrial scale, this information is not largely
published or is even protected by patents, some references can be
found in Table 4.
Oliveira and others (2008) characterize the thin-layer drying
of S. platensis utilizing experimental curves to determine the best
condition of drying. A statistical model was applied to analyze the
effects of independent variables (air temperature and solids) on the
response of solubility in acid medium. Desmorieux and Hernan-
dez (2004) reported problems encountered while drying spirulina
biomass using conventional drying methods, such as protein and
sugar losses occurring in a drying oven that varies according to
the temperature of the air, and they reported a higher loss of sugar
content (about 30%) compared to proteins (10% to 20%); at a tem-
perature of 60

C there was a higher loss of protein by convective
or infrared drying.
Desmorieux and Hernandez (2004) also reported that the best
method to recover proteins and total sugars was freeze-drying,
but Orset and others (1999) stated that freeze-drying of microal-
gae biomass is a time-consuming process that results in a highly
hygroscopic powder and is poorly applicable on a large scale.
Morist and others (2001) published a comprehensive research
report on the possibilities of spirulina biomass as an auto-
regenerative biological life support system for men in outerspace.
They designed a process for spirulina biomass recovery and fur-
ther treatment to be used as food in 2 forms, liquid and dry.
It includes washing, pasteurization, and spray-drying and they
presented discussions on biomass quality regarding potential mi-
crobial contamination and changes in composition during the
process.
Another of the great controversies surrounding the industrial
production of microalgae is the search for an adequate use for
the used-up spent culture medium that can no longer be reused
or concentrated. A proposal by us is that since these spent media
contain a high concentration of nutrients and exocellular products,
they could be used as biofertilizers, thus providing added value to
the process and by helping the overall production to be friendlier
to the environment. This alternative should be evaluated before
drawing any denite conclusion.
Future and Perspective of Microalgae Applications
in So-Called Health Foods
At the moment, even with all the studies referring to the possible
benets of incorporating microalgae in food, such as improving
cardiovascular systems (Khan and others 2005), their slimming
properties (Lyons and OBrien 2002), energizing properties (Desai
and Sivakami 2004), antioxidant capabilities (Lyons and OBrien
2002), and cholesterol and triglyceride lowering effects (Geppert
and others 2006), the most popular way to consume microalgae
is as a diet supplement in tablet, capsule, or powder form (Molina
and others 2003).
The incorporation of microalgal biomass into traditional prod-
ucts has been found inconvenient in some cases because of its
strong green color, shy taste, and odor, as well as its powdery
consistency. All these aspects constitute main areas in need of
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improvement. The color effect may be disguised in products sim-
ilar to ravioli, but it has not been possible to disguise the taste and
odor of microalgae, therefore, limiting the amount to be used.
It must be mentioned that the degree of acceptability of
microalgae-based products seems to depend on the traditional diet
of the population where such a product is incorporated. While
Liang and others (2004) point out that in China, traditional prod-
ucts that incorporate microalgae are considered a avorful and
favorable trait, very appreciated by consumers, Becker (2007) has
found that the strong shy avor is a negative trait that limits the
acceptability of these food products with many people. In China
and other Asian countries, the use of microalgae is not a drastic
addition to food, since the traditional cuisine includes algae in
many preparations, and the substitution or addition of microalgae
is not a strong or noticeable change. In Western cultures, the op-
posite occurs; algae are not a commonly used ingredient or food;
therefore, microalgae constitute a very new and, in most cases, an
unacceptable addition to foods.
A different approach may be that of employing the microalgal
biomass as a source of biomolecules of interest, instead of using
the whole biomass, as was suggested by Gantar and Svir cev (2008).
Extracting bioactive molecules and compounds such as fatty acids,
pigments, and antioxidants, for use as additives in the food in-
dustry, is a reality that is gaining ground and becoming popular
in todays climate, as alternatives to the usual chemical additives
and supplementations. This approach is mainly taken by the cos-
metic and pharmaceutical industries, where the additional cost of
the extraction might not add signicantly to the nal price of
the product due to the relatively higher sale prices of those prod-
ucts, especially in the case of the newer nutraceutical and cosme-
ceutical lines.
With the newly developing increase in demand for more sophis-
ticated products, microalgal biomass and extracts are beginning to
position themselves rmly in this new market. In Germany, some
companies prominent in the production and commercialization of
food products have begun to involve themselves in activities re-
garding functional foods with microalgae and cyanobacteria, such
as bread, pasta, noodles, yogurt, and beverages. Pulz and Gross
(2004) report similar developments in France, Japan, the United
States, China, and Thailand.
In recent years, more and more scientists have begun to study
the feasibility of including microalgal biomass, pigments, and fats
into foods. To achieve this, creative and innovative solutions are
needed; here is where food scientists and engineers have the op-
portunity to create new and diverse products. A study that partially
substituted pork fat with oil from Schizochytrium spp. hoped to en-
rich dry fermented sausages with -3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
The results showed that a 25% substitution was not acceptable to
consumers, but at 15%supplied 1.30 g/100 g meat of DHA, which
was stable after 30 d storage under vacuum conditions (Valencia
and others 2007).
Spirulina has been a favorite ingredient in shakes and smooth-
ies for the so-called health enthusiasts, but these beverages are
not for everyone. Instead, smaller quantities of spirulina combined
with other ingredients capable of disguising its avor has allowed
the development of new and exciting products aimed at the mass
market. For example, in New Zealand, it is possible to nd Char-
lies Honest Superfood Smoothie Spirulina & Fruit. Coca-Colas
Odwalla brand carries an Odwalla Original Superfood Micronu-
trient Fruit Juice Drink label, with a great variety of fruit purees
and superfoods such as spirulina, wheat grass, barley grass, and
wheat sprouts. Naked juice by PepsiCo is a Naked Green Ma-
chine All Natural Superfood 100% Juice Smoothie with Spirulina
(Hudson 2008). All of these products tend to appeal to a health-
conscious audience and, more importantly, to children who are
often enticed by the unusual.
Natural colors are a growing segment of the food and cosmetic
industries, as synthetic colors have started to be replaced either
due to consumer request or by government demands. The global
volume consumption of natural colors increased from over 550000
metric tons in 2002 to over 600000 tons in 2008, with a further
5% increment expected by 2012 (Madden 2009). But there might
be some difculties regarding the supply of natural colors, since
the bulk is derived from fruits and vegetables, always subject to
climate, environmental, and even political uctuations. Therefore,
a shortage of produce will directly affect the availability of natural
colors; as demand becomes higher than supply, then prices will
be driven higher. Since nanotechnology may allow for a higher
bioavailability of pigments and, more interestingly, of those who
double as functional ingredients, this area of research is sure to
draw great interest among scientists and food technologists.
Microalgae can serve as a natural source for pigments, with the
possibility of year-round production in closed photobioreactors.
Scientists have studied the effects of solar radiation on pigment
content in microalgae (Wu and others 2005), nutrient effect over
pigment production (Ortega and others 2004), as well as supercrit-
ical extraction of pigments (Gouveia and others 2007b) and HPLC
analysis (van Leeuwe and others 2006). All microalgae contain a
large palette of pigments, some ranging from yellow to red, and
all the way to blue, many of which double as functional molecules
such as -carotene, -carotene, astaxanthin, violaxanthin, lutein,
phycocyanin, alloxanthin, neoxanthin, zeaxanthin, cryptoxanthin,
monadoxanthin, crocoxanthin, phycoerythrin, and others (Arad
and Yaron 1992; Dufoss e and others 2005).
Various studies conducted in Portugal (Gouveia and others
2006, 2007a, 2008a, 2008b), have opened real possibilities to
the inclusion of microalgal biomass as a pigment and functional
ingredient in food products. The incorporation of C. vulgaris
and Haematococcus pluvialis biomass in oil-in-water pea protein-
stabilized emulsions has resulted in good color stability, added
resistance to oxidation, and a good compromise in sensory qual-
ities. The 2nd paper refers to the use of C. vulgaris biomass as a
natural green pigment source in coloring Christmas cookies, with
good possibilities, as the green tonalities obtained in the study were
long lasting and acceptable to consumers. The 3rd paper also refers
to the possibilities of producing biscuits enriched with microalgal
biomass. In this case, Isochrysis galbana was used due to its content
in PUFA -3. The biscuits presented an enhancement of texture
properties, high stability of color and texture, and a good prole
of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
As a result of intensive research and as an example of industrial
application of microalga-based pigments, Nestle Rowntree rein-
troduced their blue Smarties back into the market after having
found in blue-green cyanobacteria a natural source of blue color-
ing (Crowley 2008). No details are available whether the company
is using whole biomass or a pigment extracted from it.
It is interesting to point out that, in spite of the fact that mi-
croalgae were and continue to be promoted as an important source
of protein, very few companies bank on this benet to boost their
sales. It could be that the amount of microalgal biomass currently
incorporated in food products does not constitute a good source of
protein; or it could be that the segment of population in dire need
of protein is not able to assume the cost, therefore little effort is
made to promote the concept. This constitutes a new challenge for
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Figure 4Challenges for food scientists and engineers.
food scientists and engineers around the world, shouldering social
responsibility, and helping to achieve popularity and production of
microalgal-based foods in such a way that this nutritional product
may adequately reach people of lower incomes, especially preg-
nant women, babies, and young children in poverty-stricken areas
around the world.
Suggested approaches to use microalgae in healthy foods
The situation as described earlier shows a highly favorable
panorama for the development of foods with high nutritional con-
tents and functional properties. It is necessary to take into account
that to achieve this important goal, many technological challenges
must be surpassed rst, especially regarding new technologies in
food engineering. Figure 4 displays some of the challenges that
are yet to be surpassed regarding microalgae production and use
in foods.
A solution to the strong avor of microalgae might reside in
the production of exotic-avored snacks and foods, with microal-
gae incorporated, along with the traditional Asian and Indian
spices, which will give the Western consumer a chance to accept
these new tastes along with the new products, instead of forcing
a new taste, color, and odor into well loved, everyday foods. Or,
maybe, more technical solutions are needed, such as encapsulation
of biomass to provide masking and improved rheological proper-
ties, or identication and removal of odor-producing compounds,
allowing an increase of concentration of microalgae in foods. Ul-
timately, it is left in the hands of scientists and food engineers to
nd the best solution.
But beside the avor of microalgae and its impact on prod-
uct acceptability, there are still many other aspects that need to
be resolved from a food engineers point of view, but necessarily
with help from other related disciplines. These aspects regard the
stability of the functional compounds found in microalgae and
their bioavailability according to their structure and the food ma-
trix where they are included, as well as considerations concerning
preservation, packaging, and shelf life.
An additional challenge for the preservation processes of mi-
croalgae biomass is that of effectively entering nonthermic process-
ing technologies, which could greatly contribute to a reduction
in costs compared to processes like freeze-frying, while helping
to maintain intact all the properties of the protein and the func-
tional biomolecules of interest. Such technologies would involve
cryoconcentration, microwaves, and high pressures.
The industrial production of microalgal biomass also presents
itself with the technical challenges to obtain higher yields, lower
energy consumption rates, higher biomass recoveries, and lower
production costs in closed photobioreactors. These challenges are
not new, and many investigators have been, and are, currently at
work to improve microalgal photobioreactor performances and
biomass recovery systems. It is of great importance to also con-
duct studies regarding used-up culture media. Water conservation
programs and agricultural programs might nd interest, if the used
culture media can be utilized for irrigation of traditional crops,
especially if there are compounds present that might be bene-
cial for the preservation of the land or the growth and quality of
crops.
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And last but not least, we are in need of adequate and com-
prehensive legislation and regulations regarding microalga-based
products, with the objective to provide guidelines for the food
industry and to assure consumers of their safety. Microalgae can
be perceived as a novelty food or ingredient, but they have the ca-
pability to become a staple food for consumers all over the world.
All that is needed is food scientists and engineers capable of taking
on the challenges.
Summary and Conclusions
Consumers around the world are moving toward functional
foods as a way to preserve and improve their well being. They are
beginning to search for not only low-fat and low-sugar products,
but also for foods considered as natural or with ingredients taken
from natural sources as opposed to synthetically produced ingre-
dients. Consumers are searching for food products that will help
them prevent and ght diseases, increase their energy and wellness,
and help them live longer, healthier, and productive lives. With
that in mind, food scientists can nd in microalgae a novel source
for wholesome food and bioactive ingredients.
Microalgae have been around forever, but only in the last
few decades have been produced and marketed as nutraceuticals
and food supplements. Their potential is so much greater than the
current applications. Genera such as Spirulina, Chlorella, Dunaliella,
Haematococcus, Schizochytrium, and Isochyris, have become popular
microalgal sources of protein-rich biomass and compounds, es-
pecially carotenoids, pigments, antioxidant extracts, and essential
fatty acids.
The acceptance of the use of microalgae biomass or
biomolecules extracted from it has resulted in the development
of various innovative food products enriched with microalgae or
their subproducts. Up to the moment, very few such products have
appeared in the health and natural sector shelves of stores across
Europe and Asia, therefore, there is still a very large untapped
opportunity in this food area.
There are still many and great challenges to be breached, but the
possibilities offered by these minuscule plant entities have many
scientists across the world searching for innovative solutions. One
of the biggest challenges is achieving energy- and cost-effective
production and recovery systems optimized for microalgae. This
involves achieving higher productivities and better recoveries of
the produced biomass.
Currently, the various production systems are either open or
closed photobioreactors. Open ponds or raceways such as those
used by Cyanotech and Earthrise Nutritionals in the United States
are used for species such as Spirulina that grow in a very se-
lective medium and in latitudes where weather conditions do
not vary signicantly during the year. In areas where weather
conditions vary to extremes, closed photobioreactors such as
tubular, at panel, air lift, and bubble column models are pre-
ferred, both to achieve a more consistent production of biomass
and bioactive compounds and for microalgae species that are
more susceptible to suffer contamination or invasion from other
microorganisms.
Another difculty faced in the production of microalgae is their
recovery and preservation, the low productivity of biomass signi-
es that the recovery systems need to manage efciently very large
volumes of medium with a very low concentration of biomass.
This alone constitutes a great challenge to engineers who very
often need to combine various recovery operations such as sedi-
mentation, otation, ltration, and centrifugation to recover and
then preserve the microalgae cells produced, so as to maintain the
protein quality of the biomass and the activity of other compounds
of interest to the food industry or others.
The challenges are not only for engineers, food scientists have
their own hurdles to overcome when it comes to the use of mi-
croalgae as food or as a source of ingredients for foods. These
include the not so attractive taste, odor, and color of microalgae
biomass that very likely will modify the sensory properties of all
foods prepared with them. Another challenge is arriving at a com-
prehensive legislative and regulatory oversight for the use of mi-
croalgae species and extracts obtained from their biomass in foods.
Only such governmental oversight will allow for a controlled and
safe expansion of microalgae-based products.
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Microalgae for Healthy FoodsPossibilities

doi: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00132.x Vol. 9, 2010

Microalgaepossibilities and challenges . . .

Microalgaepossibilities and challenges . . .

Microalgaepossibilities and challenges . . .

Microalgaepossibilities and challenges . . .

Microalgaepossibilities and challenges . . .

Borosilicate glass 3.3, with a diameter of 1.5 inches joined by

Microalgaepossibilities and challenges . . .

Microalgaepossibilities and challenges . . .

Microalgaepossibilities and challenges . . .

Microalgaepossibilities and challenges . . .

Alvarez PJ, Cifuentes A, Reglero G,

Alvarez PJ, Reglero

Microalgaepossibilities and challenges . . .

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