Arthuriana

Arthuriana
Early Arthurian Tradition and
the Origins of the Legend
Thomas Green
THE LINDES PRESS
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Louth% Lin&olnshire
'''(arthuriana(&o(u)
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ermission in 'riting of the Author(
A &atalogue re&ord for this !oo) is a.aila!le from the
/ritish Li!rary(
IS/N $0- , 112" ",,# 3
+ontents
Preface .ii
, The Histori&ity and Histori&isation of Arthur ,
" A /i!liograhi& Guide to the 4elsh Arthurian Literature 10
5 A Ga6etteer of Arthurian Onomasti& and Toograhi& Fol)lore -$
1 Lin&olnshire and the Arthurian Legend ,,0
2 Arthur and 7a&) the Giant89iller ,1,
a. 7a&) : Arthur; An Introdu&tion to 7a&) the Giant89iller ,15
b. The History of Jack and the Giants <,0-0= ,1-
c. The ,0,, Te>t of The History of Jack and the Giants ,33
d. Jack the Giant Kier; a c( ,-"# Penny /oo) ,00
e. Some Arthurian Giant89illings ,-5
3 ?is&ellaneous Arthuriana ,$,
a. An Arthurian FA@; Some FreAuently As)ed @uestions ,$5
b. The ?onstrous Regiment of Arthurs; A +riti&al Guide ,$$
c. An Arthurian Referen&e in !arwnad Gw"nB The ?anus&rit
E.iden&e E>amined
",0
d. The Other Early Arthurian +y&le; the Tale of Tristan and
Isolt
"""
e. ?yrddin : ?erlin; A Guide to the Early E.olution of the
?erlin Legend
"51
f. C/ut ArthurDs Gra.e is No'here SeenD; T'elfth8+entury and
Later Solutions to ArthurDs +urrent 4herea!outs
"5$
g. A /i!liograhi& Guide to the +hara&ters of the Pre8
Galfridian Arthurian Legend
"20
h. A Guide to Arthurian Ar&haeology "0,
.ii
Prefa&e
This !oo) &olle&ts together the a&ademi& and oular arti&les 'hi&h ha.e
aeared on my CArthurian Resour&esD 'e!site E www.arth#riana.co.#k $ sin&e
,$$-(
F
It has !een &reated in resonse to reAuests from readers for a rint
.ersion of the site% in order to ease !oth the reading and referen&ing of the
material ar&hi.ed thereG as su&h% the arti&les from the 'e!site are
rerodu&ed here 'ith the minimum of alteration% aside from some ne&essary
reformatting(
CThe Histori&ity and Histori&isation of ArthurD 'as the first ie&e to
aear on the 'e!siteG it ta)es the form of an e>tensi.e re.ie' arti&le 'hi&h
gathers together and &ritiAues s&holarshi on the sour&es for a Chistori&al
ArthurD( Although an u8to8date e>ansion% de.eloment and re.ision of
the .ie's resented there &an !e found in my %once&ts of Arth#r <Temus%
"##0=% the arti&le &ontinues to !e made a.aila!le due to its long indeendent
e>isten&e and the fa&t that has !een &ited in &urrent s&holarshi on the early
Arthurian legend% for e>amle in N( 7( Higham% King Arth#r, !yth'!aking
and History <Routledge% "##"=% and in N( 7( La&y <ed(=% The History of Arth#rian
(choarshi& </oydell% "##3=(
CA /i!liograhi& Guide to 4elsh Arthurian LiteratureD and CA Ga6etteer
of Arthurian Onomasti& and Toograhi& Fol)loreD reresent detailed
guides to their rese&ti.e toi&s( The first offers a dis&ussion of .irtually
e.ery ie&e of early 4elsh Arthurian literary material% in&luding an
indi&ation of its &ontent% re&ent s&holarshi% and the a.aila!ility of editions
and translations( The se&ond ro.ides a dis&ussion of the early e.iden&e for
Arthur and his &omanions aearing in lo&al toograhi& and onomasti&
fol)lore% along 'ith a detailed ga6etteer <'ith grid referen&es= of all su&h
items 'hi&h ta)e the form CArthurDs HD( In &ontrast% CLin&olnshire and the
Arthurian LegendD is a more se&ulati.e ie&e% a C'hat8ifD( If 'e were to ma)e
the assumtion that Arthur did a&tually e>ist% then 'ho might he ha.e !eenB
This ie&e attemts to ans'er this Auestion in light of re&ent a&ademi& 'or)
on !oth the Arthurian sour&es and the ar&haeology and history of ost8
Roman /ritain% !efore noting the essential &a.eats 'hi&h must a&&omany
any su&h Cidentifi&ationD(
The last t'o se&tions en&omass a num!er of different arti&les and
F The 'e!site 'as first lo&ated at www.#sers.gobanet.co.#k)*to+green)Arth#riana.ht+
!ut mo.ed to its &urrent lo&ation in "##,(
.iii
ie&es 'ithin them( CArthur and 7a&) the Giant89illerD !egins 'ith an
introdu&tion to the tale of 7a&) the Giant89iller and an analysis of the lin)s
!et'een this &hara&ter and the 4elsh and +ornish Cfol)lori&D Arthur( It then
goes on to in&lude trans&rits of se.eral early .ersions of 7a&)Ds tale and
e>amles of analogous Arthurian giant8)illings( Finally% C?is&ellaneous
ArthurianaD &onsists of a .ariety of more informal thoughts on Arthurian
issues 'hi&h ha.e aeared on the site o.er the last de&ade% along 'ith
ans'ers to some of the most &ommon Auestions(
All told% the &olle&tion ro.ides a guide to a signifi&ant roortion of the
early Arthurian legend and it is hoed that it 'ill !e found to !e of some
.alue( It should !e noted% in&identally% that no attemt has !een made to
harmonise the different referen&ing systems used !y the arti&les( Not only
'as it the aim of the resent 'or) to rerodu&e the 'e!site arti&les as
&losely as ossi!le% !ut the different methods of referen&ing do to some
degree refle&t the different aims of the ie&es% so that the !i!liograhi&
essays gi.e full referen&es% analyses use arentheti&al referen&es% and the
edited trans&rit of a ,0-0 &ha!oo) uses footnotes(
Thomas Green
O&to!er "##$
,
The Histori&ity and
Histori&isation of Arthur
5
The Histori&ity and Histori&isation of
Arthur
1. Introduction
?any different theories are a.aila!le as to the CidentityD of Arthur and some
!rief methodologi&al notes 'ill !e found here regarding the ma)ing of su&h
identifi&ations( 4hile these theories are interesting% they fail to address fully
one imortant Auestion E 'as there a histori&al ost8Roman ArthurB ?any
!oo)s% arti&les and 'e!8ages simly ma)e the a &riori assumtion that there
has to !e a histori&al figure !ehind the Arthurian legends( Su&h an
assumtion is totally unIustified( As anyone at all familiar 'ith medie.al
literature in general 'ill )no'% the histori&isation of non8histori&alJmythi&al
ersonages E often through asso&iation 'ith some imortant e.ent of the
ast E is not in any 'ay an unusual o&&urren&e( Some e>amles of this that
'ill ro!a!ly arti&ularly interest readers of this arti&le are Hengest and
Horsa% 'ho 'ere 9entish totemi& horse8gods histori&ised !y the eighth
&entury 'ith an imortant role in the fifth8&entury Anglo8Sa>on &onAuest of
eastern /ritain <see Tur.ille8Petre% ,$2580G 4ard% ,$3$G /roo)s% ,$-$G
Kor)e% ,$$5=G ?erlin <4elsh !yrddin=% 'ho 'as an eonymous founder8
figure deri.ed from the la&e8name %aer'fyrddin and histori&ised 'ith the
deeds of one Lailo)en <see 7arman% ,$$,=G and the Norse demigod
SigurdJSiegfried 'ho 'as histori&ised !y !eing asso&iated 'ith a famous
histori&al !attle !et'een the Huns and the /urgundians dated A(D( 150% in
the ,ibe#ngenied <Thomas% ,$$2; 5$#=(
,
Gi.en this% no a &riori Iudgements
&an !e made as to 'hether a figure is% in origin% histori&al% mythi&al or
fi&tional E ea&h indi.idual &ase must <and &an only= !e de&ided !y a &lose
e>amination of all the rele.ant material( 4hen 'e ha.e figures su&h as
Arthur !eing ortrayed as histori&al 'e are therefore% on a .ery !asi& le.el%
loo)ing at either a histori&al figure or a legendary figure 'ho !e&ame
histori&ised% 'ith neither e>lanation enIoying riority on a &riori grounds E
it must !e re&ognised that one &an only say that there has to ha.e !een a
histori&al Arthur on&e all the material has !een e.aluated and this has !een
sho'n to !e the &aseG there is no ossi!le Iustifi&ation for simly assuming
this( The follo'ing arti&le is intended to ro.ide a summary a&&ount and
!i!liograhy of the latest a&ademi& resear&h into Arthur 'ith a arti&ular
fo&us on the Auestion of histori&ity( Aside from the .arious arti&les and

1
!oo)s &ited% mu&h of 'hat is !elo' has !een dis&ussed in detail on the
dis&ussion list of the International Arthurian So&iety% Arth#rnet% in a
moderated de!ate that I had the great leasure of &hairing( The results of
this dis&ussion% in&luding all osted &omments% &an !e found in the
Arth#rnet ar&hi.es(
2. The Historical Arthur: an Analytical and Bibliographic Survey
Any inAuiry into the Chistori&alD Arthur must ro&eed from the sour&es( One
of the most imortant sour&es for the student of ost8Roman /ritain is
ar&haeology and% indeed% the &ase is sometimes made that it is our only
relia!le sour&e <see% for e>amle% Arnold% ,$-1=( 4hen loo)ing at ArthurDs
ossi!le histori&ity ho'e.er% ar&haeology &annot really hel as it deals 'ith
sites not eole E it &an sho' that a site 'as o&&uied in the right eriod
!ut only .ery rarely <that is% 'hen 'e ha.e an ins&rition= &an it tell us 'ho
the o&&uier 'as( The only ie&e of ar&haeologi&al data 'hi&h might ha.e
!een signifi&ant to the de!ate is the Glaston!ury &ross naming 9ing Arthur
as the o&&uant of the gra.e it 'as suosedly found in !y the mon)s of
Glaston!ury in ,,$,( Some ha.e suggested a mid8tenth8 or ele.enth8&entury
date for this <for e>amle% Radford% ,$3-G Al&o&)% ,$0,= !ut it is no' &lear
that it 'as the rodu&t of a late t'elfth8&entury fraud and deri.ati.e of
Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae, and thus of no use in the
sear&h for a histori&al Arthur <see Raht6% ,$$5G +arey% ,$$$G +arley% ,$$$G
Gransden% ,$03G (o+erset and /orset ,otes 0 1#eries for ,$-1G there 'as a
&oy of GeoffreyDs Historia at Glaston!ury from c( ,,0#( The early si>th8
&entury ins&ri!ed stone that has re&ently !een found at Tintagel does not
refer to Arthur% &ontrary to reorts !y English Heritage and the media=(
Gi.en the a!o.e% any &on&lusions regarding ArthurDs histori&ity% or la&)
thereof% must !e dra'n from the te>tual referen&es to him(
The 9ing Arthur 'e en&ounter in the later medie.al te>ts <and 'ith
'hi&h eole are often most familiar= is not the Arthur of earlier 'or)s E
shortly !efore A(D( ,,5$ Geoffrey of ?onmouth <Gafrid#s !one+#tensis=
&omleted his Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae <CHistory of the 9ings of /ritainD=
'hi&h glorified Arthur and made him an international 'arlord( This 'or)
Aui&)ly !e&ame influential throughout 'estern Euroe and affe&ted the
Arthurian legend in all areas 'ith the result that% in general% s&holars loo) to
sour&es 'ritten !efore GeoffreyDs Historia for the CoriginalD Arthur <that is% in
the Cre8GalfridianD sour&es=( One 'ell )no'n dissenter from this is
Geoffrey Ashe <,$-,G ,$-2G ,$$2= 'ho argues that Riotamus% a fifth8&entury
C)ingD of the /ritons 'ho &amaigned on the &ontinent% is the a&tual
histori&al rototye of Arthur and Geoffrey of ?onmouth dre' on this
tradition 'hen 'riting his +agn#+ o&#s( 4hile this theory is Auite oular it
2
is rightly dismissed !y a&ademi& &ommentators as nothing more than Cstra's
in the 'indD </rom'i&h et a% ,$$,; 3( See also Padel% ,$$1; 5,% n( ,,5G
Hanning% ,$$2G Padel% ,$$2= on the grounds that% 'hile Riotamus <or
/reton traditions a!out this figure= &ould !e the <artial= insiration for
GeoffreyDs &ortraya of Arthur% he has nothing at all in &ommon 'ith the
insular traditions of Arthur and thus &annot !e the rototye for Arthur as a
'hole <indeed% he doesnDt e.en ha.e the &orre&t name E Ashe e>lains this
!y saying that Riotamus 'as a title and Arthur 'as his real name !ut a
re&ent re.ie'er <Padel% ,$$2= has sho'n this to !e untena!le=( The a!o.e
means that the histori&al Arthur% if he e>isted% 'ill !e found in the re8
Galfridian te>ts and it is to these 'e must no' turn(
The re8Galfridian sour&es for Arthur &an !e most &on.eniently read in
+oe and Koung <,$$2=% 'hi&h ro.ides fa&ing te>t and translation( Some
earlier historians% su&h as 7ohn ?orris <,$05=% tried to ma)e use of% as
histori&al te>ts% all the sour&es 'hi&h mentioned Arthur in&luding% for
e>amle% the SaintsD Li.es and late oetry( This tenden&y has !een &orre&tly
and hea.ily &riti&ised !y Da.id Dum.ille <,$00a=% amongst others% mainly
!e&ause these sour&es &annot !e seen as in any 'ay histori&ally relia!le E 'e
are therefore% 'hen loo)ing at a ossi!ly histori&al Arthur and in the light of
Dum.illeDs &omments% essentially &onfined to four ie&es of e.iden&e 'hi&h
might &ontain information of real histori&al .alue; the Annaes %a+briae
<Phillimore% ,---G ?orris% ,$-#=G the Historia .ritton#+ <?orris% ,$-#G
Dum.ille% ,$-2G 9o&h and +arey% ,$$2=G the &olle&tion of heroi& death8
songs )no'n as 2 Gododdin <7a&)son% ,$3$G 7arman% ,$--G 9o&h% ,$$0=G and
the four or fi.e o&&urren&es of the name Arthur in si>th8 and se.enth8
&entury &onte>ts </ar!er% ,$0"G /rom'i&h ,$0283G +oe and Koung% ,$$2;
,23832=(
Dealing 'ith the last of these first% the o&&urren&e of four <or ossi!ly
fi.e= eole named CArthurD in si>th8 and se.enth8&entury 'estern S&otland
and 4ales has often !een seen as one of the !est ie&es of e.iden&e for a
histori&al Arthur E the argument is% essentially% that the aearan&e of these
names refle&ts the &ommemoration of an earlier histori&al figure <see% for
e>amle% +had'i&) and +had'i&)% ,$5"=(
"
Ho'e.er su&h a
&ommemoration !y name of an earlier histori&al hero 'ould !e totally
unaralleled in the +elti& 'orld and as su&h &annot !e at all suorted as an
e>lanation of these names <see /rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,0-80$=( Thus these
names &annot !e used as e.iden&e for a histori&al Arthur and as long as 'e
&ontinue to see Arthur as genuinely histori&al they are li)ely to remain a
lasting &ru> <at resent there is only one .ia!le e>lanation of these names%
that roosed !y Oli.er Padel <,$$1; "1= E see !elo' on this( It is 'orth
noting that none of these CArthursD &an !e seen as the CoriginalD Arthur% &ace
/ar!er% ,$0" E see /rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,0$G 7a&)son% ,$05G Ro!erts% ,$0581=(
The se&ond sour&e for &onsideration is the &olle&tion of heroi& death8
songs )no'n as 2 Gododdin% relating to a !attle fought in the late si>th

3
&entury( In re&ent years there has !een &onsidera!le de!ate o.er the
statement in 2 Gododdin that Gordur Cfed !la&) ra.ens on the ramart of a
fort% although he 'as no ArthurD </(5-( 9o&h <,$$0= num!ers this /L(5-=(
Thomas +harles8Ed'ards <,$$,; ,1=% !uilding on his theory of te>tual
transmission <set forth in +harles8Ed'ards% ,$0-=% &on&luded that% as the
referen&e only o&&urs in the / .ersion and not the A .ersion of 2 Gododdin%
it need !e no older than the ninth or tenth &entury( Re&ently% ho'e.er%
9o&h <,$$0= has attemted a Cre&onstru&tionD of the CoriginalD te>t of 2
Gododdin and in&ludes the CArthurianD referen&e in this te>t% dated !y him to
re8A(D( 35-( 4hilst his is &ertainly an interesting e>er&ise in dis&o.ering
ho' 2 Gododdin might ha.e loo)ed if it 'as of si>th8 or se.enth8&entury
date% the limitations of this Cre&onstru&tionD must !e re&ognised( As one
re.ie'er has noted% 9o&hDs te>t is% in reality% a transation of 2 Gododdin into
the language of c. A(D( 3## and in this it must !e seen in the same light as
7armanDs earlier translation of this te>t into modern 4elsh <7arman% ,$--= E
9o&h has not sho'n that 2 Gododdin 'as &omosed in this eriod% only
'hat it might ha.e loo)ed li)e if it had !een <Padel% ,$$-=( Indeed% Isaa& has
demonstrated that 9o&hDs 'hole theory of the &reation and transmission of
2 Gododdin% in&luding the idea that /L reresents the Mr8te>t% &annot !e at all
suorted <Isaa&% ,$$$=( Similar &a.eats ha.e !een sho'n to aly to
9o&hDs Cre&onstru&tionD of the oem Gweith Gwen 2strat% 'ith Isaa&
demonstrating that 'hilst one &an underta)e su&h a e>er&ise and sho' ho'
this oem 'ould ha.e loo)ed if it had !een &omosed c. A(D( 3##% su&h a
re&onstru&tion is entirely un'arranted and there is no reason to thin) that
the te>t 'as &omosed in this eriod <Isaa&% ,$$-=( Gi.en the a!o.e% it
seems &lear that% desite 9o&hDs assertions% CNtOhe date of &omosition Nof 2
GododdinO remains as un&lear as e.erD <Padel% ,$$-; 22=( Indeed Isaa& <,$$3G
,$$$= has re&ently follo'ed D( Simon E.ans <,$0-= in arguing that there is
no linguisti& e.iden&e that 'ould ne&essitate dating 2 Gododdin as a 'hole
!efore the ninth or tenth &entury and% in light of all of this% +harles8
Ed'ardsD &omments on the antiAuity of the Arthurian referen&es in this te>t
must stand(
Turning to the CArthurianD awd <Cstan6aD= of 2 Gododdin% ho' does this
referen&e affe&t the Auestion of ArthurDs histori&ity% gi.en that Arthur only
aears as a &omarison to a 'arrior of <suosedly= the late si>th &enturyB
One &ommon argument is that in 'or)s su&h as 2 Gododdin the figures
named are al'ays !elie.ed to !e histori&al and therefore the Arthurian awd
'ould seem to indi&ate that !y the ninth or tenth &entury Arthur 'as
!elie.ed to ha.e !een a histori&al ersonage% at least !y the author of 2
Gododdin <see 7arman% ,$-$8$#G /rom'i&h et a% ,$$,=( 4hilst suerfi&ially
&on.in&ing% there are &onsidera!le ro!lems 'ith su&h a Iudgement( First%
the simle fa&t of the matter is that 'e &an only identify a fe' of the
&hara&ters that aear in early 4elsh heroi& oetryG many of the eole in
the oems aear only there% so that 'e ha.e no )no'ledge of 'hether they
0
'ere <or 'ere thought to !e= histori&al or not E it is an assumtion% nothing
more% that e.eryone in these oems 'as a real histori&al figure and as su&h
'e &annot ta)e ArthurDs resen&e in 2 Gododdin as e.iden&e either for his
histori&ity or a !elief in his histori&ity( Se&ond% the assumtion may 'ell not
ha.e a sound !asis as Ro'land has re&ently noted that the eole 'ho
aear in these 'or)s <and are re&ognisa!le= are neary all histori&al figures%
that Gereint li)e +ost of the heroes identifia!le in this tye of oetry is a
histori&al figure <Ro'land% ,$$#=( Gi.en this% there is no reason for ma)ing
any su&h assumtions( Third% in 2 Gododdin Arthur is in the remar)a!le
osition of aearing Conly not to aearD <Padel% ,$$1; ,1=( Mnli)e Gordur
or the other 'arriors he is not a&tually resent at the !attle; CIn the allusion%
Arthur is resented as the unri.alled aragon of martial .alour and is thus
used to form a highly unusual &omarison !y rendering e>li&itly inferior
the honorand of the awd <Pstan6aQ=( Therefore% if the rele.ant awd and lines
&an !e sustained as AneirinDs original% this 'ould tell us that !y the later
si>th &entury there e>isted in North /ritain a tradition of a /rittoni&
suerhero Arthur(((D <9o&h% ,$$3; "1"=( 4hilst 'e might not !e a!le to
a&&et 9o&hDs assertions on dating% 'e &an say that Arthur is essentially a
Chighly unusual &omarisonD% not a 'arrior 'ho is !eing honouredG he is not
en.isaged as !eing resent at the !attle and he is a military CsuerheroD%
someone to 'hose heights of .alour not e.en a man 'ho )illed 5## in one
rush &ould &omare( He is therefore in a different league to the rest of the
figures 'ho aear in 2 Gododdin and% as su&h% there is no reason to thin)
that assumtions dra'n from the identifi&ations of a fe' &hara&ters in the
te>t as a 'hole% e.en if they 'ere .ia!le% 'ould aly to him( All the 2
Gododdin referen&e tells us is that Arthur 'as seen% !y the ninth or tenth
&entury% as Cthe imossi!le &omarisonD <Padel% ,$$1; ,1=% a CsuerheroD to
'hom not e.en the greatest li.ing 'arrior &ould &omareG it does not tell us
'hether this refle&ts a mythi&al CsuerheroD named Arthur or a histori&al
Arthur mythi&ised and Arthur is% in the te>t% in no 'ay asso&iated 'ith the
defen&e of ost8Roman /ritain or any se&ifi& eriod of history(
5
In light of the fa&t that neither of the a!o.e &an hel in the in.estigation
of ArthurDs ossi!le Chistori&ityD% the &ase for a histori&al Arthur rests entirely
on t'o sour&es% the Historia .ritton#+ and the Annaes %a+briae% !oth of
'hi&h 'ould aear to ha.e a &on&et of Arthur that is <at least artly=
uneAui.o&ally histori&al( The Historia .ritton#+ 'as 'ritten anonymously in
A(D( -"$J5#% the as&rition to one CNenniusD no' !eing regarded as false
<Dum.ille% ,$01G ,$0283% though see Field% ,$$3=( There is &onsidera!le
de!ate o.er the nature of the te>t <see% for e>amle% Dum.ille% ,$-3G
+harles8Ed'ards% ,$$,G Dum.ille% ,$$1G 9o&h% ,$$0G Ho'lett% ,$$-= !ut it
no' seems &lear that the 'riter of the Historia 'as not an ignorant and
in&ometent &omiler 'ho simly Cmade a heaD of earlier sour&es !ut
rather an CauthorD 'ho 'rote the Historia .ritton#+ 'ith a unity of stru&ture
and outloo) and engaged in the a&ti.e ro&essing of his sour&es% and this

-
&on&lusion is endorsed !y the resear&hes of Da.id Ho'lett 'ho sees the
Historia as a 'or) of ar&hite&toni& genius ma)ing use of the sohisti&ated
C/i!li&al styleD in its &onstru&tion <Ho'lett% ers( &omm(G ,$$-; &hater 2(
For the +elti&8Latin tradition of /i!li&al style see Ho'lett% ,$$2=(
Gi.en the a!o.e% 'e must Auestion to 'hat e>tent the author altered his
sour&es for his o'n uroses% 'hat 'ere the nature of his sour&es% and thus
ho' far &an 'e trust 'hat 'e read in the HistoriaB Dum.ille <,$-3= too) a
.ery essimisti& line on this% arguing that it 'as a sour&e only for the ninth
&entury and its &on&erns( 4hile this .ie' has !een &hallenged !y Thomas
+harles8Ed'ards <,$$,=% 'ho identifies the Historia as a fusion of the t'o
histori&al genres% historia gentis and historia eccesiastica% it is still &learly the &ase
that Ce.en 'here &redit might !e gi.en to the suosed sour&e Nof a se&tion
of the HistoriaO% the authorDs methods((( do not en&ourage us to !e &onfident
a!out the ossi!ility of re&o.ering usa!le information a!out the eriod
'hose history he 'as narrating( His ro&edures 'ere syntheti& and
interreti.e% his sour&es o.er'helmingly non8&ontemoraneous 'ith the
e.ents 'hi&h they urort to des&ri!eD <Dum.ille% ,$$1; 1,$=(
1
As su&h the
Historia is of .ery du!ious histori&al .alue% for e>amle% in addition to many
of its sour&es !eing of a similar date to itself and suse&t in nature% the
Historia &an !e sho'n to ortray &hara&ters 'ho are de&idedly mythi&al in
origin% su&h as Hengest and Horsa <see Tur.ille8Petre% ,$2580G 4ard% ,$3$G
/roo)s% ,$-$G Kor)e% ,$$5=% as genuinely histori&al( Indeed% as a num!er of
re&ent &ommentators ha.e re&ognised% the Historia .ritton#+ is in fa&t a
syn&hronising and syntheti& history of the tye 'ell )no'n from medie.al
Ireland% fusing sour&es for its o'n oliti&al ends and in.ol.ed in the
&reation of a full national seudo8history% a ro&ess 'hi&h 'as &losely allied
'ith the histori&ising of legend <Padel% ,$$1; "5G +arey% ,$$1G Dum.ille%
,$$1G +oe and Koung% ,$$2; 3=( Dire&tly rele.ant to this Auestion of the
Chistori&al .alueD of the Historia .ritton#+ is the fa&t that the author of the
Historia 'as not 'riting ChistoryD as 'e )no' it today !ut 'as rather
engaging in something more a)in to that 'hi&h 'e 'ould &all sermonising%
and this must !e remem!ered in any analysis of the Historia( To try and read
su&h 'or)s as the Historia as linear history is &omletely false to the
methods and assumtions 'ith 'hi&h they 'ere &omosed <see Hanning%
,$33G Ho'lett% ,$$-G N( Hinton% ers( &omm(=(
This leads us to +hater 23 of the Historia .ritton#+% 'hi&h &ontains the
referen&es to a Chistori&alD Arthur( This is Ca seudo8histori&al a&&ount of a
susi&iously formulai& list of t'el.e !attles against Germani& in.adersD <+oe
and Koung% ,$$2; 3=% suosedly fought !y Arthur( Some ha.e suggested
<for e>amle% +had'i&) and +had'i&)% ,$5"G 7ones% ,$31= that +hater 23
&ould ha.e !een !ased on a oem 'ritten in 4elsh that 'as translated into
Latin !y the author of the Historia( 4hilst this is an interesting suggestion it
has to !e re&ognised that su&h a notion is se&ulation and it does not allo'
$
us to gi.e this se&tion of the Historia an early date( Indeed% .arious
&onsiderations indi&ate that any su&h hyotheti&al oem 'ould date to
mu&h the same eriod as the Historia any'ay <see 7a&)son% ,$1283; 20G
7a&)son% ,$2$a; 08-G Dum.ille% ,$00a; ,--G 7arman% ,$-,; "85G Dum.ille%
,$-3; ,58,1G +harles8Ed'ards% ,$$,; ",8"$G Padel% ,$$1=(
2
Furthermore it
must not !e forgotten that% 'ith the 'riter of the Historia .ritton#+ no'
seen as an author a&ti.ely maniulating his te>t to &reate a syntheti& seudo8
history rather than a simle &omiler% +hater 23 'as% to some large e>tent%
his &reation( This is underlined !y Ho'lettDs <,$$-; &hater 2= dis&o.ery that
this se&tion is 'ritten in the highly &omle> C/i!li&al styleD% sho'ing that
+hater 23 'as an integral art of the Historia that 'as &reated% engineered
and lanned !y the author in a&&ordan&e 'ith his aims and methodology(
As su&h the notion that +hater 23 might reresent anything li)e a
ostulated earlier sour&e in&ororated !odily into the te>t of the Historia &an
!e reIe&ted( Instead it seems &lear that this &hater% along 'ith its &on&et of
Arthur% &annot !e searated from the Historia as a 'hole% the aims%
methodology% unity of stru&ture and outloo) 'ith 'hi&h this 'as &reated%
or% indeed% the general &omments of Dum.ille and others on the nature of
the Historia and its sour&es noted a!o.e <see further Hanning% ,$33G /ar!er%
,$0"; ,#,ff(G +harles8Ed'ards% ,$$,; ",ff( on +hater 23 as an integral and
inseara!le art of the Historia=( The !est 'e &an therefore honestly say is
that in the Historia .ritton#+% a sour&e of .ery du!ious histori&al .alue
<'hi&h &an !e sho'n to ortray mythi&al figures as genuinely histori&al=% 'e
ha.e e.iden&e for the idea that Arthur 'as a histori&al figure !eing &urrent
!y A(D( -"$J5# at the latest(
Our last sour&e% the Annaes %a+briae% 'as &omiled in $2#s and is
sometimes seen as ro.iding good e.iden&e for Arthur !eing a histori&al
figure <see Gra!o's)i and Dum.ille% ,$-1 for the dating( Studies and
&ommentaries on the te>t in&lude 7ones% ,$31G Al&o&)% ,$0,G Hughes% ,$-#G
Gra!o's)i and Dum.ille% ,$-1G Dum.ille% ,$$#G +harles8Ed'ards% ,$$,
and 9o&h% ,$$3( Dum.ille aarently has a ne' study of the Annaes
forth&oming=( It mentions Arthur in t'o entries; that for A(D( 2,3 'hi&h
tells of the C!attle of /adon% in 'hi&h Arthur &arried the &ross of our Lord
7esus +hrist on his shoulders for three days and three nights% and the
/ritons 'ere the .i&torsD and that for A(D( 250 &on&erning Cthe !attle of
+amlann% in 'hi&h Arthur and ?edraut fellD( In assessing the .alue of these
entries% &onsidera!le attention should !e aid to the date of these annals(
7ones <,$31= and Al&o&) <,$0,= 'ere !oth in&lined to see at least one of
these annals as a &ontemorary re&ord of Arthur and% if it &ould !e
a&&eted% su&h a &on&lusion 'ould Cro.eD ArthurDs histori&ity( Ho'e.er%
Hughes <,$-#= in her imortant and e>tensi.e studies of the Annaes rea&hed
a rather different <and &on.in&ing= &on&lusion% and this has !een !uilt uon
!y Dum.ille <in Gra!o's)i and Dum.ille% ,$-1= and +harles8Ed'ards
<,$$,= E the Annaes %a+briae to 3,5 is !asi&ally a .ersion of the C+hroni&le

,#
of IrelandD% 'ith the se&tions from 3,5 to 000 !eing !ased on North /ritish
materialsG there is a!solutely no Iustifi&ation for thin)ing that any of the re8
3,5 /ritish entries are dra'n from &ontemorary or e.en near8
&ontemorary sour&es and% rather% they should !e seen as retrose&ti.e
interolations dating from !et'een the .ery late eighth &entury <the eriod
in 'hi&h the C+hroni&le of IrelandD 'as first !rought together 'ith the ost8
3,5 North /ritish materials at St Da.idDs in order to e>tend !a&)'ards a
&hroni&le )et !y that &ommunity from the &losing years of the eighth
&entury on'ards= and the mid8tenth &entury <'hen the Annaes rea&hed
something li)e its final form=( Indeed% in light of Dum.illeDs further
resear&hes into the date of this !ringing together% the a!o.e ter+in#s &ost
3#e+ for the interolations might 'ell !e shifted for'ard to the early8mid8
tenth &entury(
Loo)ing at the annals themsel.es% one .ery imortant oint must !e
made; the /adon entry in the Annaes is not an indeendent 'itness to
ArthurDs histori&ity( Instead it is &learly related to the Historia .ritton#+Ds
a&&ount <+hater 23= of ArthurDs eighth !attle at G#innion +astle% in 'hi&h
Arthur &arries an i&on on his shoulders into !attle 'ith him% and as su&h the
Annaes a&&ount either deri.es from the Historia .ritton#+ or its sour&e(
Thomas +harles8Ed'ards has suggested <,$$,; "28"-= that they !e seen as
dual ela!orations of single original% the entry in neither &ase !eing .ery
mu&h older than the te>t it is &ontained in <-"$J5# for the Historia and the
$2#s for the Annaes=( Ho'e.er% a more &on.in&ing e>lanation has !een
ro.ided !y 7ohn 9o&h( 9o&h o!ser.es that !oth the Historia .ritton#+ and
the Annaes %a+briae ha.e the ro!a!le &onfusion of Old 4elsh sc#it CshieldD
and sc#id CshoulderD in them and notes that Cthat error of transmission is
hardly li)ely to ha.e &ome a!out t'i&eD( He goes on to say that CIn all details%
the Annaes %a+briae entry is more easily understood as deri.ed from
Historia .ritton#+Ds a&&ountD% 'hi&h 'ould aear to !e the most ro!a!le
s&enario on the resent e.iden&e and is sound e.en 'ithout the suort of
the sc#it)d &onfusion <see 9o&h% ,$$3; "2"825 for dis&ussionG also /ar!er%
,$0"; ,#2=( Similarly the se&ond entry regarding +amlann is !est .ie'ed as
non8traditional and as ha.ing mid8tenth8&entury origins <see +harles8
Ed'ards% ,$$,; "28"0% "-G Ashe% ,$-3; 0380-G 4ood% ,$-,; 2$83#G
/rom'i&h% ,$0-a; 1-0G 7arman% ,$-5; ,#$=% 'ith the &onseAuen&e that the
Annaes %a+briae &annot really !e seen to !e of any indeendent .alue in
ma)ing the &ase for a Chistori&al ArthurD( As a result 'e are for&ed to return
to the te>t of the Historia .ritton#+(
4hilst general &omments on +hater 23 of the Historia .ritton#+ ha.e
!een made% a more detailed e>amination of the information &ontained
'ithin it may ro.e enlightening( It is easy to assume that all the !attles
mentioned in +hater 23 'ere remem!ered as !eing those fought !y Arthur
!ut su&h assumtions may 'ell !e in&orre&t( Perhas the most famous
,,
CArthurianD !attle is that of /adon <in +ontis badonis= !ut the referen&e to this
has serious ro!lems( It has long !een a&&eted that this is the same !attle
as the obsessio .adonici +ontis of GildasDs /e E4cidio .ritanniae R "3 <see
4inter!ottom% ,$0- for an edition and translation( The date of u!li&ation
of this 'or)% and thus the date of /adon% has !een mu&h dis&ussed E see for
e>amle ?iller% ,$02G ODSulli.an% ,$0-G Sims84illiams% ,$-5G Laidge and
Dum.ille <edd(=% ,$-1G Higham% ,$$1G Ho'lett% ,$$-=
3
and one of the
arguments against ArthurDs histori&ity has al'ays !een that Gildas fails to
mention Arthur in his referen&e to the !attle(
0
It is usually &ountered <as
7a&)son ,$2$a= that he 'as deli!erately omitted% either !e&ause Gildas didnDt
aro.e of him or !e&ause his &ontri!ution to the .i&tory 'as too 'ell
)no'n% !ut re&ent 'or) suggests that the reason Arthur 'as not mentioned
'as indeed !e&ause he 'as not asso&iated 'ith the !attle 'hen Gildas
'rote( Rather than not naming anyone as the /ritish leader at /adon% Gildas
does indeed assign /adon a .i&tor E Am!rosius Aurelianus( The idea that
this figure 'as the true .i&tor has !een re.iously dismissed on the grounds
that the manus&rit </ritish Li!rary% +otton Sitellius A(.i= imlies a maIor
inter.al !et'een Am!rosius and /adon( Oli.er Padel has returned to the
original manus&rit ho'e.er and has !een a!le to sho' that the !rea)
e.ident in 4inter!ottomDs edition <,$0-= has no manus&rit authority and
rather that ?ount /adon no' Creads naturally as the .i&tory that &ro'ned
the &areer of Am!rosius AurelianusD <Padel% ,$$1; ,38,- at ( ,0( For further
.ery good reasons to dou!t the attri!ution of /adon to Arthur see 7ones%
,$31G /rom'i&h% ,$0-a; "03G /rom'i&h et a% ,$$,; 581( There seems to !e
good e.iden&e for the e>isten&e of traditions a!out /adon 'hi&h did not
asso&iate it 'ith Arthur E see /rom'i&h% ,$0-a=( This is all% of &ourse% of the
utmost signifi&an&e as it further undermines our faith in the CtraditionsD
re&orded in the Historia .ritton#+ E it seems .ery ro!a!le that in the &ase of
/adon 'e are seeing a !attle that had originally !een fought !y another
leader !eing attri!uted to Arthur !y the ninth &entury <It is interesting to
note that this &on&lusion has also re&ently !een rea&hed E aarently
'ithout )no'ledge of PadelDs 'or) E !y 4oods <,$$$; 5185-= 'ho% li)e
Padel% returns to the original manus&rit and finds the un8edited te>t &learly
indi&ating that Gildas sa' /adon as !eing 'on !y Am!rosius=( This
tenden&y 'ould aear not to !e restri&ted to the !attle of /adon E similar
&ases &an !e made for the ele.enth% ninth and se.enth !attles <see 7a&)son%
,$1283G 7a&)son% ,$1$G /rom'i&h ,$0283 and Padel% ,$$1; ,-8,$=( The other
!attles are largely unidentifia!le%
-
though the tenth% the C!attle on the !an)
of a ri.er 'hi&h is &alled Tri!ruitD% is re&orded else'here in .ery early
sour&es as a traditional !attle against 'ere'ol.es% thus &asting further dou!t
on the HistoriaDs .alueG similarly a good &ase &an !e made for seeing %at %oit
%eidon in +hater 23 as the entirely mythi&al !attle of trees re&orded in the
ar&hai& oem from the /oo) of Taliesin% Kat Gode#(
Other elements 'ithin the !ody of +hater 23 aear similarly suse&t(

,"
For e>amle% Hanning <,$33; ,,$8"#= and +harles8Ed'ards <,$$,; "18"2
and "-= ha.e rese&ti.ely sho'n that !oth the num!er of !attles and the
referen&e to Arthur as d#4 beor#+ 'ould seem to refle&t the needs of the
author of the Historia rather than any ostulated earlier sour&e( 4hether or
not all of the a!o.e &on&lusions regarding the identifi&ation of the !attles
are a&&eted it &an !e said% !ringing all this together% that in the Historia
.ritton#+, our only really usa!le sour&e for a Chistori&alD Arthur% 'e ha.e a
te>t 'hi&h &annot !e at all relied uon to re8date the ninth &entury and the
&ontents of 'hi&h &an !e des&ri!ed as !eing% at the .ery least% suse&t E as
su&h it &an tell us .irtually nothing &ertain a!out any ossi!le Chistori&alD
Arthur( Indeed% the 'hole ortrayal of Arthur in the Historia .ritton#+ might
!e seen to refle&t the needs and aims of the ninth8&entury author rather than
genuinely an&ient tradition% as 'e might e>e&t gi.en the nature of the te>t
as a 'hole <see Hanning% ,$33G Dum.ille% ,$-3G +harles8Ed'ards% ,$$,; ",8
"$G Dum.ille% ,$$1G +oe and Koung% ,$$2; 380G Ho'lett% ,$$-=( The failure
of the Historia as a sour&e of information regarding any histori&al Arthur and
the &onseAuent intangi!ility of this Chistori&alD Arthur is a fa&t 'hi&h has
often !een remar)ed uon; as Dum.ille has 'ritten% CThis is not the stuff of
'hi&h history &an !e madeD <,$00a; ,--( See further 7a&)son% ,$1283G
7a&)son% ,$2$aG 7ones% ,$31G /rom'i&h% ,$0182G Dum.ille% ,$00aG +harles8
Ed'ards% ,$$,G Padel% ,$$1% and also Dum.illeDs <,$$1= &omments on the
Historia as a 'hole=(
4hat then of the &ase for ArthurDs histori&ityB It should !e o!.ious that%
e.en 'hen 'e restri&t oursel.es to the !est sour&es for a Chistori&alD Arthur%
as dis&ussed a!o.e% 'e &an &ome to no solid &on&lusions regarding
histori&ity( The four o&&urren&es of the name Arthur in southern S&otland
and southern 4ales in the si>th and se.enth &enturies &annot !e seen as
e.iden&e for a histori&al ArthurG indeed they defy interretation if 'e ha.e a
histori&al Arthur( The 2 Gododdin referen&e &learly refle&ts a ninth8 or tenth8
&entury <and ossi!ly earlier= &on&et of Arthur as a military CsuerheroD !ut
this &on&et of Arthur &ould result either from a mythi&al figure !eing used
as Cthe imossi!le &omarisonD or a histori&al figure !eing mythi&ised as a
aragon of .alour E thus this referen&e &annot hel us to rea&h any solid
&on&lusions( The &ase for a histori&al Arthur must therefore !e !ased on
only t'o sour&es% the Historia .ritton#+ and the Annaes %a+briae% and neither
of these &an !e seen as a relia!le 'itness to histori&ity% !oth !eing late in
date and suse&t in &ontent% 'ith the latter .ery ro!a!ly !eing deri.ati.e of
the former and the former !eing a syntheti& seudo8history )no'n to
ortray mythi&al figures as histori&al E as su&h% these sour&es &annot in any
'ay ro.e that there 'as a histori&al fifth8Jsi>th8&entury Arthur and no
&ontemorary or near8&ontemorary sour&e ma)es any mention of him(
$
The !est 'e &an say is that there e>isted !y the ninth8&entury at the latest a
&on&et of Arthur as a histori&al figureG our sour&es are simly not of the
Auality that 'ould allo' us to &ome to any firmer &on&lusion than this(
,#
,5
Against this 'e ha.e to set the e.iden&e for the e>isten&e of a &on&et of
Arthur as a legendary figure( 4hate.er else 'e might say a!out it% 2
Gododdin <and% it might !e added% !arwnad %ynddyan= .ery &learly ossesses a
&on&et of Arthur as a mythi&al CsuerheroD% not a histori&al figure( Similarly
in the Historia .ritton#+% the earliest sour&e to ortray Arthur as Chistori&alD%
Arthur aears not only in the Chistori&alD light of +hater 23 !ut also in a
manifestly legendary fol)lori& light in +hater 05 <an imortant oint that is
too often o.erloo)ed% arti&ularly as the legends re&orded here are
&onsidered to re8date the ninth &entury% see /rom'i&h and E.ans% ,$$";
l>.i=% and this same &on&et of Arthur as a mythi&al hero is found in a
num!er of other early sour&es% su&h as the eighth8&entury Preide# Annwfyn
<Padel% ,$$1G 9o&h% ,$$3; "35832% et&(( See further !elo'=( Gi.en this% a
&on&et of Arthur as a figure of myth and legend &an !e demonstrated to !e
resent as early as <and% indeed% earlier than= a &on&et of Arthur as a
histori&al figure( Here 'e must return to the methodologi&al &omments
made at the !eginning of this study( As 'as there noted% there are numerous
e>amles of mythi&al or fi&tional figures !eing histori&ised% often in
asso&iation 'ith some imortant e.ent of the ast% and &onseAuently Cno a
&riori Iudgements &an !e made as to 'hether a figure is% in origin% histori&al%
mythi&al or fi&tional E ea&h indi.idual &ase must <and &an only= !e de&ided
!y a &lose e>amination of all the rele.ant material(D Ea&h of these
ossi!ilities is eAually as li)ely to !e true% on a &riori grounds% as the othersG
the !urden of roof lies 'ith all sides( In the a!sen&e of su&h roof 'e
simly &annot assume E in the Cno smo)e 'ithout fireD mould E that one
e>lanation of figures su&h as Arthur enIoys riority o.er the others; it does
not( Thus 'hilst the a!o.e Clegendary ArthurD might !e the result of a
histori&al figure !eing mythi&ised% it is at least eAually as li)ely that% in the
a!sen&e of good e.iden&e either 'ay% the a!o.e Chistori&al ArthurD 'as a
result of a legendary figure !eing histori&ised <it is erhas 'orth noting
'ith regards to this that the Cro&ess of histori&ising legends 'as a
'idesread feature of +elti& literary a&ti.ity in the ?iddle AgesD <Padel%
,$$1; "5==(
Hen&e in ans'er to the Auestion C4as there a histori&al ArthurBD% the
sour&es !eing Auestioned <i.e. the Historia .ritton#+ and the Annaes %a+briae=
&an only ans'er Cerhas% may!eD E they &annot say Cno there 'asnDtD for
o!.ious reasons !ut eAually they &annot say Cyes there 'asD; the nature and
Auality of the sour&es for a Chistori&alD Arthur is Auite simly su&h that they
neither sho' nor demand a histori&al figure to lie !ehind them and 'e most
definitely &annot assume one in the a!sen&e of this( 4hilst it is ossi!le that
+hater 23 of the Historia refle&ts% to some e>tent% the distorted !ut genuine
traditions of a Chistori&al ArthurD% it is at least eAually as li)ely% gi.en the
nature of our sour&es% their &laims to relia!ility and the fa&t that a &on&et
of Arthur as a mythi&al hero e>isted from at least the eighth &entury% that
the oosite is true and that these referen&es simly refle&t a legendary

,1
figure <su&h as that of +hater 05 of the Historia= histori&ised !y the ninth
&entury( Arthur &ould 'ell !e a mythi&al figure ortrayed as histori&al !y the
author of the Historia .ritton#+ in Iust the same 'ay as Hengest and Horsa
'ere mythi&al figures ortrayed as histori&al !y !oth /ede and the author of
the Historia( In the a!sen&e of a &riori assumtions regarding histori&ity% a
detailed in.estigation of the Crele.ant materialD <as reAuired !y the a!o.e
methodology= has left us 'ith a situation in 'hi&h the information
&ontained 'ithin these late referen&es &ould still refle&t either a histori&al
figure or a legendary figure histori&ised 'ith no &on.in&ing reason% from the
internal e.iden&e of these fe' sour&es% for a&&eting one alternati.e o.er
the other( To ut it another 'ay% there is no o!.ious reason from the
material dis&ussed a!o.e to refer the ortrayal of Arthur in +hater 23 of
the ninth8&entury Historia .ritton#+ o.er that in +hater 05% or .i&e .ersa(
,,
Part of the ro!lem% of &ourse% lies 'ith methodology( 4hen the &ase
for a histori&al fifth8Jsi>th8&entury Arthur is made% it in.ol.es tra'ling the
re8Galfridian sour&e material for anything that might !e used to !a&) it u(
The interest is not 'ith the re8Galfridian material itself and 'ith 'hat it
tells us !ut rather 'ith 'hat it &an tell us a!out a ossi!ly histori&al figure
&alled Arthur( The te>ts sele&ted to ans'er this Auestion% as in the a!o.e
analysis% are thus di.or&ed from the &onte>t of the 'hole !ody of re8
Galfridian material in 'hi&h they must surely !e .ie'ed and of 'hi&h they
form an integral art( /y as)ing C4as there a histori&al ArthurBD one forces the
te>ts to ans'er Cerhas% may!eDG they ha.e no other &hoi&e !e&ause% on the
!asis of the fe' sour&es sele&ted and the .ie'ing of these fe' sour&es in
isolation% they are in&aa!le of denying that there 'as su&h a figure Iust as
they are in&aa!le of &onfirming it( As su&h this Cerhas% may!eD is in
reality .alueless( 4hat this means is that &on&lusions regarding ArthurDs
histori&ity &an and should only !e dra'n .ia a sound methodology% namely
!y loo)ing at a the a.aila!le e.iden&e and allo'ing it to CleadD% not for&ing it
to &onform to re&on&ei.ed notions( The Historia .ritton#+ and Annaes
%a+briae referen&es must !e seen in the &onte>t of all the early Arthurian
material% not as dis&rete ie&es of information that &an !e mined for Cfa&tsD(
No Iudgements of any .alue &an !e made !y atta&)ing the re8Galfridian
&orus in a ie&emeal fashion E one has to loo) at the 'eight of the !ody of
e.iden&e as a 'hole( To Auote Padel% Cthe nature of the inAuiry% 'hi&h
hitherto has al'ays started 'ith the natural Auestion P'as there a histori&al
ArthurBQ% has determined its out&ome <PKes% erhasQ=D <Padel% ,$$1; "(
Ashe <,$$2= also ma)es this oint=( /y &ommen&ing an e>amination of the
re8Galfridian material 'ith a .ie' to dis&o.ering <or% at least% in.estigating=
a truly histori&al figure of the ost8Roman eriod the &on&lusions rea&hed
are una.oida!ly !iased and the in.estigation ignores the maIority of the
a.aila!le early e.iden&e(
4e must therefore as)% 'hat is the nature of Arthur in the re8
,2
Galfridian sour&es 'ith 'hi&h 'e are here rimarily &on&erned 'ithB 4here
does the C'eightD of the e.iden&e CleadD usB 4hat is the &onte>t of the
Chistori&alD sour&esB The most re&ent attemt to define this CnatureD <'hi&h
then ro&eeds% after doing this% to adot the a!o.e methodology and loo) at
the Annaes and Historia referen&es in the &onte>t of this nature= is !y Oli.er
Padel(
,"
The &on&lusion rea&hed is that% 'hen the re8Galfridian sour&es are
aroa&hed 'ithout su&h re&on&ei.ed agendas and a &riori assumtions as
des&ri!ed a!o.e% the results ro.e to !e most interesting; Cif the &olle&ti.e
e.iden&e is first allo'ed to sea) for itself% its 'eight is Auite different(D
<Padel% ,$$1; "=( In non8Galfridian tradition% Arthur 'as .ery &learly Cthe
leader of a !and of heroes 'ho li.e outside of so&iety% 'hose main 'orld is
one of magi&al animals% giants and other 'onderful haenings% lo&ated in
the 'ild arts of the lands&ae(D <Padel% ,$$1; ,1=G Arthur is ortrayed as a
figure of an8/rittoni&
,5
fol)lore and mythology% asso&iated 'ith the
Other'orld% suernatural enemies and suerhuman deeds% not history( This
&on&et of Arthur o&&urs in !oth the .ery earliest of these sour&es <earlier
than and &ontemorary 'ith the earliest referen&es to a ossi!ly Chistori&al
ArthurD= and% indeed% in the .ast maIority of the non8Galfridian sour&es%
'ith these sour&es &onsistent in their ortrayal of Arthur( For e>amle% it
aears in the eighth8&entury or earlier mythologi&al oem Preide# Annwfyn
<see 9o&h% ,$$3; "35832=% the .ery early mythologi&al oem Kat Gode# <see
Ford% ,$00 for a translation=% +hater 05 of the Historia .ritton#+ <the
fol)lore &ontained in 'hi&h is &onsidered to !e Calready an&ient !y the ninth
&enturyD </rom'i&h and E.ans ,$$"; l>.i==% Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5 <'hi&h
might !e as early as the ninth &entury% or e.en the eighth% and is% itself%
simly a summary of many earlier entirely mythi&al Arthurian tales
</rom'i&h% ,$0-!; ",G 9o&h% ,$$3G 9o&h% ,$$1; ,,"0G Edel% ,$-5==% and
%#hwch ac 6wen <'hi&h 'as 'ritten in the ele.enth &entury !ut is a literary
&omosition !ased on a num!er of earlier legendary Arthurian tales !rought
together 'ith the CgiantDs daughterD fol)lore tale8tye E the Arthurian
material is generally &onsidered to reresent the same !ody of .ery early
non8histori&al tales as Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5% Historia .ritton#+ +hater 05 and
Preide# Annwfyn do; see Edel% ,$-5G /rom'i&h and E.ans% ,$$"=(
Padel is not at all alone in seeing this as the &onte>t of the Historia
.ritton#+ and Annaes %a+briae referen&es% though he has gi.en the su!Ie&t
its fullest treatment( T'o of the foremost authorities on early Arthurian
literature% Ra&hel /rom'i&h and D( Simon E.ans% ha.e re&ently 'ritten that
CArthur 'as a!o.e all else((( a defender of his &ountry against e.ery )ind of
danger% !oth internal and e>ternal; a slayer of giants and 'it&hes% a hunter of
monstrous animals E giant !oars% a sa.age &at monster% a 'inged serent <or
dragon= E and also% as it aears from %#hwch and Preidde# Annwn% a releaser
of risoners( This &on&et of Arthur is su!stantiated from all the early
sour&es; the oems Pa G#r and Preidde# Annwn% the Triads% the Saints Li.es%
and the !irabiia atta&hed to the Historia .ritton#+((( in early literature he

,3
!elongs% li)e Fionn% to the realm of mythology rather than to that of
history(D </rom'i&h and E.ans <edd(= ,$$"; >>.iii8>>i>( See Ford <,$-5= for
some .ery interesting sulementary e.iden&e for the .ie' that the re8
Galfridian Arthur !elongs to the realms of mythology( The a!o.e
&omments on the Cnature of ArthurD in early literature reresent the general
.ie' among +elti&ists of this Auestion% see for e>amle Ford ,$-3G 7arman%
,$-5G Ross% "##,% &hater 1G and note ,1 !elo'=( In essen&e% the .ast
maIority of the non8Galfridian material% in&luding the earliest sour&es% aints
a nota!ly &onsistent i&ture of Arthur as a an8/rittoni& fol)lori& hero% a
eerless 'arrior of giant8li)e stature 'ho leads a !and of suerhuman
heroes that roam the 'ild la&es of the lands&ae% 'ho raids the
Other'orld 'hilst !eing intimately asso&iated 'ith it% 'ho fights and
rote&ts /ritain from suernatural enemies% 'ho hunts 'ondrous animals
and 'ho ta)es art in mythi&al !attles% and hen&e the C'eightD of this
e.iden&e indi&ates not a histori&al origin for Arthur !ut rather a legendary
one <it is arti&ularly 'orthy of note that Arthur is never asso&iated 'ith
either the Sa>ons or /adon in the .ast maIority of the material% desite the
fa&t that su&h an asso&iation is usually said to !e the reason for his fame%
and 'hen this asso&iation does aear it is ony resent in those sour&es
'hi&h are dire&tly deri.ati.e of Historia .ritton#+ +hater 23=( In fa&t% the
Fionn arallel in the a!o.e Auote is also noted !y Padel in his arti&le E it is
his &on.in&ing &on&lusion that the nature of Arthur e.iden&ed in the re8
Galfridian sour&es is very similar indeed to the nature of Fionn in Gaeli&
literature% this Fionn !eing an entirely mythi&al &hara&ter <originally a god=
'ho !e&ame asso&iated <i(e( histori&ised= 'ith the reelling of the Si)ing
in.asions of Ireland and 'ho had a list of !attles against his CfoesD atta&hed
to his name <for Fionn see T hTgUin% ,$--G Padel <,$$1= summarises some
of the arallels on ( ,$8"5=( San Hamel made some .ery similar
o!ser.ations regarding the nature of Arthur in the early sour&es and the
.ery &lose arallels !et'een him and Fionn% noting that it 'as !ut a natural%
logi&al ste Cto reresent a hero of this tye Ni.e. a rote&tor of /ritain against
suernatural threatsO as a .i&tor o.er the Sa>onsD <,$51% Auote at ( "5,( See
also ?urhy% ,$25; ",58,0G ?a&9illo% ,$-3; 35831G 9o&h% ,$$3; "3,G Ross%
"##,; &hater 1=(
,1
Ho' does this affe&t the Auestion of ArthurDs histori&ityB 4hat then of
those referen&es to a Chistori&alD Arthur 'hi&h% 'hen .ie'ed in isolation% &an
only ans'er the Auestion C4as there a histori&al ArthurBD 'ith CerhasG
may!eD and &ould at least Iust as easily reresent a legendary figure
histori&ised as the distorted remem!ran&es of a CgenuinelyD histori&al figureB
To re&aitulate% the &on&lusions resulting from the a!o.e dis&ussion are;
<A= that one &annot assume that a &hara&ter is histori&al simly
!e&ause a medie.al sour&e &laims that this is the &ase; su&h a &riori
,0
assumtions are demonstra!ly false <Hengest : Horsa and Fionn
!eing good e>amles of mythi&al figures histori&ised !y later
'riters= and are thus una&&eta!le( One &an only say that there
'asJhas to ha.e !een a histori&al Arthur on&e all the material has
!een e.aluated and this is sho'n to !e the &ase( There is no
ossi!le Iustifi&ation for simly assuming this to !e the &ase E
Chistori&alD e>lanations of figures su&h as Arthur do not% on a &riori
grounds% enIoy riority o.er other e>lanations( Indeed% it should
!e remem!ered that the Cro&ess of histori&ising legends 'as a
'idesread feature of +elti& literary a&ti.ity in the ?iddle Ages(D
<Padel% ,$$1; "5=(
</= that the fe' usa!le sour&es that 'e ha.e 'hi&h ortray Arthur
as Chistori&alD &ould .ery easily reresent either a legendary figure
histori&ised or the distorted traditions of a genuinely histori&al
Arthur( Ea&h ossi!ility is eAually as li)ely as the other Iudging
from the internal e.iden&e of the sour&es and% as su&h% no
&on&lusions &an !e rea&hed on the matter of histori&ity E there may
ha.e !een a histori&al Arthur !ut at least eAually as 'ell there may
not ha.e !een(
<+= that 'hilst it is true to say% as in </= a!o.e% that Historia
.ritton#+ +hater 23 et&( &ould Iust as easily refle&t a legendary
figure histori&ised as a genuinely histori&al ersonage% this method
of analysis fails to ans'er the Auestion of ArthurDs histori&ity
satisfa&torily( /y treating the Chistori&al ArthurD sour&es in isolation
rather than in the &onte>t of the 'hole !ody of non8Galfridian
Arthurian literature of 'hi&h they form an integral art% .alua!le
information is ignored that is essential to the interretation of these
sour&es and% as su&h% no &on&lusions of any .alue &an !e dra'n( To
gi.e an e>amle% 'e might ha.e a &harter urorting to !e a grant
of land to a monastery from a )ing( 4hen this &harter is .ie'ed on
its o'n the e.iden&e internal to the &harter may !e su&h that no
de&ision &an !e made o.er 'hether it is genuine or a forgery E in
the a!sen&e of &on.in&ing e.iden&e for either otion ea&h
ossi!ility might !e said to !e eAually as li)ely( If% ho'e.er% this
&harter is loo)ed at in the &onte>t of all the other &harters from that
monastery then the situation is rather different; thus if% for e>amle%
all the other &harters from that monastery aear to !e forgeries
then it seems .ery li)ely indeed that this &harter too is a forgery( In
the &onte>t of the !ody of material of 'hi&h it forms an integral
and inseara!le art% it !e&omes &lear that the t'o ossi!ilities
allo'ed !y the internal e.iden&e are not in fa&t eAually as li)ely E
'hen .ie'ed in light of all the other material it remains remotely

,-
ossi!le that the &harter may !e genuine !ut it is infinitely more
ro!a!le that it is a forgery( In other 'ords% the serious ossi!ility
that the &harter is genuine only really e>isted !e&ause the &harter
'as !eing analysed outside of the !ody of material of 'hi&h it is an
integral art% something 'hi&h &aused information essential to the
interretation of the &harter to !e ignored E 'hen it is .ie'ed
'ithin the &onte>t of all the material% there is simly no reason to
thin) that it might !e genuineG the &harterDs &onte>t is su&h that this
is not% in the a!sen&e of e.iden&e in its fa.our% a serious ossi!ility(
In the same 'ay% &on&lusions regarding histori&ity &an only !e
dra'n from loo)ing at the Chistori&al ArthurD te>ts in the &onte>t of
the 'hole !ody of early material( The Historia .ritton#+ and Annaes
%a+briae referen&es must !e seen in the &onte>t of all the early
Arthurian material% not as dis&rete ie&es of information that &an !e
mined for Cfa&tsDG no Iudgements of any .alue &an !e made !y
atta&)ing the re8Galfridian &orus in a ie&emeal fashion E one
has to loo) at the 'eight of the !ody of e.iden&e as a 'hole and
allo' it to CleadD( To do other'ise simly !iases the &on&lusions and
ignores the .ast maIority of the a.aila!le early e.iden&e(
<D= that the 'eight of the non8Galfridian material <early and late=
ro.ides% as numerous s&holars ha.e noted% a .ery &lear and
&onsistent i&ture of Arthur as a thoroughly legendary figure of
fol)lore and myth not asso&iated in any 'ay 'ith either the Sa>ons
or /adon% and 'ith this figure resem!ling in many of its
&hara&teristi&s <and% indeed the de.eloment of its legend= the
Gaeli& Fionn 'ho 'as a mythi&al figure E originally a god E later
histori&ised 'ith !attles against foreign in.aders(
These four relati.ely un&ontro.ersial &on&lusions ha.e% as should !e
o!.ious% some .ery interesting &onseAuen&es for the Auestion of ArthurDs
histori&ity( Follo'ing them through% it seems &lear that if those fe'
referen&es 'hi&h ortray Arthur as histori&al are seen in the &onte>t of the
material as a 'hole E as they ha.e to !e E then the 'eight of the material is
su&h that there is a!solutely no Iustifi&ation for !elie.ing there to ha.e !een
a histori&al figure of the fifth or si>th &entury named Arthur 'ho is the !asis
for all later legends( 4hen the Chistori&alD referen&es are ulled out of their
&onte>t and .ie'ed in isolation then% as 'e ha.e seen% they +ay &ossiby
reresent the distorted traditions of a histori&al figure !ut at least eAually as
'ell they may not( Ho'e.er% 'hen they are .ie'ed% as they must !e% in the
&onte>t of the !ody of material of 'hi&h they are an integral art this
Cmay!eD e.aorates( All the other e.iden&e% the .ast maIority of the early
material% ortrays Arthur as an entirely legendary figure from the same
,$
mould as the Gaeli& Fionn% and he is ne.er &onne&ted in this material in any
'ay 'ith either the Sa>ons or /adon( As su&h there is simly no reason to
thin) that there 'as a histori&al Arthur( The Cmay!eD only aears 'hen it is
for&ed to% 'hen the fe' referen&es to a Chistori&alD Arthur are di.or&ed from
their &onte>t and made to ans'er Auestions regarding the ossi!ility of a
histori&al Arthur( If 'e as) 'hat the material a&tually says rather than try
and for&e any re&on&ei.ed notions uon it then it aears% as Padel has
o!ser.ed% to .ery &learly tell of a legendary figure of fol)lore named Art7h8#r
'ho 'as histori&ised in mu&h the same 'ay as Hengest or Fionn 'ere E the
serious ossi!ility of there e.er ha.ing !een a Chistori&al ArthurD 'ho 'as
the CoriginalD from 'hom all the later tales sring is simly a &onstru&t !ased
on a misuse of the sour&es( Therefore% rather than the fol)lori& Arthur
e.iden&ed in the Historia .ritton#+ +hater 05 !eing an ela!oration of the
Chistori&alD Arthur of +hater 23% this ClegendaryD Arthur 'ould aear to !e
Cthe true one% and the Phistori&alQ Arthur((( the se&ondary de.eloment(D
<Padel% ,$$1; 5#=% a logi&al e>tension of his fol)lori& role% 'ith not only the
e>isten&e of Arthur !ut also his asso&iation 'ith the fifth and si>th &enturies
!eing seen as most ro!a!ly surious <'ith regards to this% it should !e
noted that the ost8Roman eriod 'as not the only eriod into 'hi&h
Arthur 'as histori&ised E see !elo'=( To ut it another 'ay% the &onte>t of
the fe' Chistori&alD referen&es is su&h that the onus of roof 'ould seem to
&ome to lie firmly on the shoulders of those 'ho 'ould ha.e a histori&al
fifth8Jsi>th8&entury Arthur as the !asis for all the later legends E in the
a!sen&e of roof of histori&ity <and in the a!sen&e of a &riori assumtions
and the for&ing of re&on&ei.ed agendas onto the sour&es= there is simly
no reason to thin) that a Chistori&al ArthurD is a serious ossi!ility(
4e must &onseAuently as)% &an the Ce.iden&eD for a Chistori&alD Arthur of
the fifthJsi>th &entury li.e u to this !urden of roofB Does it ro.ide any
reason to !elie.e that there 'as a fifth8 or si>th8&entury figure named
ArthurB Ta)en on its o'n% it &an !e legitimately said that the ans'er to this
is CnoD( E.en 'hen .ie'ed outside of the &onte>t of the 'hole !ody of early
material% thus in the most ad.antageous &ir&umstan&es% it &ould <as has !een
seen a!o.e= only rodu&e the ans'er CerhasG may!eDG the Arthur
ortrayed in the Historia .ritton#+ and the Annaes %a+briae &ould !e easily
understood as either a histori&al figure or a legendary one histori&ised( In the
&onte>t of the re8Galfridian material this ans'er !e&omes meaningless due
to the shifting of the !urden of roof E as su&h the Cmay!eD has to !e ta)en
as a CnoD( The Historia and the Annaes do not ro.ide the ne&essary roof
that 'ould allo' us to disregard the &onte>t of the re8Galfridian material
<arti&ularly as the latter is .ery ro!a!ly deri.ati.e of the former% and the
former is )no'n to ortray mythi&al figures as histori&al= and thus on the
!asis of these ie&es of e.iden&e 'e are for&ed to &on&lude that there is% at
resent% no &ogent reason to thin) that there 'as a histori&al ost8Roman
Arthur( Instead he is !est seen% li)e Fionn for the Gaeli& regions% as a

"#
fol)lori& hero% li.ing in the 'ilds of the lands&ae and rote&ting /ritain
from all )inds of suernatural threats% Iust as the .ast maIority of the
e.iden&e suggests(
,2
Indeed it is 'orth ointing out on&e more that the
Historia .ritton#+Ds a&&ount of Arthur in +hater 23 not only aears to
in&lude deeds of a num!er of earlier 'arriors su&h as Mrien of Rheged and
Am!rosius Aurelianus% !ut also identifia!le mythi&al elements 'hi&h ha.e
!een histori&ised in this te>t E the ossi!ly .ery early oem Kat Gode# 'ould
aear to !e &on&erned 'ith a mythi&al !attle in 'hi&h Arthur lays some
<erhas maIor= art and in 'hi&h the trees of %oed %eyddon are magi&ally
animated to fight% thus sho'ing the !attle of %oit %eidon <Cthe +aledonian
ForestD= re&orded in +hater 23 of the Historia .ritton#+ in a .ery interesting
light( Similarly% the C!attle on the !an) of a ri.er 'hi&h is &alled Tri!ruitD in
+hater 23 of the Historia aears else'here% in the early Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5
<'hi&h summarises a num!er of re8e>isting Arthurian tales= as an entirely
mythi&al !attle against 'ere'ol.es <4ith regards to the !attles named in the
Historia .ritton#+% it should erhas !e emhasised that there is no reason to
thin) that all of the !attles used to histori&ise Arthur 'ere real histori&al
!attles E at least some of the !attles used to histori&ise Fionn seem to ha.e
!een in.ented sontaneously for the uroses of histori&isation and this
&ould 'ell !e the &ase here <a fa&t that may 'ell e>lain some of the
ro!lems in identifying the !attles in Historia .ritton#+ +hater 23% see
Padel% ,$$1; ",G 7a&)son% ,$1283==(
The a!o.e &on&lusions may 'ell hel e>lain &ertain u66ling features of
the Arthurian legend% in arti&ular the strange a!sen&e 'hi&h has often !een
noted <e.g. /rom'i&h% ,$0-a; "01G Thomas% ,$$2; 5-$= of Arthur from the
early 4elsh genealogies( Su&h te>ts are erhas !est understood as dynasti&
CroagandaD <see Dum.ille% ,$00aG ,$00!= and if Arthur 'as generally held
to ha.e !een a great histori&al leader at the time of their &omilation% his
a!sen&e 'ould !e .ery u66lingG if% on the other hand% he 'as not .ie'ed in
this light !ut instead as a an8/rittoni& fol)lori& hero then his a!sen&e is
entirely &omrehensi!le <see Go'ans% ,$-- for a similar situation in.ol.ing
+ai=( This notion% of a relu&tan&e to use the name of a national fol)lori&
hero% &an also ro.ide the only .ia!le e>lanation of one of the first ie&es
of e.iden&e e>amined here% that is the four <or fi.e= o&&urren&es of the
name Arth#r in si>th8 and se.enth8&entury &onte>ts% as Padel has re&ently
noted <,$$1; "1=( Padel o!ser.es% as others ha.e done !efore him% that all
the o&&urren&es of the name CArthurD are re&orded in Gaeli& sour&es and
o&&ur in the &onte>t of the Irish settlers in 'estern 4ales and S&otland <see
/rom'i&h ,$0283G /ar!er% ,$0"= and he suggests that the a!sen&e of this
name in /ritish &onte>ts is due to Arthur !eing regarded C'ith e>&etional
a'eD as a legendary hero and Prote&tor of /ritain% 'hilst the Irish C'hen
they &ame into &onta&t 'ith the fol)lore as a result of their settlements in
'estern /ritain% need not ha.e felt su&h re.eren&e or relu&tan&eD <Padel%
,$$1; "1= and &onseAuently they made use of this name <the date of
",
adotion of this name 'ould% of &ourse% !e deendent on &omle> &ultural
intera&tions and de.eloments and thus the fa&t that it 'as not immediately
adoted should not !e seen as signifi&ant=( As 'ell as e>laining
satisfa&torily all the a.aila!le e.iden&e this suggestion gains a &onsidera!le
amount of &reden&e from the fa&t that detailed study of the 4elsh
genealogi&al tra&ts re.eals that not one single erson of /ritish des&ent in
4ales !ore the name CArthurD in the genealogies until the late si>teenth
&entury at the earliest% a situation /artrum suggests may 'ell !e !e&ause the
name &arried some sort of suerstition 'ith it </artrum% ,$32=( If Arthur
'as to !e .ie'ed as histori&al rather than legendary% then e>lanation of
these three ie&es of information <the a!sen&e of Arthur from the early
royal genealogiesG the sudden o&&urren&e of four eole named Arthur in
the &onte>t of the Irish settlers in 4ales and S&otlandG the fa&t that not one
single erson in 4ales of /ritish des&ent &an !e sho'n to !ear the name
Arthur until at least the late si>teenth &entury= 'ould !e a .ery diffi&ult
ro!lem(
Another Cu66lingD feature arti&ularly 'orthy of note is the fa&t that%
outside of the Historia .ritton#+ +hater 23% the Annaes %a+briae <'hi&h is
deri.ati.e of the Historia .ritton#+=% the ossi!ly ele.enth8&entury /reton
9ife of (aint Go#e:no# <'hi&h arahrases the Historia .ritton#+= and 4illiam
of ?almes!uryDs t'elfth8&entury Gesta -eg#+ <'hi&h again arahrases the
Historia .ritton#+ and the Annaes %a+briae=% Arthur is never asso&iated in the
'hole !ody of re8Galfridian literature 'ith the ost8Roman defeat of the
Sa>ons E a .ery strange situation surely for one 'ho is suosed to !e
famed beca#se of su&h an asso&iation( Ho'e.er% it fits 'ith the fa&t that there
seems to !e good reason to !elie.e that there 'as a searate non8Arthurian
tradition regarding the !attle of /adon <'hi&h% again% is only e.er asso&iated
'ith Arthur in the fe' sour&es <a!o.e= that are dire&tly deri.ati.e of the
Historia .ritton#+ E in sour&es that are not &onne&ted 'ith the Historia%
/adon is not lin)ed 'ith Arthur nor is Arthur lin)ed 'ith /adon% see
/rom'i&h% ,$0-a=% the single e.ent 'hi&h uts ArthurDs suosed .i&tories
into the realms of history and 'hi&h% in essen&e% defines his role as defeater
of the Sa>ons( /oth of these features% ese&ially 'hen ta)en together%
aear highly suggesti.e( One has to as)% 'hy% if the reason that Arthur 'as
so honoured in 4elsh tradition 'as that he led the /ritish resistan&e and
'on the famous !attle of /adon% this is ignored and e.en erhas dou!ted
!y the Cguardians of 4elsh traditionDB 4hy% in the .ast maIority of &ases%
!oth early and late% did they instead aint a &onsistent i&ture of Arthur as a
figure of fol)lore 'ho 'as .ery similar indeed to the Gaeli& Fionn% an
entirely mythi&al figure 'ho &ame to !e histori&ised 'ith great !attles
against the Si)ing in.aders of IrelandB Indeed% one might further as) 'hy% if
Arthur 'as uni.ersally famous not for !eing a fol)lori& Prote&tor of /ritain
!ut rather the defeater of the Sa>ons% the +ornish felt erfe&tly a!le to totay
ignore his Sa>on asso&iations and instead histori&ise him into distant

""
antiAuity and into the eriod of the ;iking in&ursions <see Hunt% ,--,G
+ourtney% ,-$#=B
,3
Su&h &onsiderations as those a!o.e% Auite aart from the fa&t that the
adotion of a sound methodology for&es us to &on&lude that Arthur 'as in
all ro!a!ility a fol)lori& CProte&tor of /ritainD% suggest that su&h an
interretation is the &orre&t one(
,0
A histori&al fifth8 or si>th8&entury Arthur
is not in any'ay ne&essary to the understanding of the re8Galfridian
Arthur and the e.iden&e 'e ha.e ma)es the ostulation of su&h a figure not
only unne&essary !ut also &omletely unIustifia!le(
3. The Historicisation of Arthur
4hate.er else Arthur is% he is a &omosite figure( Through the &enturies the
&on&et of Arthur did not stay the same E there is no CstandardD Arthurian
legend as this legend is the result of Arthur attra&ting to himself !oth the
deeds and &hara&teristi&s of other tales and &hara&ters( This !ears dire&tly on
the a!o.e Auestion E 'e &annot &on&lude that there 'as no histori&al
Arthur as there 'as% to the e>tent that &ertain te>ts% nota!ly the Historia
.ritton#+% the Annaes %a+briae and GeoffreyDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae% ha.e
a &on&et of Arthur that is &learly histori&al( 4hile the Arthur they ortray
&annot !e seen% in light of the a!o.e% as the CoriginalD% it is surely still a
.alua!le e>er&ise to inAuire as to 'hose deeds 'ere !eing later attri!uted to
Arthur% as these deeds are an integral art of many later ortrayals of Arthur
and as su&h do &onstitute art of the origins of Arthur(
4hat then of the Arthur of Historia .ritton#+ +hater 23B 4hile 'e
might legitimately loo) for an CoriginalD for ea&h of the !attles% 'e also ha.e
to as) 'hether the 'hole &on&et resented in +hater 23 of the Historia is
!ased on a single figure( The rime &andidate for this ChonourD has to !e%
naturally% Am!rosius Aurelianus( In GildasDs /e E4cidio .ritanniae Am!rosius
is gi.en rominen&e as the initiator of the /ritish &ounter8atta&) 'hi&h% after
the fighting of se.eral !attles% &ulminates in the !attle of /adon% Iust as
Arthur in the Historia .ritton#+ initiates the /ritish &ounter8atta&) 'hi&h%
after the fighting of se.eral !attles% &ulminates in the !attle of /adon( On
the !asis of this 'e may 'ell !e a!le to say that% to some e>tent% 'e do ha.e
a histori&al Arthur E Am!rosius E in the sense that the &on&et of Arthur as
a histori&al figure and the frame'or) for histori&isation 'as !ased on his
deeds(
,-
4ith regards to the indi.idual !attles% this is erhas more diffi&ult( As
noted in the re&eding dis&ussion% the C!attle on the !an) of a ri.er 'hi&h is
&alled Tri!ruitD and %at %oit %eidon may 'ell !e a&tual Arthurian mythi&
!attles( Others may !e CrealD or they &ould !e in.ented; /adon% as has !een
argued a!o.e% &an !e easily asso&iated 'ith Am!rosius% Iust li)e the 'hole
"5
frame'or) of histori&isation% and .reg#oin aears else'here in .ery early
sour&es as a !attle fought !y Mrien of Rheged( Others ho'e.er &ould simly
!e made u% as is thought to !e the &ase for the !attles used to histori&ise
Fionn in his !attle8list and as has !een suggested earlier in this study( The
ro!lem 'ith underta)ing any e>er&ise of this )ind is the fa&t that the
names gi.en to the !attles &ould reresent many areas E only a fe' &an
a&tually !e &alled &ertain and on the !asis of this list theories of a Southern
Arthur% a ?idland Arthur and a Northern Arthur ha.e all !een &onstru&ted(
A artial solution is to slit the list u into searate &hara&ters as a!o.e !ut
it should !e remem!ered that it &an only !e ta)en so far( The desire to
identify these !attles is often great !ut this should not re.ent us from
re&ognising that 'ith suffi&ient CingenuityD they &an !e made to fit Iust a!out
any area and many may not% in fa&t% !e identifia!le or e.en ha.e
identifi&ations(
4ith regards to the 'hole Auestion of histori&ity and histori&isation% it
has !een suggested that% rather than as) 'hether there is any Iustifi&ation for
ostulating a histori&al Arthur% 'e should as) 'hether any &andidate fits the
Cfa&tsD E &ertainly the underta)ing of su&h an e>er&ise is .ery !enefi&ial !ut it
ro!a!ly doesnDt a&tually sho' anything% at least 'ith regards to histori&ity(
To ta)e an e>amle% se.eral eole ha.e suggested% o.er the years% that
Am!rosius is Arthur on the !asis of Historia .ritton#+ +hater 23( Ho'e.er%
'hat they see &an !e one of t'o things E either they are seeing the CtruthD%
that Am!rosius 'as Arthur% or they are seeing a artial truth% that the
ortrayal of Arthur in these sour&es 'as !ased on Am!rosius !ut that this is
a se&ondary de.eloment of a fol)lori& ArthurG in a sense Am!rosius 'as
Arthur !ut not in the sense that most eole 'ould mean 'hen see)ing an
ans'er to this Auestion( Ho' does one get a'ay from thisB The only 'ay I
&an see is !y adoting the a!o.e methodology% !y as)ing 'hat Iustifi&ation
there is for ostulating a histori&al Arthur( Indeed% it should further !e
ointed out that there are &ertain dangers in loo)ing for &hara&ters 'ho Cfit
the fa&tsD E to ta)e the e>amle of +hater 23 of the Historia .ritton#+ on&e
more% 'ith suffi&ient CimaginationD and linguisti& gymnasti&s% as has !een
noted% the list of !attles in this +hater &an !e made to fit Iust a!out any
lo&ality one &an thin) of and as su&h these theories are mutually &an&elling
and methodologi&ally indefensi!le E thus +olling'ood <,$"$= su&&eeded in
Cdis&o.eringD all the !attles in the south8east% 'hi&h haily fitted his theory
that Arthur only fought the 7utesG Ans&om!e <,$#1= CfoundD that all the
!attles 'ere fought in the ?idlandsG and S)ene <,-3-; I% 2"82-= Cdis&o.eredD
that all the !attles &ould !e identified 'ith la&es in S&otlandV The a!o.e
methodologi&al &onsiderations hold 'hether one is loo)ing at models for
histori&isation or CArthurian originalsD E a .ast literature has !een generated%
!oth online and offline% !y the sear&h for histori&al &hara&ters 'ho Cfit the
fa&tsD !ut the simle truth of the matter is that the .ast maIority of these
efforts are methodologi&ally indefensi!le( 4hile internally &onsistent% these

"1
theories are all mutually &an&elling% e>lain only a tiny ortion of the legend%
if any of it% and an almost infinite num!er of su&h identifi&ations &an !e
made <ese&ially 'hen a shot of CingenuityD is added to the mi>=% all
imossi!le to disro.e !ut eAually nearly all in.alid(
Another ase&t of the Arthurian legend that has !een mu&h dis&ussed is
the Galli& in.asion( This ase&t of ArthurDs &hara&ter first aears in
Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae% the /reton 9ife of (aint
Go#e:no# and %#hwch ac 6wen <though the referen&e in the latter is ro!a!ly
either Galfridian in origins or simle fantasy% see /rom'i&h and E.ans%
,$$"; 2-82$=( Some% nota!ly Geoffrey Ashe <,$-,G ,$-2G ,$$2= and +( S&ott
Littleton and Linda ?al&or <,$$1=% 'ould see this as an original element of
the Arthurian tradition( Ho'e.er% as Padel <,$$2; ,#$8,#=% /rom'i&h <,$$,;
283= and others ha.e noted% there is nothing at all suggesti.e of su&h a
notion of Arthur as a Galli& ad.enturer in the early insular sour&es <e>&et
for %#hwch% !ut see a!o.e= and therefore if it is an early element it should
!e seen as a!sent from the insular tradition and thus &ontinental in origin
<as is suggested !y its aearan&e in the /reton life=( Perhas the !est
e>lanation is to see the Galli& &amaign as a non8insular </retonB=
histori&isation of the an8/rittoni& fol)lori& Arthur in mu&h the same 'ay
as suggested for Historia .ritton#+ +hater 23 !ut in this &ase 'ith a
&omosite remem!ran&e of /ritish &amaigns on the &ontinent E attention
might !e arti&ularly dra'n to Riotamus <on the !asis of AsheDs e.iden&e=
and the o'erful legend of the Emeror ?a>imus% the 4elsh !a4en <edig%
'ho 'as !elie.ed to ha.e &onAuered Rome and after'ards to ha.e left his
troos as the first &olonisers of /rittany% as &andidates for su&h a
Chistori&isationD(
. The !rigins of Arthur
The origins of Arthur are al'ays going to !e &ontro.ersial( Gi.en the a!o.e
&on&lusion that there is no reason to !elie.e that the &on&et of Arthur as a
fifth8Jsi>th8&entury 'arrior is anything other than a se&ondary de.eloment
of the legendaryJmythi&al Arthur seen in <for e>amle= Preide# Annwfyn% Pa
g#r yv y &ortha#r5% Historia .ritton#+ +hater 05 and %#hwch ac 6wen% the
origins of Arthur are essentially oen( 4hile many theories of origins% ea&h
internally &onsistent% &an and ro!a!ly 'ill !e &onstru&ted% at resent there
are t'o main theories for the origins of any legendary Arthur Nthough see
no' Green% "##0; &hater 2 for a thorough dis&ussionO(
The first has !een suorted o.er the years !y 9em ?alone <,$"182=%
Oli.er Padel <,$$1; 5,G ,$$2; ,,,8,"=% and +( S&ott Littleton and Linda
?al&or <,$$1=% and suggests that the se&ond8&entury Lu&ius Artorius +astus
is the original Arthur <see ?alone% ,$"182 on this figure=% though Padel
"2
suorts this only .ery tentati.ely( ?alone !ased his theory on the fa&t that
the Latin ersonal name Artori#s <Clo'manD= 'ould ha.e de.eloed into
Art7h8#r in the .erna&ular Auite regularly <the long o of Latin loan8'ords
regularly aears as # in 4elsh and su&h endings as 'i#s are droed% thus
&hanging Artori#s into Art7h8#r=% and on the Galli& &amaign as e.iden&ed in
Geoffrey of ?onmouth( On the latter argument% one 'ould ha.e to say that
not all 'ould a&&et its .alidity% 'ith alternati.e e>lanations !eing a.aila!le
for the e>isten&e of this element in GeoffreyDs 'or) <see a!o.e=( Therefore
the &ase% as set out !y ?alone and nodded at !y Padel% for Lu&ius Artorius
+astus as the CoriginalD Arthur is% initially at least% !ased on the name alone(
If the Artori#s deri.ation is a&&eted as the only li)ely etymology of the
name Arthur then this identifi&ation does seem to !e the most reasona!le
and it 'ould hel e>lain the &ontinental in.asion tale <though it is not
ne&essary to any su&h e>lanation=( Ho'e.er% it reAuires us to see Arthur as
a figure 'ho 'as first of all histori&al% then !e&ame totally a!sor!ed into
+elti& fol)lore and then% at a later oint% 'as histori&ised into a entirely
different era from that in 'hi&h he had his origins( 4hilst not imossi!le%
some might thin) it a little o.er &omli&ated( In re&ent years though% an
alternati.e argument in fa.our of Lu&ius Artorius +astus has emerged E
Littleton and ?al&or <,$$1= ha.e argued that in ost8Galfridian Roman&e a
num!er of features &an !e dis&erned in the legend 'hi&h &ould !e S&ythian
in origins% and the only e.iden&e of S&ythians in /ritain &omes from the
se&ond &entury% 'hen a grou of Sarmatians 'ere !rought o.er to northern
/ritain as Roman &a.alry !y one Lu&ius Artorius +astus( Essentially the
authors argue that the Cmost imortantD of Arthurian figures and themes
<'hi&h in&lude% a&&ording to Littleton and ?al&or% the s'ord in the stone%
the Holy Grail and the return of ArthurDs s'ord to the la)e=% on the !asis of
the arallels they o!ser.e% originated in the &ulture of the nomadi& horse8
riding eoles 'ho inha!ited the Eurasian stees% an area )no'n as
S&ythia to the Romans and Gree)s% and that they 'ere imorted into
'estern Euroe !y t'o of these tri!es% the Sarmatians and the Alans E in
their eyes Arthur is simly a different name atta&hed to the the legend of
/atra6% the hero of the S&ythian Narts tales <Lan&elot is seen in almost
identi&al terms% 'ith CArthurD !eing the insular /ritish de.eloment of this
/atra6% .ia the Sarmatians% and Lan&elot the &ontinental de.eloment% .ia
the Alans=(
+ertainly su&h a .ie' of the ro&ess is intriguing% the arallels identified
are .ery interesting% and !y simly ha.ing Lu&ius Artorius +astus gi.e his
name to a re8e>isting fol)lori& &y&le one &an a.oid the ro!lems of ha.ing
him as the origins of su&h a &y&le <though one &ould o!Ie&t that he &ould
ha.e Iust as easily simly gi.en his name to a re8e>isting ins#ar %etic
fol)lori& &y&le% erhas related to the Fionn &y&le=( The main ro!lem 'ith
this theory is% ho'e.er% the ,### years of silent transmission of these
S&ythian fol)tales as &entral to the Arthurian legend that the authors reAuire

"3
us to a&&et% !oth in /ritain and on the &ontinent E all the CS&ythianD
elements aear in the ost8Galfridian 'or)s% from +hrWtien de Troyes
on'ards% and some of the most stri)ing aarent arallels !et'een the
Arthurian legend and the eastern /atra6 story ma)e their .ery first
aearan&es in ?aloryDs 9e !orte /arth#rV There is simly no tra&e of
Lan&elot in &ontinental literature !efore +hrWtien de Troyes in the t'elfth
&entury and none of the Cmost imortant of Arthurian themesD are e.en
hinted at in the reasona!ly large !ody of insular Arthurian traditions that 'e
ha.e reser.ed in %#hwch% Pa g#r5% the Triads et&( E Arthur% as he aears in
non8Galfridian tradition% loo)s li)e an entirely insular figure 'ith an insular
&y&le <see Padel% ,$$1% ,$$2G /rom'i&h and E.ans% ,$$"G Ford% ,$-5G Edel%
,$-5G et&(= and it is only in ost8Galfridian materials that he gains 'hat
Littleton and ?al&or see as the Cessential elementsD of his legend 'hen
ma)ing him simly /atra6 !y another name <'ith regards to Lan&elot% a
large art of their thesis deends on% aside from ,### years of silent
transmission% their etymologising his name from 7A8an:'ot% Cthe AlanDs
ar&el of landD et&(% the .alidity of 'hi&h has !een Auestioned !y a re&ent
re.ie'er <4ood% ,$$2; ,"3==( +ertainly the e.iden&e that Littleton and
?al&or resent is highly suggesti.e of so+e sort of &onne&tion !et'een the
ost8Galfridian Arthurian legend and S&ythian legend !ut the arallels they
o!ser.e should% in the a!sen&e of any e.iden&e for its resen&e in non8
Galfridian tradition in /ritain and re.ious to the t'elfth &entury on the
&ontinent% .ery ro!a!ly !e seen as late additions to the Arthurian legend%
not elements that are !oth early and &entral to the tradition% 'hate.er the
ultimate origins of these elements are in 'estern Euroe <see 4adge% ,$-0
and 9ennedy% ,$$2; ,"$85# for alternati.e methods of transmission%
in&luding &ommon Indo8Euroean heritage=( As su&h% the Ce.iden&eD of
S&ythian arallels &annot realisti&ally !e used to suort the theory that
Lu&ius Artorius +astus sulied Arthur 'ith his name and% &onseAuently%
this notion rests entirely on the deri.ation of Art7h8#r from the Latin
Artori#s(
The se&ond theory reresents a &hallenge to this !y suggesting that%
'hile the Artori#s deri.ation of Arthur is erfe&tly a&&eta!le% so too is a
nati.e deri.ation( Old 4elsh Arth#r 'ould regularly de.elo in the
.erna&ular from /rittoni& =Arto'#iros% C!ear8manD X Ar&hai& 4elsh Art7#8#r
> Arth#r% although for the ?iddle 4elsh eriod and later 'e 'ould ha.e to
rely on etrifi&ation in this form Nsomething 'hi&h is not entirely unheard
of E see no' Green% "##0; ,$#O( The suggestion of a nati.e deri.ation gains
additional suort from the fa&t that% in Latin do&uments% the name CArthurD
is al'ays 'ritten Art7h8#r)Art7h8#r#s et&( and ne.er in the form Artori#s <the
form Art7h8#r#s is% of &ourse% fully in )eeing 'ith the /ritish deri.ation as
non8Latin names often had the normal ending '#s added to gi.e them a
Latin aearan&e and to ro.ide them 'ith a !asis for Latin &ase endings E
thus /ritish Art7h8#r 'ould ha.e !een Latinised as Art7h8#r#s( It should of
"0
&ourse !e noted that% 'hile suggesti.e% the a!sen&e of Artori#s forms &ould
simly refle&t the total a!sortion of the name Artori#s into an8/rittoni&
fol)lore=( A /ritish origin for the name Arthur is further gi.en &reden&e !y
the freAuent use of 4elsh art7h8 <C!earD= figurati.ely to denote a 'arrior% thus
ma)ing the name aroriate for a figure 'ho is% in non8Galfridian
tradition% a fero&ious <!earli)eB= fighter and a Ceerless military suerheroD
<see /rom'i&h et a% ,$$,; 283G Griffin% ,$$1=( The &onne&tion !et'een
Arthur and the !ear 'as &ertainly made !y medie.al authors( Thus in the
non8Galfridian 4elsh oem 2+ddiddan Arth#r a?r Eryr <CThe Dialogue of
Arthur and the EagleD=% Arthur is reeatedly des&ri!ed as C!ear of menD <arth
gwyr=% C!ear of the hostD% and so forth( Similarly the Sa'ley Glosses% 'hi&h
are marginal additions to a late t'elfth8 or early thirteenth8&entury
manus&rit of the Historia .ritton#+% &omment that CPArthurQ translated into
Latin means Phorri!le !earQ(((D <+oe and Koung% ,$$2; ,,=( Finally% Ra&hel
/rom'i&h has sho'n that that Arct#r#s% deri.ing from the Gree) 'ord for
C9eeer of the /earsD and denoting a !right star asso&iated 'ith the Great
/ear <Mrsa ?aIor= &onstellation <see Rogers% ,$$-; -3G Griffen% ,$$1; -58-1=%
'as a genuine non8Galfridian .ariant form of ArthurDs name%
and one for 'hi&h there is good reason to !elie.e there 'as
traditional authority( Arct#r#s% li)e Arctos <YMrsa ?aIor or Cthe !earD=
'as often used to denote the olar region% the far north% and there
are referen&es in Latin literature to the sa.age and temestuous
'eather asso&iated 'ith the rising and setting of the star Arct#r#s(
/y e>tension% the name of the star ga.e rise to the adI( used !y
Lu&an for the Gauls as arctoas gentes Ceole of the <far= northD%
.e#+ %ivie S% 33,( To name a hero Arct#r#s &ould therefore !e
ta)en to imly that he !elonged to the north <i.e. to north8'est
Euroe=% and that he 'as C!ear8li)eD in his &hara&teristi&s(
</rom'i&h% ,$0-a; 211812( See also Griffen% ,$$1; -"ff(=
The a!o.e referen&es 'ould aear to fa.our a nati.e deri.ation and su&h a
deri.ation 'ould seem to !e most in harmony 'ith the nature of the re8
Galfridian Arthur as a an8/rittoni& legendary hero% a eerless 'arrior
asso&iated 'ith lo&al toograhi& fol)lore% a.oiding the need to ostulate
the &omli&ated s&enario of ha.ing a histori&al figure totally mythi&ised and
then histori&ised into a eriod 'ith 'hi&h he 'as re.iously unrelated(
,$
Indeed% e.en if 'e 'ere to reIe&t a deri.ation from /rittoni& =Arto'#iros on
the !asis of the need for etrifi&ation in the Old 4elsh form% it needs to !e
remem!ered that other deri.ations than Artori#s are still ossi!le% some
similarly in.ol.ing /rittoni& Arto'% C!ear% 'arrior% heroD( In fa&t% e.en if the
Artori#s deri.ation is &orre&t it may 'ell not &arry 'ith it any imli&ations of
ossi!le histori&ity% gi.en the tenden&y for the Romanisation of
nomen&lature seen in !oth ersonal and di.ine names from /ritain and

"-
Gaul% either through 'holesale rela&ement or ne' suffi>es Nthere is no' a
full dis&ussion of all this in Green% "##0; ,0-8$1O(
If a deri.ation in.ol.ing /rittoni& Arto' is a&&eted as ossi!le and
fitting% one might oint not only to the figurati.e uses of /ritish art7h8%
/rittoni& Arto'% !ut also% .ery tentati.ely% to the e.iden&e for +elti& C!ear8
&ultsD% in&luding di.inities su&h as /ea Artio <C!ear goddessD=% Andarta <Cthe
o'erful !earD=% Artgenos <Cson of the !ear godD= and Artaios <C!earli)eD=
<Ford% ,$-3; $1G ?a&+ullo&h% ,$,,; ","8,5G Ross% ,$$"; 151852=( 4ith
regards to this% it is interesting to note that many of the C!ear8godsD aear
to ha.e !een forest gods <see Olmsted% ,$$1; 1"$85#% 15,= E Arthur 'as
asso&iated from ossi!ly a .ery early eriod 'ith a mythi&al !attle of the
trees of the great +aledonian forest <in the oem Kat Gode#= and his &ourt% in
re8Galfridian tradition% 'as at Kei wic% Cforest gro.eD% though one 'ouldnDt
'ish to ress this oint( 4hilst he need !e no more than a legendary CheroD%
there is no !ar to Arthur a&tually ha.ing originally !een a god% Iust as Fionn
'as <see T hTgUin% ,$--=( It all deends on ho' far one is 'illing to go%
though if Arthur 'as originay su&h a mythologi&al figure then there may 'ell
!e a more lausi!le di.ine origin for him than as a !ear8god% and one 'hi&h
still e>lains the name Nsee Green% "##0; ""$81#O( Indeed% mythologist Ann
Ross has re&ently &ome out in suort of Arthur originally !eing a C+elti&
deity of an all urose tyeD% a 'arrior and rote&ti.e god E the Cdi.ine
rote&torD E of the /ritons% 'ho &losely aralleled the Gaeli& Fionn <Ross%
"##,; &hater 1=(
There are% naturally% many other ossi!le nati.e deri.ations and
mythologi&al origins for Arthur that ha.e !een roosed o.er the years and
'hi&h may% in the light of all the a!o.e% deser.e re8e>amination% for
e>amle% Sir 7ohn RhysDs &hamioning of Arthur as a &ulture8hero <Rhys%
,-$,=G 9em ?aloneDs suggestion that Arthur and Mthr <the latter was a re8
Galfridian &hara&ter= 'ere one and the same erson% !oth !eing a +elti& god
<?alone%,$"1=G and the intriguing e.iden&e for a fol)lori& !elief that Arthur
is a &ro'% ra.en or a +ornish +hough <Ca red8legged &ro'D=( This latter is
'ell8do&umented in the fol)lore of south8'estern /ritain and /rittany <see
Hunt% ,--,; II% 5#-8#$G +ourtney% ,-$#; 2-G Loomis% ,$2-; ,3G /ru&e% ,$"5;
I% 51% n( 01=% the earliest o&&urren&es !eing in the ,2-" +hroni&le of 7ulian
del +astillo and three times in the 'or)s of +er.antes%
"#
&asting some
suggesti.e light on the 2 Gododdin referen&e that CNGorddurO used to enti&e
do'n !la&) ra.ens in front of the 'all of the fortified to'n E though he 'as
no ArthurD and the ossi!le deri.ation of ArthurDs name from arrdh# C.ery
!la&)D <see ?a&9illo% ,$$- and Sen&e% ,$12; ,13 Nthe &onne&tion 'ith the
&ro'Jra.enJ&hough may ha.e a more lausi!le e>lanation than this%
ho'e.er E Green% "##0; ,1282,% "50O=( Ho'e.er% &aution must on&e more
!e urged E Iust as an almost infinite num!er of historica rototyes for
Arthur &an !e identified 'ith enough enthusiasm% it seems .ery li)ely that a
"$
similar num!er of +ythica rototyes &an also !e identified and% as su&h% the
methodologi&al &omments made 'ith regards to the identifi&ation of
Chistori&al ArthursD must !e alied to this ro!lem also(
". #ndnotes
,
Another e>amle of a non8histori&al ersonage 'ho is often mista)enly thought to
!e histori&al is% as Geoffrey Ashe has re&ently ointed out <CThe Origins of the
Arthurian LegendD% Arth#riana% 2(5 <,$$2=% ( ,8"1 at ( 3=% Sherlo&) Holmes; CHe is
so .i.id that &ountless eole ha.e ta)en his e>isten&e for granted( For many years
the offi&e on the site of his /a)er Street lodgings <not really identifia!le% !ut gi.en a
street num!er= re&ei.ed a steady tri&)le of letters addressed to him((( Ket 'e )no'
ho' his saga !egan% and it 'as in +onan DoyleDs imagination% not in the !iograhy
of a real dete&ti.e(D It needs to !e said that the a!o.e are only interesting e4a+&es of
the histori&isation of mythi&alJfi&tional &hara&ters and that the Auestion of 'hether
su&h histori&isation o&&urs does not !y any means rest on these fe' e>amles alone
<or e.en rimarily=( That histori&isation &ould and did haen is !eyond dou!t E
not e.erything 'e are told !y medie.al authors a!out e.ents many &enturies in the
ast need !e the &omlete CtruthD% e.en if the authors themsel.es might ha.e
!elie.ed it(

"
Only names in the form Art7h8#r and its Latinisations &on&ern us here as they are
the only rele.ant forms( The &ase is o&&asionally made <though not in a&ademi&
literature= that all names 'ith the element art7h8 should !e &onsidered E this is%
ho'e.er% simly a .ery &ommon ersonal and la&e name element <in early Gaul%
Ireland and /ritain= meaning C!earD and% as su&h% there is a!solutely no reason to
thin) that there is any se&ial relationshi !et'een the large num!er of names 'ith
art7h8 as an element and the name Art7h8#r E they are all searate and distin&t names(
This imortant fa&t relates dire&tly to a .ery re&ent find during the e>&a.ations at
Tintagel of a si>th8&entury stone ins&ri!ed PATE- %69@A;@ F@%@T
A-T6G,6;% 'hi&h translates as CArtognou% father of a des&endant of +oll% has
had <this= madeJ!uiltJ&onstru&ted(D <Engish Heritage &ress reease% Thursday% 3 August
,$$-G S( de /ru>elles% CArthur; is this 'here myth meets historyBD in The Ti+es%
Friday% 0 August ,$$-% ( 2=( English Heritage ha.e &hosen <desite the strong and
erfe&tly understanda!le reser.ations of the ar&haeologists in &harge of the dig= to
mil) this find for u!li&ity !y ushing the notion of an asso&iation !et'een the
names Arthur and Artognou E Artogno# is% ho'e.er% not in any way the same name as
Art7h8#rG the only thing they ha.e in &ommon is the aarent resen&e of the .ery
&ommon ersonal8 and la&e8name element art7h8 <a relationshi that the name
Art7h8#r shares 'ith many other names% from many different eriods and la&es=
and% as su&h% &laims that this stone refer to a Chistori&al ArthurD are &omletely
unIustified% a osition 'hi&h 'ould seem to !e in line 'ith that ta)en !y those
s&holars in the !est osition to e.aluate the e.iden&e; +hris ?orris% in &harge of the
e>&a.ations% has <in an online statement made !y the ar&haeologists rather than
English Heritage= said that C'e must dismiss any idea that the name on this stone is
in any 'ay to !e asso&iated 'ith the legendary and literary figure Arthur((( As

5#
Professor Thomas states% CAll this stone sho's in the name ARTOGNOM% is the
use of this <+elti&= element Nart7h8O(DD <htt&:))www.ga.ac.#k)Acad)Archaeoogy)% Friday%
,2 August ,$$-=( The follo'ing sensi!le &omment 'as osted on at.egend.king'
arth#r;
I find it amusing that the ne's has already s'it&hed to &laiming that the
ins&rition mentions the name CArthurD( There are any num!er of early
/rythoni& names 'ith the initial element CArt<h=8D% in&luding se.eral
e>amles of the name CArtgenD <see /artrum CEarly 4elsh Genealogi&al
Tra&tsD=% 'hi&h &ontains the same !asi& elements as the ins&ritionDs
CArtognouD e>&et that the latter has the 6ero8grade form of the se&ond
element <see E.ans CGaulish Personal NamesD for C8gno8D=( Mnless the
legendary Arthur 'asnDt really named Arthur% I donDt see ho' the
ins&rition &an ha.e anything to do 'ith him( ItDs a different name(
<Heather Rose 7ones% at.egend.king'arth#r osting% #0 August ,$$- ,0;1"=(
It should also !e noted that Adrian Gil!ert% in The Hoy Kingdo+ <London% ,$$-=% has
&laimed that Arth'ys% a )ing from southern 4ales% is Arthur% on the assumtion
that Arthwys is the 4elsh form of Art7h8#r and some highly du!ious ar&haeologi&al
CfindsD( This is demonstra!ly false% at least 'ith regards to the name% as the 4elsh
form of Art7h8#r is .ery &learly Art7h8#rV Arthur is ne.er referred to as Arthwys in
.erna&ular sour&es and% indeed% CArth'ysD is an entirely searate and 'ell
do&umented 4elsh ersonal name that &annot !e in any 'ay asso&iated 'ith the
name Art7h8#r or 'ith the Latin name Artori#s that is often assumed to lie !ehind
the name Arthur% as asserted !y Gil!ert( Indeed% the &orre&t form of the name is
a&tually Athrwys% not the more Arthur8li)e misselling Arthwys% in any &ase(

5
The mid8se.enth8&entury oem !arwnad %ynddyan refers to Arthur in mu&h the
same 'ay as does 2 Gododdin% this te>t imlying that the military deeds of
+ynddylan and his !rothers are of su&h great .alour that these 'arriors might !e
seen as canawon Art#r fras, dinas dengyn% C'hels of greatJstout Arthur% a mighty
fortressD <see R( /rom'i&h% C+on&ets of ArthurD% (t#dia %etica% ,#J,, <,$0283=% (
,358-, at ( ,00G R( /rom'i&h et a% CIntrodu&tionD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The
Arth#r of the <esh. The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=%
( ,8,1 at ( 2G A(O(H( 7arman% CThe Delineation of Arthur in Early 4elsh SerseD%
in 9( Sarty <ed(= An Arth#rian Ta&estry: Essays in !e+ory of 9ewis Thor&e <Glasgo'%
,$-,=% ( ,8", at ( 1( CFortressD% dinas% here has the sense of Cdefen&e% defenderD=( If
this is a&&eted E Ro'land in her Eary <esh (aga Poetry: a (t#dy and Edition of the
Engynion <+am!ridge% ,$$#=% ( ,-3% suggests an alternate reading for the te>t of the
oem !ut this doesnDt seem to ha.e gained general a&&etan&e E then it sho's that
the &on&et of Arthur as a Ceerless 'arriorDJDsuerheroD 'as resent in East Po'ys
<roughly modern Shroshire= in the se.enth &entury <its &ontri!ution to the
histori&ity de!ate 'ould% of &ourse% !e the same as that of 2 Gododdin% Iust
dis&ussed=( 4hate.er the &ase% 2 GododdinDs &on&et of Arthur as the Caragon of
military .alourD is &learly shared !y other non8Galfridian 4elsh sour&es too% su&h as
the oems Kadeir Teyrnon% Gereint fiAi#sB Erbin% 2+ddiddan Arth#r a?r Eryr% and
!arwnat vthyr &enAdragonB(
5,
1
4hilst +harles8Ed'ards is right to oint to similarities !et'een the 'or)s of /ede
and Paul the Dea&on and the Historia .ritton#+% the reutations of the former as
Crelia!leD historians are solely a result of the fa&t that they deal mainly 'ith near8
&ontemorary e.ents( The author of the Historia 'as% ho'e.er% dealing 'ith e.ents
5## years or more in the ast and for su&h distant eriods !oth /ede and Paul the
Dea&on are eAually unrelia!le <see D(N( Dum.ille% CHistoria .ritton#+; an Insular
History from the +arolingian AgeD% in A( S&harer and G( S&hei!elreiter <edd(=
Historiogra&hie i+ frChen !itteater <4ienJ?Zn&hen% ,$$1=% ( 1#3851 at ( 1,-8,$=(

2
It is 'orth noting that it has !een argued that the tale of Arthur &arrying an i&on
of the Sirgin ?ary into !attle E 'hi&h is often ta)en as art of any hyotheti&al
oem% most re&ently !y 9o&h E must ha.e had its origins in the ninth &entury and
Auite ossi!ly in a monasti& &onte>t <see R( /ar!er% The Fig#re of Arth#r <London%
,$0"=% ( ,#,ff(=% li)e that in 'hi&h the author of the Historia 'as 'or)ing% imlying
at the .ery least a similar origin for the oem that suosedly &ontained it(

3
Ho'lett% in his !oo) %a+bro'9atin %o+&ositions, Their %o+&etence and %rafts+anshi&
<Du!lin% ,$$-=% argues &on.in&ingly that the date A(D( 1$3 for /adon is inset into
the Latin of early medie.al te>ts as art of the +elti&8Latin tradition of /i!li&al style
<see D(R( Ho'lettDs The %etic'9atin Tradition of .ibica (tye <Du!lin% ,$$2= on this=%
'ith A(D( 21# !eing inset as the date that GildasDs /e E4cidio .ritanniae 'as
&omleted(

0
It is sometimes &laimed% deri.ing the name Arthur from the 4elsh 'ord arth
C!earD% that Gildas does mention Arthur 'hen he refers to +uneglasus as #rse E su&h
an interretation of Gildas is% ho'e.er% 'ildly se&ulati.e and una&&eta!le <see
9(H( 7a&)sonDs C;aria; II( Gildas and the Names of the /ritish Prin&esD% %a+bridge
!edieva %etic (t#dies% 5 <,$-"=% ( 5#81# at ( 5"851 for a full in.estigation of this
assage% 'hi&h is entirely understanda!le 'ithin the &onte>t of GildasDs te>t=(

-
In fa&t% it is 'orth remem!ering that some of the unidentifia!le names loo) li)e
they may 'ell ha.e !een in.ented% thus further &asting dou!t on the Historia <see
9(H( 7a&)son% COn&e Again ArthurDs /attlesD% !odern Phioogy% 15 <,$1283=% ( 118
20=( A !rief 'ord should !e said regarding the .ery many theories of a Clo&alD Arthur
<a good e>amle is 4(G( +olling'oodDs CArthurDs !attlesD% Anti3#ity% 5 <,$"$=% (
"$"8$-= 'hi&h ha.e !een !ased on the list of !attles in +hater 23 of the Historia
.ritton#+( 4ith suffi&ient CimaginationD and linguisti& gymnasti&s the list of !attles
&an !e made to fit Iust a!out any lo&ality one &an thin) of and as su&h these
theories are mutually &an&elling and methodologi&ally indefensi!le E thus
+olling'ood su&&eeded in Cdis&o.eringD all the !attles in the south8east% 'hi&h
haily fitted his theory that Arthur only fought the 7utesG Ans&om!e <CLo&al names
in the PArthurianaQ in the PHistoria /rittonumQD% Deitschrift fCr cetische Phioogie% 2
<,$#1=% ( ,#58"5= CfoundD that all the !attles 'ere fought in the ?idlands and
S)ene <The Fo#r Ancient .ooks of <aes <Edin!urgh% ,-3-=% I% ( 2"82-= Cdis&o.eredD
that all the !attles &ould !e identified 'ith la&es in S&otlandV Su&h &on&lusions &an
only in&rease our &on&erns regarding the &ontents of the Historia. For a s&holarly
and le.el8headed aroa&h see 9enneth 7a&)sonDs arti&les COn&e Again ArthurDs
/attlesD% !odern Phioogy% 15 <,$1283=% ( 11820G CArthurDs /attle of /reguoinD%

5"
Anti3#ity% "5 <,$1$=% ( 1-81$G and CThe Site of ?ount /adonD% Jo#rna of %etic
(t#dies% " <,$258-=% ( ,2"822 <the site of /adon is mu&h disuted though=(
In&idently% it should !e noted that Peter Field <CGildas and the +ity of the LegionsD%
The Heroic Age% , <,$$$== has argued for an identifi&ation of the ninth !attle differing
from that 'hi&h is usually a&&eted( 4hilst an interesting suggestion% it is no more
than a ossi!ility and not ne&essarily the most lausi!le one( ?ore imortantly%
e.en if it 'ere to !e a&&eted% his notions 'ith regards to the nature of modern
&riti&ism of the Historia .ritton#+ and the signifi&an&e of his suggestion to this
&annot !e endorsed(

$
This last oint is% in fa&t% a .ery imortant one( If any in.estigation into the history
of the ost8Roman eriod in /ritain is to ha.e any .alidity at all <and aear
a&&eta!le to a&ademi& historians= then it must !e done 'ith a sound methodology(
This iminges dire&tly on the ro!lem of Arthur in .ie' of the fa&t that Cno
&ontemorary or near8&ontemorary sour&e ma)es any mention of him NArthurOD;
Dum.ille has made the imortant o!ser.ation that CHistory must !e 'ritten from
&ontemorary sour&es or 'ith the aid of testimony &arried to a later era !y an
identified and a&&eta!le line of transmissionD or Cit 'ill not !e 'orth the aer it is
rinted onD <D(N( Dum.ille% Histories and Pse#do'Histories of the @ns#ar !idde Ages
<Aldershot ,$$#=% H% 22=G he rightly reIe&ts Cthe old foolish game of trying to 'rite
narrati.e history of an effe&ti.ely re8histori& eriod 'ith the aid of unhistori&al and
non8&ontemorary sour&esD <ibid.% IS% 1=( As +hris Snyder has re&ently 'ritten% CIf
you are trying to argue for an histori&al Arthur(((% you &annot stray from the rimary
sour&es for the eriod; i.e. Patri&)% the Galli& +hroni&les% +onstantius of Lyon%
Gildas% et&( NONE of these sour&es mention Arthur( Therefore% !uilding an Arthur
theory !y starting 'ith later sour&es <e.g. CNennius%D the 4elsh Annals% the
Gododdin% the Anglo8Sa>on +hroni&le% 4elsh genealogies% Geoffrey of
?onmouth= and then trying to argue !a&)'ards to Gildas and /adon is an unsound
methodology a&&ording to modern historiograhi& rin&iles(D <Arth#rnet osting% #"
7une ,$$-% ,0;22=(

,#
4ith regards to the &omment that Cour sour&es are simly not of the Auality[D%
this refers e>&lusi.ely to their .alue as histori&al sour&es for the ost8Roman
&enturies( As Ho'lett has o!ser.ed% CThe Historia .ritton#+ has re&ei.ed harsh
&riti&ism from modern historians%D !ut su&h &riti&ism &an defle&t our attention from
the intrinsi& Auality of the Historia as a te>t of the ninth &entury; CHis 'or) sho's
that an early8ninth8&entury 4elsh s&holar &ould &oe 'ith the diffi&ult si>th8&entury
rose of Gildas((( He &ould inter'ea.e multile arithmeti& features into his rose%
ea&h different from the others% ea&h dis&retely erfe&t% none imeding or th'arting
any other% none dra'ing attention to itself flam!oyantly% all &ontri!uting to the
harmony of a ri&hly olyhoni& narrati.e( The Historia has for a long time !een
misrised and under.alued( It is time no' to read and are&iate it roerly(D <D(R(
Ho'lett% %a+bro'9atin %o+&ositions, Their %o+&etence and %rafts+anshi& <Du!lin% ,$$-=%
&hater 2=(
,,
Su&h &onsiderations ha.e% to a large e>tent% led to the adotion of Dum.illeDs
&on&luding remar)s on Arthur !y a&ademi& historians% namely that CThe fa&t of the
matter is that there is no histori&al e.iden&e a!out ArthurG 'e must reIe&t him from
55
our histories and% a!o.e all% from the titles of our !oo)sD <CSu!8Roman /ritain;
History and LegendD% History% 3" <,$00=% ( ,058$" at ( ,--=% and Arthur is
noti&ea!ly a!sent from <or dismissed in= the latest resear&h &on&erned 'ith the
ost8Roman eriod <for e>amle% S( /assett <ed(=% The 6rigins of Ango'(a4on
Kingdo+s <London% ,$-$=G A(S( Esmonde8+leary% The Ending of -o+an .ritain
<London% ,$-$=G N(7( Higham% -o+e, .ritain and the Ango'(a4ons <London% ,$$"=G
9(R( Dar)% %ivitas to Kingdo+: .ritish Poitica %ontin#ity EFF'GFF <London% ,$$5=G
/(A(E( Kor)e% <esse4 in the Eary !idde Ages <London% ,$$2=G +(A( Snyder% An Age
of Tyrants. .ritain and the .ritons A./. HFF'IFF <Pennsyl.aniaJStroud% ,$$-==( 4hilst
Dum.illeDs remar)s may !e a little harsh in la&es% e.en if one a&&ets the a!o.e
CerhasD as a CyesD then one &an go no further; the e.iden&e simly is not of the
Auality that it 'ould allo' us to say anything at all &on&rete a!out any ossi!le
histori&al Arthur( +harles Thomas erhas summed u !est the modern historianDs
attitude to su&h figures as Arthur% only re&orded in .ery late and highly
untrust'orthy sour&es% 'hen he 'rote that C?any 'ill agree 'ith Dr Dum.illeDs cri
de coe#r; CThe fa&t of the matter is that there is no histori&al e.iden&e a!out ArthurG
'e must reIe&t him from our histories and% a!o.e all% from the titles of our !oo)s(D
Any sane erson 'ould agree( These enti&ing 4ill8of8the8'iss ha.e too long
dominated% and defle&ted% useful ad.an&es in our study(D <%hristianity in -o+an .ritain
to A/ JFF <London% ,$-,=% ( "12=(

,"
In some 'ays PadelDs aroa&h to this ro!lem is far refera!le to my o'n and
should !e &onsulted !y anyone at all interested in the Auestion of Arthur( Ho'e.er%
it 'as felt desira!le to first ro.ide a summary of the latest resear&h into the te>ts
that are usually turned to 'hen loo)ing at the Chistori&al ArthurD and ma)e it &lear
that a histori&al Arthur &annot !e assumed to ha.e e>isted% !efore mo.ing on to
methodologi&al issues et&(( Those already familiar 'ith the methodologi&al
ro!lems and PadelDs imortant reassessment of the 'hole Auestion 'ill find mu&h%
of &ourse% that is already familiar E I &an only hoe that a slightly different aroa&h
to the sour&es and a slightly fuller &onsideration of &ertain ie&es of e.iden&e and
ro!lems than Oli.er Padel &ould gi.e may !e found to !e of some small !enefit to
these readers(

,5
That is to say% not lo&alised in any arti&ular region( That Arthur 'as an8
/rittoni& from the .ery first is &learly e.iden&ed in the re8Galfridian material
'hi&h la&es him in southern S&otland% south8'estern /ritain% 4ales and /rittany
<see Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,8
,1 for a demonstration of this= and is true e.en of the earliest referen&es to him <the
four or fi.e eole named CArthurD in the si>th and se.enth &enturies are to !e
found as far aart as south 4ales and south S&otland% 'hilst !arwnad %ynddyan
indi&ates a )no'ledge of Arthur in mid8se.enth8&entury Shroshire=(
,1
It should also !e noted that this fol)lori& Arthur not only dominates the re8
Galfridian material !ut also aears in the later 'or)s E he is &learly resent in non8
Galfridian 4elsh tradition that ost8dates GeoffreyDs 'or) and% indeed% he is also to
!e seen in Galfridian and ost8Galfridian materials( To Auote no less authorities
than G'yn and Thomas 7ones% C4hat of Arthur himselfB His nature is
unmista)a!le; he is the fol) hero% a !enefi&ent giant% 'ho 'ith his men rids the land

51
of other giants% of 'it&hes and monstersG he underta)es Iourneys to the Other'orld
to res&ue risoners and &arry off treasuresG he is rude% sa.age% heroi& and
rote&ti.e((( It is remar)a!le ho' mu&h of this /ritish Arthur has sur.i.ed in the
early t'elfth8&entury Historia of Geoffrey of ?onmouth and the mid8fifteenth8
&entury !orte /arth#r of ?alory( Arthur setting off 'ith 9aius and /edeuerus to
slay the s'ine8eating Sanish giant% and !ursting out laughing 'hen the monster
&rashes li)e a torn8u oa)% or his !attle 'ith the !eard8&olle&ting Ritho% are &ases in
oint((( /ehind the royal features in Geoffrey and ?alory may !e dis&erned the
ruder lineaments of the fol) hero(((D <The !abinogion <Dent ,$1$= ( >>.=( It is in
lo&al fol)lore that the &ontinuing dominan&e of this fol)lori& Arthur is most
o!.ious ho'e.er% as 'e might e>e&t and as Padel has sho'n <see CThe Nature of
ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,85,% in arti&ular ( "285#(
See also GroomsD The Giants of <aes. %ewri %y+r#i, 4elsh Studies ,# <Lameter%
,$$5==( Thus% for e>amle% in +ornish fol)lore Arthur 'as% e.en as late as the
nineteenth &entury% largely re8Galfridian in nature% his name !eing atta&hed to a
large num!er of Cremar)a!leD toograhi& feature in Iust the same 'ay as it 'as
&enturies !efore <'ith similar features that 'ere not asso&iated 'ith Arthur !eing
as&ri!ed to giants= and Arthur 'as additionally reno'ned for ridding the area of the
giants 'ho &omete 'ith him for rominen&e in the toograhi& fol)lore <R( Hunt%
Po&#ar -o+ances of the <est of Engand. The /ros, Traditions and (#&erstitions of 6d
%ornwa% third edition <rerinted Felinfa&h% ,$$5=% II% ( 5#0( This situation also
e>isted 'ithin 4elsh and /reton fol)lore% see +( Grooms% The Giants of <aes. %ewri
%y+r#% 4elsh Studies ,# <Lameter% ,$$5==(

,2
This is not to say% naturally% that a histori&al ost8Roman Arthur is disro.ed E
one &an only .ery rarely ro.e that a arti&ular figure ne.er e>isted <Iust as one &an
ne.er ro.e that aliens did not assist in the !uilding of the Pyramids or Sil!ury
Hill=( Rather 'hat is !eing said is that% !y the adotion of a sound methodology and
the &onseAuent .ie'ing of the .ery fe' Chistori&alD referen&es in the &onte>t that
they must surely !e seen in% the !urden of roof is transferred from !oth arties in
the de!ate o.er histori&ity to that 'hi&h 'ould argue that Arthur 'as a histori&al
fifth8Jsi>th8&entury ersonageG it is not simly that a histori&al Arthur is not needed
to understand the legend !ut rather that% in the a!sen&e of roof% the ostulation of
a histori&al ost8Roman figure !ehind the re8Galfridian material is &omletely
unIustified and 'e must follo' the .ast maIority of the e.iden&e in seeing Arthur as
a legendary figure( 4hat 'e ha.e to do is de&ide 'hat is reasona!le and 'hat is not%
and 'hile Arthur co#d have been a real fifth8&entury ersonage% on resent e.iden&e
there is a!solutely no reason to thin) that he 'as( Of &ourse% some 'ill !e
un'illing% desite the a!o.e% to let go of a histori&al Arthur for 'hate.er ersonal
reasons E in su&h &ir&umstan&es one &an only thin) of the follo'ing 'ords !y
/ertrand Russell;
I 'ish to roose for the readerDs fa.oura!le &onsideration a do&trine
'hi&h may% I fear% aear 'ildly arado>i&al and su!.ersi.e( The do&trine
in Auestion is this; that it is undesira!le to !elie.e a roosition 'hen
there is no ground 'hate.er for suosing it true( I must% of &ourse% admit
that if su&h an oinion !e&ame &ommon it 'ould &omletely transform
our so&ial life and our oliti&al systemG sin&e !oth are at resent faultless%
52
this must 'eigh against it( </ertrand Russell% (ke&tica Essays% I <,$"-==
,3
In +ornish oral tradition there is a!solutely no tra&e of Arthur !eing reno'ned
for fighting and defeating the Sa>on in.aders of ost8Roman /ritain E in fa&t he is
not asso&iated in any 'ay 'ith the Sa>ons( Rather he is reno'ned for defeating the
Si)ings in 'estern +orn'all% on Sellan8dru&her ?oor <see R( Hunt% Po&#ar
-o+ances of the <est of Engand. The /ros, Traditions and (#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa%
third edition <rerinted Felinfa&h% ,$$5=% I% ( ,-,% and II% ( 5#28#-G ?(A(
+ourtney %ornish Feasts and Fokore <,-$#=% ( 01= and for dri.ing the giants out of
+orn'all in antiAuity <this is% of &ourse% in addition to the toograhi&al fol)lore% of
the tye identified !y Padel in his CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic
(t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,85, that is resent in +ornish fol)lore( Arthur 'as reno'ned
for dri.ing out the giants in 4elsh oral tradition also E see +( Grooms% The Giants of
<aes. %ewri %y+r#% 4elsh Studies ,# <Lameter% ,$$5=% ( >li>8l=( The first is
o!.iously a histori&isation of Arthur into a eriod many &enturies after that 'hi&h
the more &ommonly read sour&es refer toG the latter may reAuire a little more
e>lanation( 4hilst% first and foremost% it Auite &learly refle&ts the CoriginalD%
legendary ArthurDs fol)lori& role as giant8)iller% it 'ould also seem to reresent a
histori&isation% as the !elief that giants inha!ited /ritain !efore CnormalD humans
<and that they had to !e .anAuished= is 'ell e.iden&ed !oth in% for e>amle%
Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae and +ornish and 4elsh fol)lore
<see% for e>amle% +( Grooms% The Giants of <aes( %ewri %y+r#% 4elsh Studies ,#
<Lameter% ,$$5=% Introdu&tion= E thus the asso&iation of Arthur 'ith this
.anAuishing of the giants is% at least artly% a histori&isation of Arthur into distant
antiAuity(

,0
Geoffrey Ashe <CThe Origins of the Arthurian LegendD% Arth#riana% 2(5 <,$$2=% (
,8"1= has gi.en se.eral reasons 'hy% in his oinion% Arthur has to !e histori&al(
These ha.e !een dealt 'ith in full !y Padel in his &ommentary on AsheDs arti&le in
the same Iournal <CRe&ent 4or) on the Origins of the Arthurian Legend; A
+ommentD% Arth#riana% 2(5 <,$$2=% ( ,#58,1=% 'ho has sho'n that they do not
offer anything li)e the roof of histori&ity that Ashe suggests they do(

,-
It is o&&asionally as)ed 'hether it is li)ely that the .i&tor of an imortant !attle
su&h as /adon might !e rela&ed% after se.eral &enturies% !y someone else( In
ans'er to this% four oints need to !e made( Firstly% the histori&isation of
legendaryJmythi&al figures is% as has already !een noted% often a&hie.ed through the
asso&iation of these figure 'ith some maIor e.ent of the ast( For instan&e% Hengest
and Horsa 'ere gi.en as an e>amle of mythi&al ersonages histori&ised at the
!eginning of this study and these 'ere dios&uri& horse8gods 'ho 'ere histori&ised
'ith nothing less than a i.otal role in the Anglo8Sa>on settlement of England !y
the eighth &entury% rela&ing the li)ely original layers in this e.ent <see% for
e>amle% D(7( 4ard% The /ivine Twins, A @ndo'E#ro&ean !yth in Ger+anic Tradition%
Mni.ersity of +alifornia Fol)lore Studies .ol( ,$ <,$3$=G D(P( 9ir!y The Eariest
Engish Kings <London% ,$$,==V As su&h% the rela&ement of an original .i&tor of <or
layer in= a maIor !attleJe.ent !y a mythi&alJlegendary &hara&ter in the &enturies
after this o&&urred is not in any 'ay imlausi!le( Se&ondly% /adon is not the only
!attle that is suse&ted of !eing attri!uted to Arthur in Historia .ritton#+ &hater 23

53
!ut originally fought !y someone else% the signifi&an&e of 'hi&h should !e o!.ious(
For e>amle% ArthurDs suosed !attle of .reg#oin 'ould seem to ha.e !een a !attle
originally 'on !y Mrien of Rheged !ut attri!uted to Arthur !y the ninth &entury%
'ith Mrien !eing a .ery imortant figure of early 4elsh literature <see O(7( Padel%
CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,85, at ( ,-G
9(H( 7a&)son% CArthurDs /attle of /reguoinD% Anti3#ity% "5 <,$1$=% ( 1-81$G R(
/rom'i&h% C+on&ets of ArthurD% (t#dia %etica% ,#J,, <,$0283=% ( ,358-,=(
Thirdly% as 'as demonstrated earlier in this study% the asso&iation of /adon 'ith
Arthur is resent only in a .ery fe' sour&es% all of 'hi&h 'ould seem to !e
ultimately deri.ed from the Historia .ritton#+ +hater 23( Indeed% as 'as also earlier
noted% there are good reasons to !elie.e in the e>isten&e of early medie.al traditions
regarding /adon 'hi&h did not asso&iate it 'ith Arthur and 'hi&h 'ere originally
more 'idely a&)no'ledged than the those that did( In light of this it is &lear that any
rela&ement that o&&urred 'as not !y any means uni.ersally a&&eted(
Finally% there is the Auestion of the status of the /attle of /adon( Historians are
used to gi.ing it a i.otal role in the history of ost8Roman /ritain% !ased on the
fa&t that Gildas mentions this !attle and no other( 4hether this is Iustified or not is
to !e de!ated% gi.en that Gildas dates it !y saying that it 'as fought in the year of
his !irth( Ho'e.er% e.en if it 'as i.otal% 'e ha.e to a&)no'ledge that the /ritons
of later &enturies 'ere not in&lined to .ie' it as arti&ularly signifi&ant( 4hilst non8
Arthurian 4elsh sour&es do mention /adon <though not in asso&iation 'ith
Arthur=% as a 'hole it 'as &learly not seen as that imortant( Their main interest 'as
rather 'ith the sagas of later si>th8 and se.enth8&entury heroes su&h as Mrien of
Rheged and /adon is rarely mentioned <see R( /rom'i&h% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The
<esh Triads% se&ond edition <+ardiff% ,$0-==( Pro!a!ly the most interesting e.iden&e
&omes from the oem Ar+es Prydein% &omosed in the tenth &entury and in 'hi&h
the &reation of a &onfedera&y <of the 4elsh% the Irish% and the men of Strath&lyde%
+orn'all% /rittany and Du!lin= to defeat the CEnglishD is !oth ad.o&ated and
rohesied( This featured a num!er of imortant eole from the ast designed to
rally the /ritons and their allies against the Anglo8Sa>ons% in&luding the se.enth8
&entury +ynan and +ad'aladr% 'ho are e>e&ted to return to lead the /ritons in
their &onfedera&y% !ut neither /adon itself nor the .i&tor of /adon <!e he
Am!rosius or Arthur= gets any mention 'hatsoe.er% surely a damning &omment on
the la&e of this mu&h lauded .i&tory against the Sa>ons in the /ritish
&ons&iousness at this oint <roughly the same oint that it is suggested that ArthurDs
name !e&omes atta&hed to the !attle of /adon=( Gi.en all the a!o.e% it &an !e
&on&luded that the rela&ement of Am!rosius as .i&tor of /adon !y Arthur in a fe'
te>ts all related to the ninth8&entury Historia .ritton#+ is in no 'ay imlausi!le(

,$
As 9em ?alone long ago 'rote% CIt 'ill not do to ta)e the name Arthur in all
isolation% and loo) for a honeti&ally ossi!le etymology( 4e must &onsider the
name in &onne>tion 'ith the entire !ody of Arthurian material( The etymology
'hi&h fits 'ith this material is the etymology that 'e must adot(D <9( ?alone% CThe
Histori&ity of ArthurD% The Jo#rna of Engish and Ger+anic Phioogy% "5 <,$"1=% ( 1358
$, at ( 13-=(
"#
The earliest mention &omes from a Sanish +hroni&le of ,2-" 'hi&h asserts that
it 'as &ommon tal) <fa+a c#+#n= that Arthur had !een en&hanted to the form of a
50
&ro' and that many enalties 'ere infli&ted on anyone 'ho )illed one of these
!irds( +er.antes also refers to this !elief three times in his /on 1#i4ote <Sol( ,%
,3#2G Sol( "% ,3,2= and his osthumously u!lished Persies y (igis+#nda <,3,0=( The
follo'ing Auote from R( HuntDs nineteenth8&entury Po&#ar -o+ances of the <est of
Engand. The /ros, Traditions and (#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa% third edition <rerinted
Felinfa&h% ,$$5=% II% ( 5#-8#$% !ased itself largely around an eighteenth8&entury
note% !rings some of these elements together ni&ely;
I Auote the follo'ing as it stands;E Nfrom ,otes and 1#eries% .ol( .iii% ( 3,-O

PIn 7ar.isDs translation of CDon @ui>ote%D !oo) ii( &ha( .(% the
follo'ing assage o&&urs;E
PCHa.e you not read% sir%D ans'ered Don @ui>ote% Cthe annals and
histories of England% 'herein are re&orded the famous e>loits of 9ing
Arthur% 'hom% in our +astilian tongue% 'e al'ays &all 9ing ArtusG of
'hom there goes an old tradition% and a &ommon one% all o.er the
)ingdom of Great /ritain% that this )ing did not die% !ut that% !y magi& art%
he 'as turned into a ra.enG and that% in ro&ess of time% he shall reign
again and re&o.er his )ingdom and s&etre% for 'hi&h reason it &annot !e
ro.ed that% from that time to this% any Englishman has )illed a ra.enBD
P?y reason for trans&ri!ing this assage is to re&ord the &urious fa&t
that the legend of 9ing ArthurDs e>isten&e in the form of a ra.en 'as still
reeated as a ie&e of fol)lore in +orn'all a!out si>ty years ago( ?y
father% 'ho died a!out t'o years sin&e% at the age of eighty% sent a fe'
years of his youth in the neigh!ourhood of Pen6an&e( One day he 'as
'al)ing along ?ara6ion Green 'ith his fo'ling ie&e on his shoulder% he
sa' a ra.en at a distan&e and fired at it( An old man 'ho 'as near
immediately re!u)ed him% telling him that he ought on no a&&ount to ha.e
shot at a ra.en% for that 9ing Arthur 'as still ali.e in the form of that !ird(
?y father 'as mu&h interested 'hen I dre' his attention to the assage
'hi&h I ha.e Auoted a!o.e(
PPerhas some of your +ornish or 4elsh &orresondents may !e a!le
to say 'hether the legend is still )no'n among the eole of +orn'all or
4ales( EDGAR ?A++MLLO+H
PGuernsey(Q
I ha.e !een most desirous of dis&o.ering if any su&h legend as the a!o.e
e>ists((( No'here do I find the ra.en asso&iated 'ith him% !ut I ha.e !een
told that !ad lu&) 'ill follo' the man 'ho )illed a +hough Na red8legged
&ro'O% for Arthur 'as transformed into one of these !irds(
$. Bibliography and %urther &eading
Al&o&)% L( ,$0,% Arth#r?s .ritain: History and Archaeoogy A/ EIK'IEH
<Harmonds'orth=

5-
Ans&om!e% A( ,$#1% CLo&al names in the PArthurianaQ in the PHistoria
/rittonumQD% Deitschrift fCr cetische Phioogie% 2% ( ,#58"5
Arnold% +(7( ,$-1% -o+an .ritain to (a4on Engand <London=
Ashe% G( <ed(= ,$3-% The 1#est for Arth#r?s .ritain <London=
Ashe% G( ,$-,% CPA &ertain .ery an&ient !oo)Q; Tra&es of an Arthurian
Sour&e in Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs HistoryD% (&ec##+% 23% ( 5#,8"5
Ashe% G( ,$-2% The /iscovery of King Arth#r
Ashe% G( ,$-3% C+amlann <+amlan=D% in N(7( La&y <ed(= The Arth#rian
Encyco&edia <Ne' Kor)=% ( 038-
Ashe% G( ,$$2% CThe Origins of the Arthurian LegendD% Arth#riana% 2(5% (
,8"1
/ar!er% R( ,$0"% The Fig#re of Arth#r <London=
/artrum% P(+( ,$32% CArthuriana in the Genealogi&al ?SSD% The ,ationa
9ibrary of <aes Jo#rna% ,1% ( "15812
/assett% S( <ed(= ,$-$% The 6rigins of Ango'(a4on Kingdo+s <London=
/rom'i&h% R( ,$0283% C+on&ets of ArthurD% (t#dia %etica% ,#J,,% ( ,358-,
/rom'i&h% R( ,$0-a% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads <+ardiff; se&ond
edition=
/rom'i&h% R( ,$0-!% CIntrodu&tionD% in R( /rom'i&h and R(/( 7ones <edd(=
Ast#diaetha# ar yr Hengerdd, (t#dies in 6d <esh Poetry <+ardiff=% ( ,8"1
/rom'i&h% R( ,$-5% C+elti& Elements in Arthurian Roman&e; A General
Sur.eyD% in P(/( Grout% R(A( Lodge% +(E( Pi&)ford and E(9(+( Sarty <edd(=
The 9egend of Arth#r in the !idde Ages <+am!ridge=% ( 1,822
/rom'i&h% R(% 7arman% A(O(H( and Ro!erts% /(F( <edd(= ,$$,% The Arth#r of
the <esh. The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff=
/rom'i&h% R(% 7arman% A(O(H(% Ro!erts% /(F( and Hu's% D( ,$$,%
CIntrodu&tionD in /rom'i&h et a <edd(= ,$$,% ( ,8,1
5$
/rom'i&h% R( and E.ans% D(S( ,$$"% %#hwch and 6wen. An Edition and (t#dy
of the 6dest Arth#rian Tae <+ardiff=
/roo)s% N(P( ,$-$% CThe +reation and early stru&ture of the 9ingdom of
9entD% in S( /asset <ed(= The 6rigins of Ango'(a4on Kingdo+s (t#dies in the Eary
History of .ritain <London=% ( 22801
/ru&e% 7(D( ,$"5% The Evo#tion of Arth#rian -o+ance </altimore=
+arey% 7( ,$$1% The @rish ,ationa 6rigin'9egend: (ynthetic Pse#dohistory% @uiggin
Pamhlets on the Sour&es of ?edie.al Gaeli& History% , <+am!ridge=
+arey% 7( ,$$$% CThe Finding of ArthurDs Gra.e; A Story from
+lonma&noiseBD% in 7( +arey et a <edd(= @dLnach @dMrech. A Festschrift for
Proinsias !ac %ana <Ando.er : A!eryst'yth=% ( ,8,1
+arley% 7(P( ,$$$% CArthur in English HistoryD% in 4(R(7( /arron <ed(= The
Arth#r of the Engish <+ardiff=% ( 10820
+had'i&)% H(?( and +had'i&)% N(9( ,$5"% The Growth of 9iterat#re% I%
<+am!ridge=
+ham!ers% E(9( ,$"0% Arth#r of .ritain <London=
+harles8Ed'ards% T(?( ,$0-% CThe Authenti&ity of the Gododdin; A
HistorianDs Sie'D% in R( /rom'i&h and R(/( 7ones <edd(= Ast#diaetha# ar yr
Hengerdd, (t#dies in 6d <esh Poetry <+aerdydd=% ( 1180,
+harles8Ed'ards% T(?( ,$$,% CThe Arthur of HistoryD% in R( /rom'i&h et a
<edd(= ,$$,% ( ,285"
+oe% 7(/( and Koung% S( ,$$2% The %etic (o#rces for the Arth#rian 9egend
<Felinfa&h=
+olling'ood% 4(G( ,$"$% CArthurDs !attlesD% Anti3#ity% 5% ( "$"8$-
+ourtney% ?(A( ,-$#% %ornish Feasts and Fokore <rerinted Pen6an&e% ,$$-=
Dar)% 9(R( ,$$5% %ivitas to Kingdo+: .ritish Poitica %ontin#ity EFF'GFF
<London=
Dum.ille% D(N( ,$01% CSome Ase&ts of the +hronology of the Historia

1#
.ritton#+D% .#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% "2% ( 15$812
Dum.ille% D(N( ,$0283% CNennius and the Historia .ritton#+D% (t#dia %etica%
,#J,,% ( 0-8$2
Dum.ille% D(N( ,$00a% CSu!8Roman /ritain; History and LegendD% History%
3"% ( ,058$"
Dum.ille% D(N( ,$00!% C9ingshi% Genealogies and Renal ListsD% in P(H(
Sa'yer and I(N( 4ood <edd(= Eary !edieva Kingshi& <Leeds=% ( 0"8,#1
Dum.ille% D(N( ,$-2% Historia .ritton#+; iii. The ;atican -ecension
<+am!ridge=
Dum.ille% D(N( ,$-3% CThe Histori&al Salue of the Historia .ritton#+D%
Arth#rian 9iterat#re% 3% ( ,8"3
Dum.ille% D(N( ,$$#% Histories and Pse#do'Histories of the @ns#ar !idde Ages
<Aldershot=
Dum.ille% D(N( ,$$1% CHistoria .ritton#+: an Insular History from the
+arolingian AgeD% in A( S&harer and G( S&hei!elreiter <edd(= Historiogra&hie i+
frChen !itteater <4ienJ?Zn&hen=% ( 1#3851
Edel% D( ,$-5% CThe Arthur of P+ulh'&h and Ol'enQ as a figure of Ei&8
Heroi& TraditionD% -eading !edieva (t#dies% $% ( 58,2
Esmonde8+leary% A(S% ,$-$% The Ending of -o+an .ritain <London=
E.ans% D(S( ,$0-% CIaith y GododdinD% in R( /rom'i&h and R(/( 7ones <edd(=
Ast#diaetha# ar yr Hengerdd, (t#dies in 6d <esh Poetry <+ardiff=% ( 0"8--
Field% P(7(+( ,$$3% CNennius and his HistoryD% (t#dia %etica% 5#% ( ,2$832
Ford% P(9( ,$00% The !abinogi and 6ther !edieva <esh Taes <Los Angeles=
Ford% P(9( ,$-5% COn the Signifi&an&e of some Arthurian Names in 4elshD%
.#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% 5#% ( "3-805
Ford% P(9( ,$-3% C+elti& Arthurian LiteratureD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= The
Arth#riana Encyco&edia <Ne' Kor)=% ( $#8$1
1,
Go'ans% L(?( ,$--% %ei and the Arth#rian 9egend% Arthurian Studies >.iii
<+am!ridge=
Gra!o's)i% 9( and Dum.ille% D(N( ,$-1% %hronices and Annas of !edieva
@reand and <aes <4ood!ridge=
Gransden% A( ,$03% CThe Gro'th of Glaston!ury Traditions and Legends in
the T'elfth +enturyD% Jo#rna of Eccesiastica History, "0% ( 55082-
Green% T( "##0% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud=
Griffin% T(D( ,$$1% ,a+es fro+ the dawn of .ritish egend: Taiesin, Aneirin,
!yrddin)!erin, Arth#r <Felinfa&h=
Grooms% +( ,$$5% The Giants of <aes. %ewri %y+r#% 4elsh Studies Sol( ,#
<Lameter=
Hanning% R(4( ,$33% The ;ision of History in Eary .ritain <Ne' Kor) and
London=
Hanning% R(4( ,$$2% C@nventio Arth#ri; a &omment on the essays of Geoffrey
Ashe and D( R( Ho'lettD% Arth#riana% 2(5% ( $38,##
Higham% N(7( ,$$"% -o+e, .ritain and the Ango'(a4ons <London=
Higham% N(7( ,$$1% The Engish %on3#est <?an&hester=
Ho'lett% D(R( ,$$2% The %etic'9atin Tradition of .ibica (tye <Du!lin=
Ho'lett% D(R( ,$$-% %a+bro'9atin %o+&ositions, Their %o+&etence and
%rafts+anshi& <Du!lin=
Hughes% 9( ,$05% CThe Annaes %a+briae and Related Te>tsD% Proceedings of the
.ritish Acade+y% 2$% ( "5582-
Hughes% 9( ,$-#% %etic .ritain in the Eary !idde Ages: (t#dies in (cottish and
<esh (o#rces <4ood!ridge=
Hunt% R( ,--,% Po&#ar -o+ances of the <est of Engand. The /ros, Traditions
and (#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa% third edition <rerinted Felinfa&h% ,$$5=
Isaa&% G(R( ,$$3% The ;erb in the .ook of Aneirin: (t#dies in (ynta4 !or&hoogy

1"
and Ety+oogy% /u&hreihe der \eits&hrift fZr &eltis&he Philologie% ,"
<TZ!ingen=
Isaa&% G(R( ,$$-% CGweith Gwen 2strat and the Northern Heroi& Age of the
Si>th +enturyD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% 53% ( 3,80#
Isaa&% G(R( ,$$$% CReadings in the History and Transmission of the
GododdinD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies, 50% ( 2280-
7a&)son% 9(H( ,$1283% COn&e Again ArthurDs /attlesD% !odern Phioogy% 15%
( 11820
7a&)son% 9(H( ,$1$% CArthurDs /attle of /reguoinD% Anti3#ity% "5% ( 1-81$
7a&)son% 9(H( ,$258-% CThe Site of ?ount /adonD% The Jo#rna of %etic (t#dies%
"% ( ,2"822
7a&)son% 9(H( ,$2$a% CThe Arthur of HistoryD% in R( Loomis <ed(= Arth#rian
9iterat#re in the !idde Ages <O>ford=% ( ,8,,
7a&)son% 9(H( ,$2$!% CArthur in Early 4elsh SerseD% in R( Loomis <ed(=
Arth#rian 9iterat#re in the !idde Ages <O>ford=% ( ,"8,$
7a&)son% 9(H( ,$3$% The Gododdin: The 6dest (cottish Poe+ <Edin!urgh=
7a&)son% 9(H( ,$05% CRe.ie' of R( /ar!er% The Fig#re of Arth#rD, !edi#+
Aev#+% 1"% ( ,--8-$
7a&)son% 9(H( ,$-"% C;aria; II( Gildas and the Names of the /ritish Prin&esD%
%a+bridge !edieva %etic (t#dies% 5% ( 5#81#
7arman% A(O(H( ,$-,% CThe Delineation of Arthur in Early 4elsh SerseD% in
9( Sarty <ed(= An Arth#rian Ta&estry: Essays in !e+ory of 9ewis Thor&e
<Glasgo'=% ( ,8",
7arman% A(O(H( ,$-5% CThe Arthurian Allusions in the /la&) /oo) of
+armarthenD% in P(/( Grout% R(A( Lodge% +(E( Pi&)ford and E(9(+( Sarty
<edd(= The 9egend of Arth#r in the !idde Ages <+am!ridge=% ( $$8,,"
7arman% A(O(H( ,$--% Aneirin: 2 Gododdin, .ritain?s 6dest Heroic Poe+
<Llandysul=
15
7arman% A(O(H( ,$-$8$#% CThe Arthurian Allusions in the /oo) of AneirinD%
(t#dia %etica% "1J2% ( ,28"2
7arman% A(O(H( ,$$,% CThe ?erlin Legend and the 4elsh Tradition of
ProhesyD% in /rom'i&h et a <edd(= ,$$,% ( ,,08,12
7ones% T( and 7ones% G( ,$1$% The !abinogion <London=
7ones% T( ,$31% CThe Early E.olution of the Legend of ArthurD% ,ottingha+
!edieva (t#dies% -% ( 58",
9ennedy% /( ,$$2% CRe.ie' of +(S( Littleton and L(A( ?al&orDs Fro+ (cythia
to %a+eotD% Arth#riana% 2(5% ( ,"085#
9ir!y% D(P( ,$$,% The Eariest Engish Kings <London=
9o&h% 7(T( ,$$1% CRe.ie' of R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <eshD%
(&ec##+% 3$% ( ,,"08"$
9o&h% 7(T( and +arey% 7( ,$$2% The %etic Heroic Age : 9iterary (o#rces for Ancient
%etic E#ro&e and Eary @reand and <aes <?alden% ?ass(=
9o&h% 7(T( ,$$3% CThe +elti& LandsD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= !edieva Arth#rian
9iterat#re: A G#ide to -ecent -esearch <Ne' Kor)=% ( "5$85""
9o&h% 7(T( ,$$0% The Gododdin of Aneirin. Te4t and %onte4t fro+ /ark'Age
,orth .ritain <+ardiff=
Laidge% ?( and Dum.ille% D(N( <edd(= ,$-1% Gidas: ,ew A&&roaches
<4ood!ridge=
Littleton% +( S&ott and ?al&or% L( ,$$1% Fro+ (cythia to %a+eot: A -adica
-eassess+ent of the 9egends of King Arth#r, the Knights of the -o#nd Tabe, and the
Hoy Grai <Ne' Kor) and London=
Loomis% R(S( ,$2-% CArthurian Tradition and Fol)loreD% Fokore% 3$% ( ,8"2
Loomis% R(S( <ed(= ,$2$% Arth#rian 9iterat#re in the !idde Ages <O>ford=
?a&+ullo&h% 7(A( ,$,,% The -eigion of the Ancient %ets <Edin!urgh; rer(
London% ,$$,=

11
?a&9illo% 7( ,$-3% Fionn +ac %#+hai. %etic !yth in Engish 9iterat#re
<Syra&use=
?a&9illo% 7( ,$$-% /ictionary of %etic !ythoogy <O>ford=
?alone% 9( ,$"1% CThe Histori&ity of ArthurD% Jo#rna of Engish and Ger+anic
Phioogy% "5% ( 13581$,
?alone% 9( ,$"182% CArtoriusD% !odern Phioogy% ""% ( 530801
?iller% ?( ,$02% CRelati.e and A!solute Pu!li&ation Dates of GildasDs /e
E4cidio in ?edie.al S&holarshiD% .#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% "3% (
,3$801
?urhy% G( ,$25% /#anaire Finn iii <London=
?orris% 7( ,$05% The Age of Arth#r <London=
?orris% 7( ,$-#% ,enni#s: .ritish History and the <esh Annas <+hi&hester=
T hTgUin% D( ,$--% Fionn +ac %#+hai: @+ages of the Gaeic Hero <Du!lin=
ODSulli.an% T(D( ,$0-% The /e E4cidio of Gidas, @ts A#thenticity and /ate
<Leiden=
Olmsted% G(S( ,$$1% The Gods of the %ets and the @ndo'E#ro&eans </udaest=
Padel% O(7( ,$$1% CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0%
( ,85,
Padel% O(7( ,$$2% CRe&ent 4or) on the Origins of the Arthurian Legend; A
+ommentD% Arth#riana% 2(5% ( ,#58,1
Padel% O(7( ,$$-% CA Ne' Study of the GododdinD% %a+brian !edieva %etic
(t#dies% 52% ( 12822
Phillimore% E( ,---% CThe PAnnales +am!riaeQ and Old84elsh Genealogies
from PHarleian ?SQ 5-2$D% 2 %y++rodor% $% ( ,1,8-5
Raht6% P( ,$$5% Engish Heritage .ook of Gastonb#ry <London=
Radford% +(A(R( ,$3-% CGlaston!ury A!!eyD% in G(Ashe <ed(= The 1#est for
12
Arth#r?s .ritain <London=% ( ,,$8,5-
Rhys% 7( ,-$,% (t#dies in the Arth#rian 9egend <O>ford=
Ro!erts% /(F( ,$0581% CRe.ie' of R( /ar!er% The Fig#re of Arth#rD% (t#dia
%etica% -J$% ( 55385$
Ro!erts% /(F( ,$$,a% C%#hwch ac 6wen% The Triads% SaintsD Li.esD% in
/rom'i&h et a <edd(= ,$$,% ( 058$2
Ro!erts% /(F( ,$$,!% CGeoffrey of ?onmouth% Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae and
.r#t 2 .renhineddD% in /rom'i&h et a <edd(= ,$$,% ( $-8,,3
Rogers% 7(H( ,$$-% COrigins of the an&ient &onstellations; II( The
?editerranean traditionsD% Jo#rna of the .ritish Astrono+ica Association% ,#-("%
( 0$8-$
Ross% A( ,$$"% Pagan %etic .ritain <London=
Ross% A( "##,% Fokore of <aes <Stroud=
Ro'land% 7( ,$$#% Eary <esh (aga Poetry: a (t#dy and Edition of the Engynion
<+am!ridge=
Sims84illiams% P( ,$-5% CGildas and the Anglo8Sa>onsD% %a+bridge !edieva
%etic (t#dies% 3% ( ,85#
Sims84illiams% P( ,$$,% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in /rom'i&h et
a <edd(= ,$$,% ( 5580,
S)ene% 4(F( ,-3-% The Fo#r Ancient .ooks of <aes <Edin!urgh=
Snyder% +(A( ,$$-% An Age of Tyrants. .ritain and the .ritons A./. HFF'IFF
<Pennsyl.aniaJStroud=
Sen&e% L( ,$12% The !agica Arts in %etic .ritain <London=
Thomas% A(+( ,$-,% %hristianity in .ritain to A/ JFF <London=
Thomas% N( ,$$2% CArthurian E.iden&es; The Histori&ity and Histori&isation
of 9ing ArthurD% /#rha+ Nniversity Jo#rna% -0("% ( 5-28$"

13
Tur.ille8Petre% 7(E( ,$2580% CHengest and HorsaD% (aga .ook of the ;iking
(ociety% ,1% ( "058$#
San Hamel% A(G( ,$51% CAse&ts of +elti& ?ythologyD% Proceedings of the
.ritish Acade+y% "#% ( "#081-
4adge% R( ,$-0% C9ing Arthur; A /ritish or Sarmatian TraditionBD% Fokore%
$-("% ( "#18,2
4ard% D(7( ,$3$% The /ivine Twins, A @ndo'E#ro&ean !yth in Ger+anic Tradition
Mni.ersity of +alifornia Fol)lore Studies .ol( ,$
4inter!ottom% ?( ,$0-% Gidas, The -#in of .ritain and 6ther <orks
<+hi&hester=
4ood% +(T( ,$$2% CRe.ie' of +(S( Littleton and L(A( ?al&orDs Fro+ (cythia to
%a+eot and G( Phillis and ?( 9eatmanDs King Arth#r: The Tr#e (toryD%
Arth#riana% 2(5% ( ,"18"0
4ood% ?( ,$-,% @n (earch of the /ark Ages <London=
4ood% ?( ,$$$% @n (earch of Engand: Jo#rneys @nto the Engish Past <London=
Kor)e% /(A(E( ,$$5% CFa&t or Fi&tionB The 'ritten e.iden&e for the fifth and
si>th &enturies ADD% Ango'(a4on (t#dies in Archaeoogy and History% 3% ( 128
2#
Kor)e% /(A(E( ,$$2% <esse4 in the Eary !idde Ages <London=
"
A /i!liograhi& Guide to 4elsh
Arthurian Literature
1$
A /i!liograhi& Guide to 4elsh Arthurian
Literature
'ontents
,( Introdu&tion
"( The ?anus&rits
a. The .ack .ook of %ar+arthen
b. The .ook of Taiesin
c. The <hite .ook of -hydderch
d. The -ed .ook of Hergest
e. The .ook of Aneirin
5( The Te>ts
a. Historia .ritton#+ OJI and the Annaes %a+briae
b. The !irabiia of the Historia .ritton#+
c. 2 Gododdin
d. !arwnad %ynddyan
e. Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5
f. %#hwch ac 6wen
g. Preide# Annwfyn
h. Engynion y .edda#
i. Kat Gode#
P. !arwnat Nthyr PenAdragonB, Kadeir Teyrnon, !adAawgB dr#t ac Erof,
and Kan# y !eirch
k. 2+ddiddan Arth#r a?r Eryr
. 2+ddiddan !ewas ac Gwenhwyfar
+. 2+ddiddan Gwyddno Garanhir ac Gwyn fab ,#dd
n. Gereint fiAi#sB Erbin
o. The 9atin (aints? 9ives
&. /e !irac#is (anctae !ariae 9a#densis, the 9iber Forid#s, and Gesta
-eg#+ Angor#+
3. Trioedd 2nys Prydein
r. Tri Thws ar /deg 2nys .rydain
s. .re#ddwyd -honabwy
t. The Gogynfeirdd and %ywyddwyr

2#
1. Introduction
The follo'ing is intended to ro.ide a !i!liograhi&al guide to the
Arthurian referen&es found in medie.al 4elsh manus&rits( In addition to
!i!liograhi& data% it in&ludes !rief dis&ussions of ea&h te>t and its
signifi&an&e( Naturally% these short dis&ussions are not intended rela&e
those found in my %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ese&ially &haters t'o%
three and four% 'hi&h are ne&essarily &onsidera!ly more detailed and
in.ol.ed( Nonetheless% it is hoed that the follo'ing 'ill ro.e a useful and
easily a&&essi!le hand!oo) of those te>ts that are rele.ant to any study of
the early Arthurian legend(
2. The (anuscripts
?ost of the early referen&es to Arthur are found in only a handful of
manus&rits% !riefly outlined !elo'( In addition to the referen&es &ited in
the indi.idual se&tions% anyone seriously interested in 4elsh manus&rits
should &onsult Daniel Hu'sD !edieva <esh !an#scri&ts <+ardiff% "###=(
a. The Blac) Boo) of 'ar*arthen
The C/la&) /oo) of +armarthenD <National Li!rary of 4ales% Peniarth ?S ,=
'as &omiled !y a single s&ri!e o.er a eriod of years in the latter half of
the thirteenth &entury( It &ontains religious oetry% early raise8oems%
roheti& .erse !elonging to the re8Galfridian ?erlin &y&le and oems
&on&erning Arthur and other ClegendaryD heroes(
The most su!stantial Arthurian oem &ontained in the C/la&) /oo)D is
Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5 <C4hat man is the gate)eeerJorterBD=% 'hi&h has !een
most re&ently translated and dis&ussed in detail !y Patri&) Sims84illiams in
CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of
the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at ( 5-813( The other referen&es to
Arthur are only !rief allusions% for e>amle in Engynion y .edda# <CStan6as of
the Gra.esD=% though still imortant(
For the te>t see A(O(H( 7arman <ed(=% 9yfr /# %aerfyrddin <+ardiff% ,$-"=G
for a general sur.ey of the C/la&) /oo)D% its date and &ontents in English see
A(O(H( 7arman% CLlyfr Du +aerfyrddin; The /la&) /oo) of +armarthenD%
Proceedings of the .ritish Acade+y% 0, <,$-2=% ( 555823( The manus&rit% 'ith
a good introdu&tion% is no' a.aila!le for .ie'ing online at htt&:))www.gc.
org.#k)inde4.&h&5idQbackbookofcar+arthen(
2,
b. The Boo) of Taliesin
The C/oo) of TaliesinD <NL4 Peniarth ?S "=% of 'hi&h 5- folios sur.i.e%
'as 'ritten !y a single s&ri!e in the first Auarter of the fourteenth &entury(
Its &ontents <a mi>ture of religious% roheti&% mythi&al and histori&al
oems= urort to &omrise the &olle&ted 'or)s of the !ardJsage Taliesin%
as they 'ere en.isaged in the later ?iddle Ages( The &ase for a genuine early
nu&leus 'hi&h might reresent the authenti& 'or) of a si>th8&entury
Taliesin is !ased on a grou of ar&hai& raise8oems addressed to Mrien of
Rheged and &ontemorary rulers; Ifor 4illiams% %an# Taiesin <+ardiff% ,$3#=
and The Poe+s of Taiesin, translated !y 7(E( +aer'yn 4illiams <Du!lin% ,$3-=(
Of more &ertain date is the tenth8&entury roheti& oem Ar+es Prydein
<dating c. $5#=% 'hi&h !riefly mentions ?yrddin <?erlin=( The maIority of
the oems in the manus&rit date from !et'een the eighth and the ele.enth
&enturies and are imli&itly attri!uted to the fi&tional ersona of the all8
)no'ing% semi8di.ine TaliesinG for this legendary Taliesin and his
relationshi to the histori&al Taliesin of the si>th &entury% see Ifor 4illiamsD
9ect#res on Eary <esh Poetry <Du!lin% ,$21= and %hwed Taiesin <ODDonnell
Le&ture% ,$20=G P(9( Ford% The !abinogi <,$00=G ?( Hay&o&)% CPPreiddeu
Ann'nQ and the Figure of TaliesinD% (t#dia %etica% ,-J,$ <,$-581=% ( 2"8
0-G P(9( Ford% 2storia Taiesin <+ardiff% ,$$"=G P(+( /artrum% A <esh %assica
/ictionary <A!eryst'yth% ,$$5=% ( 2$28$0G O( Da.ies% %etic %hristianity in
Eary !edieva <aes <+ardiff% ,$$3=% &hater 1G 7(T( 9o&h% C/e (ancto @#dicaeo
-ege Historia and Its Imli&ations for the 4elsh TaliesinD% in 7(F( Nagy and
L(E( 7ones <edd(= %etic (t#dies Association of ,orth A+erica 2earbook E'H: Heroic
Poets and Poetic Heroes in %etic Tradition <Du!lin% "##2=% ( "1083"G ?(
Hay&o&) <ed( and trans(=% 9egendary Poe+s fro+ the .ook of Taiesin
<A!eryst'yth% "##0=% ( $8",(
The name of Arthur aears in only fi.e of the oems in the C/oo) of
TaliesinD E Kat Gode#% Kadeir Teyrnon% Kan# y !eirch, !arwnat vthyr &enNdragonO
and Preide# Annwfyn( Of these the most signifi&ant is Preide# Annwfyn <CThe
Soils of Ann'fynD=( The reason for the s&ar&ity of referen&es to Arthur is
ro!a!ly a matter of genre; Cthat Arthur and Taliesin <li)e% say% Arthur and
+harlemagne= 'ere too imortant to share the same latformD; P( Sims8
4illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=
The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 2,(
See ?( Hay&o&)% CLlyfr TaliesinD% ,ationa 9ibrary of <aes Jo#rna% "2
<,$--=% ( 5208-3 for a dis&ussion of the manus&ritG a fuller study is
ro.ided !y her unu!lished ,$-5 do&toral dissertation( Further analysis of
the manus&rit and the oems &an !e found in ?arged Hay&o&)Ds u!lished
'or)s% not least the arti&le and !oo) &ited a!o.eG see also her CTaliesinDs
@uestionsD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% 55 <,$$0=% ( ,$80$% and CPSome
tal) of Ale>ander and some of Her&ulesQ; three early medie.al oems from
the P/oo) of TaliesinQD% %a+bridge !edieva %etic (t#dies% ,5 <,$-0=% (085-(

2"
Some de!ate e>ists o.er the lin)s !et'een the Taliesin oems and
aganism% 'ith 7ohn 9o&h suggesting that Hay&o&) and others are 'rong to
argue that the Taliesin oems do not refle&t in any 'ay +elti& aganism and
its struggles 'ith +hristianity; 7(T( 9o&h% CThe +elti& LandsD% in N(7( La&y
<ed(= !edieva Arth#rian 9iterat#re: A G#ide to -ecent -esearch <Ne' Kor)%
,$$3=% ( "5$85"" at ( "35832(
The te>t is a.aila!le in 7( G'enog.ryn E.ans <ed(= The .ook of Taiesin:
Facsi+ie and Te4t <Llan!edrog% ,$,#= and the legendary oems are no'
edited% translated and dis&ussed in Hay&o&)Ds 9egendary Poe+s fro+ the .ook of
Taiesin <A!eryst'yth% "##0=( The Arthurian referen&es are dis&ussed E 'ith
further referen&es E !y Sims84illiams in his CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian
PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=%
( 5580,( A fa&simile of the manus&rit is also a.aila!le online from the
National Li!rary of 4ales at htt&:))www.gc.org.#k)inde4.&h&5idQbookoftaiesin
&eniarth+sR(
c. The +hite Boo) of &hydderch
The C4hite /oo) of Rhydder&hD <NL4 Peniarth ?SS( 1 and 2= is a
remar)a!le and unre&edented &omendium of medie.al 4elsh rose and
oetry% 'ritten in the mid8fourteenth &entury% 'hi&h is no' !ound in t'o
.olumes in the National Li!rary of 4ales( Peniarth 2% 'hi&h originally
re&eded Peniarth 1% &ontains religious te>ts% the 4elsh +harlemagne &y&le
and other matter( Peniarth 1 &ontains the earliest &omlete te>t of the
C?a!inogionD tales and% ta)en as a 'hole% the C4hite /oo)D ro.ides the
earliest te>ts of mu&h of the !est of 4elsh medie.al se&ular rose(
A good re&ent dis&ussion of the C4hite /oo)D is Daniel Hu's% CLlyfr
G'yn Rhydder&hD% in D( Hu's% !edieva <esh !an#scri&ts <+ardiff% "###=%
( ""083- E a !rief summary% !y Hu's% &an also !e read in R( /rom'i&h et
a <edd(=% The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( $8,,( The tales ha.e
!een u!lished in The <hite .ook !abinogion <P'llheli% ,$#0= !y 7(
G'enog.ryn E.ans% rerinted as 9yfr Gwyn -hydderch <+ardiff% ,$05=% as
'ell as in numerous indi.idual editions( ?ost rele.ant for resent uroses
is R( /rom'i&h and D( Simon E.ans <edd(=% %#hwch and 6wen: An edition
and st#dy of the odest Arth#rian tae <+ardiff% ,$$"=( A full fa&simile is a.aila!le
from the National Li!rary of 4ales at htt&:))www.gc.org.#k)inde4.&h&5idQ
whitebookofrhydderch&eniart(
d. The &ed Boo) of Hergest
The CRed /oo) of HergestD <7esus +ollege% O>ford ?S ,,,= is the largest of
the of the 4elsh medie.al .erna&ular manus&rits and in&ludes a &oy of
almost the 'hole of 4elsh literature that dates re8,1## <it 'as &reated !y
25
three sets of s&ri!es 'or)ing in &olla!oration sometime !et'een ,5-" and
c( ,1,#=% in&luding the most e>tensi.e .ersion of Trioedd 2nys Prydein% !ut
'ith the e>&etion of the materials in the C/oo) of AneirinD% the C/oo) of
TaliesinD% and the religious and legal te>ts( The &hief s&ri!e 'as one Hy'el
Fy&han a Hy'el Go&h of /uilth and his hand has !een identified in se.eral
other 4elsh manus&rits% in&luding in the C4hite /oo) of Rhydder&hD%
'here the original s&ri!e had left a sa&e( There is a &lose &orresonden&e
!et'een some of the te>ts in the CRedD and C4hite /oo)sD <for e>amle%
their .ersions of the C?a!inogionD and the Triads= and it is generally held
that they deri.ed indeendently from a lost &ommon ar&hetye(
The main te>ts of the CRed /oo)D &an !e read in dilomati& editions in 7(
Rhys and 7( G'enog.ryn E.ans <edd(=% The Te4t of the !abinogion and other
<esh taes fro+ the -ed .ook of Hergest <O>ford% ,--0=G 7( Rhys and 7(
G'enog.ryn E.ans <edd(=% The Te4ts of the .r#ts fro+ the -ed .ook of Hergest
<O>ford% ,-$#= and 7( G'enog.ryn E.ans% The Poetry in the -ed .ook of
Hergest <Llan!edrog% ,$,,=( A full fa&simile of the CRed /oo) of HergestD is
a.aila!le online at htt&:))i+age.o4.ac.#k)show5coectionQPes#s0+an#scri&tQ+s
SSS( For a des&rition of the CRed /oo)D% see 7( G'enog.ryn E.ans% -e&ort
on !an#scri&ts in the <esh 9ang#age <London% ,-$-8,$,#=% II% ( ,8"$ and
the referen&es in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=% The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff%
,$$,=% ( ,"(

e. The Boo) of Aneirin
The late thirteenth8&entury C/oo) of AneirinD <+ardiff ?S "(-,= is a mu&h8
dis&ussed manus&rit of 5- small .ellum ages% &ontaining fi.e oems <2
Gododdin and its four CAdditional SongsD or Gorchana#=( Arthur is mentioned
!y name only on&e in the manus&rit% in the /8te>t of 2 Gododdin(
On the C/oo) of AneirinD see /(F( Ro!erts <ed(=% Eary <esh Poetry:
(t#dies in the .ook of Aneirin <A!eryst'yth% ,$--= and for the te>t see I(
4illiams <ed(= %an# Aneirin <+ardiff% ,$50=( For 2 Gododdin see the a!o.e
and 9(H( 7a&)son% The Gododdin: The 6dest (cottish Poe+ <Edin!urgh% ,$3$=%
A(O(H( 7arman% Aneirin: 2 Gododdin, .ritain?s 6dest Heroic Poe+ <Llandysul%
,$--=% and 7(T( 9o&h% The Gododdin of Aneirin: Te4t and %onte4t fro+ /ark'Age
,orth .ritain <+ardiff% ,$$0=( For a general o.er.ie' of the CArthurian
Allusions in the /oo) of AneirinD% see A(O(H( 7armanDs arti&le of the same
name in (t#dia %etica% "1J"2 <,$-$J$#=% ( ,58"2( A full fa&simile of the
manus&rit is a.aila!le at the follo'ing 'e!site; htt&:))www.gtP.org.#k)en)
s+a)ite+)GTJSFTFF))&age)S).

21
3. The Te,ts
a. Historia Brittonu* -"$ and the Annales 'a*briae
The +am!ro8Latin Historia .ritton#+ 'as 'ritten anonymously in A(D(
-"$J5#G 'hilst it has often !een as&ri!ed to one CNenniusD% this &laim rests
on .ery du!ious e.iden&e and is not really sustaina!le <see D(N( Dum.ille%
CSome Ase&ts of the +hronology of the Historia .ritton#+D% .#etin of the
.oard of %etic (t#dies% "2 <,$01=% ( 15$812G D(N( Dum.ille% CNennius and
the Historia .ritton#+D% (t#dia %etica% ,#J,, <,$02J3=% ( 0-8$2( +f( P(7(+(
Field% CNennius and his HistoryD% (t#dia %etica% 5# <,$$3=% ( ,2$832=(
Although there has !een &onsidera!le de!ate o.er the nature of the Historia%
modern s&holarshi largely reIe&ts the notion that it reresents simly a
CheaD of earlier materials 'hi&h &an !e mined for largely unaltered and
genuinely an&ient sour&es% !rought together and reser.ed !y a simle
&omiler in the ninth &entury% as romoted !y L( Al&o&)% Arth#r?s .ritain:
History and Archaeoogy A/ EIK'IEH <Harmonds'orth% ,$05=% ( 5"( Instead% a
detailed analysis of the te>t indi&ates that the author of the Historia .ritton#+
had% in the main% only .ery late and unrelia!le sour&es a.aila!le to himG that
he 'rote 'ith a unity of stru&ture and outloo)G and that he 'as engaged in
the a&ti.e ro&essing of his sour&es( The result of this is that there seems
little ossi!ility of re&o.ering usa!le information a!out the fifth and si>th
&enturies from his te>t( Furthermore% the &laim that the t'el.e !attles
as&ri!ed to Arthur in the Historia .ritton#+ R23 must ha.e !een ta)en from a
re8e>isting <and early= 4elsh oem is merely an assumtion% and one
'hi&h re&ent a&ademi& &ommentators ha.e reIe&ted on a num!er of
grounds( Gi.en all of this% R23 of the Historia .ritton#+ &an !e only really
&onsidered to !e e.iden&e for the &on&et of Arthur ossessed !y the early
ninth8&entury author of the Historia% nothing more( For a detailed
dis&ussions of all of this% see D(N( Dum.ille% CThe Histori&al Salue of the
Historia .ritton#+D% Arth#rian 9iterat#re% 3 <,$-3=% ( ,8"3G T(?( +harles8
Ed'ards% CThe Arthur of HistoryD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of
the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( ,285"G D(N( Dum.ille% CHistoria .ritton#+; an
Insular History from the +arolingian AgeD% in A( S&harer and G(
S&hei!elreiter <edd(= Historiogra&hie i+ frChen !itteater <4ienJ?Zn&hen%
,$$1=% ( 1#3851G T( Green% CThe Histori&ity and Histori&isation of ArthurD
<,$$-=% ar&hi.ed at htt&:))www.arth#riana.co.#k)historicity)arth#r.ht+G N(7(
Higham% King Arth#r, !yth'!aking and History <London% "##"=% ( ,,$83$G
T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% (,28"3% 5#811( The Arthurian
!attle8list in R23 runs as follo's;
At that time the Sa>ons in&reased their num!ers and gre' in
/ritain( On HengestDs death% his son O&tha &ame do'n from the
22
north of /ritain to the )ingdom of the 9entishmen% and from him
are srung the )ings of the 9entishmen( Then Arthur fought
against them in those days% together 'ith the )ings of the /ritish%
!ut he 'as the d#4 beor#+ NCleader in !attlesDO( The first !attle 'as
at the mouth of the ri.er &alled Gein( The se&ond% the third% the
fourth and the fifth 'ere on another ri.er% &alled the /#bgas% 'hi&h
is in the &ountry of 9inn#is( The si>th !attle 'as on the ri.er &alled
.assas( The se.enth !attle 'as in +elyddon Forest% that is %at %oit
%eidon( The eighth !attle 'as in G#innion Fort% and in it Arthur
&arried the image of the holy ?ary% the e.erlasting Sirgin% on his
shoulders% and the heathen 'ere ut to flight this day% and there
'as a great slaughter uon them% through the o'er of Our Lord
7esus +hrist and the o'er of the holy Sirgin ?ary% his mother(
The ninth !attle 'as fought in the &ity of the Legions( The tenth
!attle 'as fought on the !an) of the ri.er &alled Tribr#it( The
ele.enth !attle 'as on the hill &alled Agned( The t'elfth !attle 'as
on .adon hill and in it nine hundred and si>ty men fell in one day%
from a single &harge of ArthurDs% and no one laid them lo' sa.e he
alone% and he 'as .i&torious in all his &amaigns( <7( ?orris%
,enni#s: .ritish History and The <esh Annas <+hi&hester% ,$-#=% (
52% 'ith minor modifi&ations=
The other imortant re8Galfridian sour&e 'hi&h ossesses a &on&et of
Arthur as a histori&al figure 'ho 'on !attles against the Anglo8Sa>ons of
c. A(D( 2## is the Annaes %a+briae% CThe 4elsh AnnalsD( This 'as &omiled
in the $2#s and it &ontains the follo'ing referen&es to Arthur;
NA(D( 2,3O .e#+ .adonis, in 3#o Arth#r &ortavit cr#ce+ /o+ini nostri
Jhes# %hristi trib#s dieb#s et trib#s noctib#s in h#+eros s#os et .rittines
victores f#erent... NA(D( 250O G#ieth %a+ann in 3#a Arth#r et !edra#t
corr#er#nt, et +ortaitas in .rittannia et in Hibernia f#it. <?orris% ,$-#% (
-2=
NA(D( 2,3O The !attle of /adon% in 'hi&h Arthur &arried the &ross
of our Lord 7esus +hrist for three days and three nights on his
shoulders% and the /ritons 'ere the .i&tors((( NA(D( 250O The !attle
of +amlann% in 'hi&h Arthur and ?edraut fell% and there 'as a
great mortality Ni.e. lagueO in /ritain and Ireland(
Although it has sometimes !een maintained that these entries deri.e from
mu&h older /ritish annals% this notion is e>tremely ro!lemati&al in the light
of the te>tual history of the Annaes %a+briae; see ese&ially 9( Gra!o's)i
and D(N( Dum.ille% %hronices and Annas of !edieva @reand and <aes

23
<4ood!ridge% ,$-1=% ( "#$8"3G Green% "##0% ( "38"-( Furthermore%
there seems to !e some )ind of relationshi !et'een the /adon entry and
the Historia .ritton#+Ds a&&ount of ArthurDs .i&tory at G#innion% 'ith the
result that a num!er of re&ent analyses ha.e &onsider the Annaes to !e
dire&tly deri.ati.e of the Historia .ritton#+Ds a&&ount in terms of !oth its
&ontent and its &on&et of Arthur( See further 7(T( 9o&h% CThe +elti& LandsD%
in N(7( La&y <ed(= !edieva Arth#rian 9iterat#re: A G#ide to -ecent -esearch <Ne'
Kor)% ,$$3=% ( "5$85"" at ( "2"825G Higham% "##"% ( "#,8#0G Green%
"##0% ( "-85#% 02800% ",3(
For a detailed dis&ussion of !oth of these sour&es% and the &onte>t and
relia!ility of their &on&ets of Arthur% see T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r
<Stroud% "##0=% ese&ially &haters one% t'o and si>% and N(7( Higham% King
Arth#r, !yth'!aking and History <London% "##"=% ese&ially ( ,,$83$% ,$58
",0( Latin te>ts 'ith translations of !oth the Historia .ritton#+ and the
Annaes %a+briae &an !e most easily o!tained in 7( ?orris <ed( and trans(=
,enni#s: .ritish History and The <esh Annas <+hi&hester% ,$-#=( The !est
editions are% ho'e.er% those of 7( Ste.enson <ed(= ,ennii Historia .riton#+
<London% ,-5-=% and E( Faral% 9a 9egende Arth#rienne: Ut#des et /oc#+ents, es
&#s Anciens Te4ts% three .olumes <Paris% ,$"$=% III% ( ,83"( The tenth8
&entury Sati&an Re&ension of the Historia .ritton#+ has !een re&ently edited
in D(N( Dum.ille <ed(=% Historia .ritton#+; iii. The ;atican -ecension
<+am!ridge% ,$-2=(

b. The (irabilia of the Historia Brittonu*
The +irabiia aear in RR30802 of the Historia .ritton#+ <dated A(D( -"$J5#=
and &onsist of t'enty mar.els( The first four are num!ered <the rest simly
!egin Ai#d +irac##+ est% CAnother 'onder isD or Est ai#d +irabie% CThere is
another 'onderD= and are not lo&ated in 4ales( ?ar.els 2 to ,1 are lo&ated
in 4ales% generally in the south8east of the &ountry and along the English
!order% and the last si> mar.els are those of Anglesey <,28,-= and Ireland
<,$8"#=( The non84elsh mar.els aear to !e dra'n from re8e>isting
sour&es !ut the &entral grou <28,1= seem to !e of a some'hat different
&hara&ter E they seem to ha.e had a mu&h more oular &onte>t for the
editor than the others in his list% and the nature of his a&&ount of them
suggests that he 'as ersonally a&Auainted 'ith these +irabiia. Of these
C4elshD mar.els% t'o <in R05 of the Historia= are asso&iated 'ith Arthur;
There is another 'onder in the &ountry &alled /uilth( There is a
hea of stones there% and one of these stones la&ed on the to of
the ile has the footrint of a dog on it( 4hen he hunted T'r&h
Tr'yth% +afal <%aba=% the 'arrior ArthurDs hound% imressed his
footrint on the stone% and Arthur later !rought together the ile of
20
stones% under the stone in 'hi&h 'as his dogDs footrint% and it is
&alled +arn +afal <%arn %aba=( ?en &ome and ta)e the stone in
their hands for the sa&e of a day and a night% and on the morro' it
is found uon the stone ile( <7( ?orris% ,enni#s: .ritish History and
The <esh Annas <+hi&hester% ,$-#=% ( 1"% mar.el no( ,"=
%arn %aba is a rehistori& &airn 'hi&h gi.es its name to +orn +afallt% a hill
near Rhaeadr <Po'ys=( The signifi&an&e of this mar.el lies mainly in the fa&t
that it is a solid indi&ation that the &ore of the tale of the hunting of Twrch
Trwyth% told in detail in %#hwch ac 6wen% e>isted in the early ninth &entury at
the latest and that Arthur 'as already asso&iated 'ith itG also signifi&ant is
the fa&t that ArthurDs hound is &alled %aba ChorseD% suggesting that the dog
'as er&ei.ed as !eing huge( There is an illustration and des&rition of a
&andidate for the stone referred to in the Historia in Lady +harlotte GuestDs
The !abinogion <London% ,-1$=% II% ( 53# <( "$# of the &oma&t ,-00
edition=( This Arthurian Cmar.elD has !een &onsidered to !e already an&ient
!y the ninth &entury <see Ra&hel /rom'i&h and D( Simon E.ans <edd(=%
%#hwch and 6wen. An edition and st#dy of the odest Arth#rian tae <+ardiff%
,$$"=% ( l>.i% and T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 3080#=(
The other Arthurian +irabie is num!er ,5;
There is another 'onder in the &ountry &alled Ergyng <Ercing=(
There is a tom! there !y a sring% &alled Llygad Amr <9icat A+r=G
the name of the man 'ho 'as !uried in the tom! 'as Amr( He 'as
the son of the 'arrior Arthur% and he )illed him there and !uried
him( ?en &ome to measure the tom!% and it is sometimes si> feet
long% sometimes nine% sometimes t'el.e% sometimes fifteen( At
'hate.er measure you measure it on one o&&asion% you ne.er find it
again of the same measure% and I ha.e tried it myself( <?orris% ,$-#%
( 1"% mar.el no( ,5=
The region Ercing is Ar&henfield <Herefordshire= and the usual identifi&ation
of the sring 9icat A+r Cthe eye Nor sour&eO of A+rD is the ri.er Gam!er in
Herefordshire and its sour&e Gam!er Head in Llan'arne% ne>t to 'hi&h is a
no'8destroyed rehistori& tumulus 'hi&h is resuma!ly the gra.e( +learly
this Cmar.elD is% li)e the one a!o.e% an onomasti& toograhi& tale dra'n
from lo&al% oular fol)lore and here designed to e>lain the name 9icat
A+r and an asso&iated gra.e( The story of Arthur )illing Amr is other'ise
un)no'n% although CAmhar son of ArthurD aears in Geraint as one of
ArthurDs four &ham!erlains along 'ith /ed'yrDs son% Amhren; see G'yn
and Thomas 7ones <trans(=% The !abinogion <London% ,$1$=% ( "5,( The
milieu of the t'o Arthurian +irabiia is thus one of 'onderful animals%
suernatural e.ents and remar)a!le features in the lands&ae that are

2-
e>lained !y referen&e to Arthur and his attendant legends(
For a dis&ussion of the +irabiia see O(7( Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurD%
%a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,85, arti&ularly ( "81G /(F(
Ro!erts% C%#hwch ac 6wen% the Triads% SaintDs Li.esD% in R( /rom'i&h%
A(O(H( 7arman and /(F( Ro!erts <edd(=% The Arth#r of the <esh: The
Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 058$2 at (
--8$5G Patri&) 9( Ford% COn the Signifi&an&e of some Arthurian Names in
4elshD% .#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% 5# <,$-5=% ( "3-805G and T(
Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 3080"( A Latin te>t and
translation of the +irabiia &an !e most easily had from 7( ?orris <ed( and
trans(=% ,enni#s: .ritish History and The <esh Annas <+hi&hester% ,$-#=( The
!est editions of the Historia .ritton#+ are% ho'e.er% those of 7( Ste.enson
<ed(=% ,ennii Historia .riton#+ <London% ,-5-=% and E( Faral% 9a 9egende
Arth#rienne: Ut#des et /oc#+ents, es P#s Anciens Te4ts% three .olumes <Paris%
,$"$=% III% ( ,83"(
c. . /ododdin
The &olle&tion of heroi& death8songs )no'n as 2 Gododdin is found in the
late thirteenth8&entury C/oo) of AneirinD( There has !een mu&h de!ate o.er
the statement that the 'arrior G'a'ddur Cfed !la&) ra.ens on the ramart
of a fort% though he 'as no ArthurD </(5-=(
,
Thomas +harles8Ed'ards%
!uilding on his theory of te>tual transmission E set forth in T(?( +harles8
Ed'ards% CThe Authenti&ity of the Gododdin; A HistorianDs Sie'D% in R(
/rom'i&h and R(/( 7ones <edd(= Ast#diaetha# ar yr Hengerdd, (t#dies in 6d
<esh Poetry <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( 1180, E has &on&luded that% as the referen&e
to Arthur only o&&urs in the / te>t and not the A te>t of 2 Gododdin% it need
!e no older than the ninth or tenth &entury <CThe Arthur of HistoryD% in R(
/rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( ,1=( Re&ently%
ho'e.er% 7ohn 9o&h has attemted to Cre&onstru&tD the te>t of 2 Gododdin
<.ia rin&iles of te>tual &riti&ism and histori&al linguisti&s= to sho' ho' it
'ould ha.e loo)ed if it 'as &omosed and 'ritten do'n re835-% as he
!elie.es it to ha.e !een% and he argues that the awd 'hi&h mentions Arthur
should !e seen as art of this CoriginalD te>t of 2 Gododdin <The Gododdin of
Aneirin: Te4t and %onte4t fro+ /ark'Age ,orth .ritain <+ardiff% ,$$0=% es(
Introdu&tion and ( ,1081-=( 4hether he is right or not is% of &ourse% to !e
de!atedG Graham Isaa&% for e>amle% has instead argued that there is no
linguisti& e.iden&e 'hi&h 'ould ne&essitate dating 2 Gododdin as a 'hole
, 7(T( 9o&h% The Gododdin of Aneirin. Te4t and %onte4t fro+ /ark'Age ,orth .ritain
<+ardiff% ,$$0=% num!ers this awd <Cstan6aD= /L(5- and re&onstru&ts the
Arthurian referen&e as cVt'nVWbe e+ ArthCr( The 'ord translated a!o.e as Cfed%
gluttedD% gochore% is ta)en !y 9o&h as Csends do'n% dra's do'n% enti&esD !ut this
does not &hange the meaning of the assage(
2$
!efore the ninth or tenth &entury; G(R( Isaa&% The ;erb in the .ook of Aneirin:
(t#dies in (ynta4 !or&hoogy and Ety+oogy <TZ!ingen% ,$$3=% and G(R( Isaa&%
CReadings in the History and Transmission of the GododdinD% %a+brian
!edieva %etic (t#dies% 50 <,$$$=% ( 2280-( See T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r
<Stroud% "##0=% ( ,58,1% 2#82"% for an o.er.ie' and dis&ussion of re&ent
oinions(
4hate.er the date of this awd% the nature of the Arthurian referen&e and
its &on&et of Arthur deser.e &omment( As 9o&h has o!ser.ed% CArthur is
resented as the unri.alled aragon of martial .alour and is thus used to
form a highly unusual &omarison !y rendering e>li&itly inferior the
honorand of the awd(D Arthur 'as &learly .ie'ed !y the oet as the
imossi!le &omarison% a C/rittoni& suerheroD and legendary aragon of
heroism to 'hose heights of .alour not e.en a man 'ho )illed 5## in one
rush &ould &omare <7(T( 9o&h% CThe +elti& LandsD% in N(7( La&y <ed(=
!edieva Arth#rian 9iterat#re: A G#ide to -ecent -esearch <Ne' Kor)% ,$$3=% (
"5$85"" at ( "1"G see further O(7( Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian
!edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,1G Green% "##0% ( ,18,2% 2"=( This
&on&et of Arthur does not only aear in 2 GododdinG it is also to !e found
in a num!er of other non8Galfridian sour&es% in&luding the mid8se.enth8
&entury !arwnad %ynddyan and the oetry of the t'elfth8 and thirteenth8
&entury Gogynfeirdd(
Turning a'ay from the referen&e to Arthur% there is one other signifi&ant
CArthurianD allusion in 2 Gododdin( This is the aearan&e of ?yrddin
<?erddin% ?erlin= in the A te>t of 2 Gododdin <stan6a A(1#=% 'here it is said
that a+#c !oryen ) gwenwawt !irdyn% C?orien defended the fair song Nor
!lessed insired .erseO of ?yrddinD( Mnli)e in the &ase of /L(5-% this awd is
found in !oth te>ts of 2 Gododdin <A(1# and /](2=% suggesting it may go !a&)
to the CoriginalD oem( Ho'e.er% 'hilst the awd is resent in !oth te>ts% the
referen&e to gwenwawt !irdyn is a!sent from the stan6a in the more ar&hai& /
te>t and it has !een e>&luded !y 9o&h from his re&onstru&tion of 2
Gododdin( It is generally agreed that the ?yrddin allusion &annot !e seen as
original to the oem and instead it should !e &onsidered as a relati.ely late
interolation to the te>t <i.e. !elonging to erhas the tenth to t'elfth
&enturies% see 9o&h% ,$$3% ( "1"% "12G 9o&h% ,$$0% ( l>>>.% &iii% &.i% ,208
3"G A(O(H( 7arman% CThe Arthurian Allusions in the /oo) of AneirinD% (t#dia
%etica% "1J"2 <,$-$J$#=% ( "#8"5=( It should% of &ourse% !e noted that this
referen&e is% in any &ase% only tangentially CArthurianD as ?yrddin and Arthur
'ere not asso&iated 'ith ea&h other in re8Galfridian tradition(
For the te>t of 2 Gododdin% see I( 4illiams <ed(= %an# Aneirin <+ardiff%
,$5-=( For translations and re&onstru&ted te>ts% see 9(H( 7a&)son% The
Gododdin: The 6dest (cottish Poe+ <Edin!urgh% ,$3$=G A(O(H( 7arman% Aneirin:
2 Gododdin, .ritain?s 6dest Heroic Poe+ <Llandysul% ,$--=G and 7(T( 9o&h% The
Gododdin of Aneirin: Te4t and %onte4t fro+ /ark'Age ,orth .ritain <+ardiff%
,$$0=(

3#
d. (ar0nad 'ynddylan
The ar&hai& heroi& elegy !arwnad %ynddyan <CThe Death8song of
+ynddylanD% a se.enth8&entury rin&e of Po'ys= only sur.i.es in
manus&rits dating from c. ,35, and laterG the earliest is NL4 1$05% (
,#-ff(% &oied !y Dr 7ohn Da.ies of ?all'yd( Ho'e.er these are !elie.ed
to !e a&&urate and relia!le &oies of mu&h earlier originals and !arwnad
%ynddyan has !een sho'n to ha.e !een almost &ertainly &omosed in East
Po'ys immediately after +ynddylanDs death at <inwXd in A(D( 322 E see 7(
Ro'landDs Eary <esh (aga Poetry: a (t#dy and Edition of the Engynion
<+am!ridge% ,$$#=(
The oem 'ould seem to refer to Arthur in mu&h the same 'ay as does
2 Gododdin <Ro'land% ,$$#% ( ,-3 suggests an alternate% non8Arthurian
reading for the te>t of the oem% !ut this doesnDt seem to ha.e gained
general a&&etan&e=( It imlies that the military deeds of +ynddylan and his
!rothers are of su&h great .alour that these 'arriors might !e seen as
canawon Art#r fras, dinas dengyn% C'hels of great Arthur% a mighty fortressD
<see R( /rom'i&h% C+on&ets of ArthurD% (t#dia %etica% ,#J,, <,$0283=% (
,358-, at ( ,00G T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 25821G R(
/rom'i&h et a% CIntrodu&tionD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the
<esh: The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( ,8
,1 at ( 2G 7(T( 9o&h% CThe +elti& LandsD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= !edieva Arth#rian
9iterat#re: A G#ide to -ecent -esearch <Ne' Kor)% ,$$3=% ( "5$85"" at (
"12813( CFortressD% dinas% here has the sense of Cdefender% defen&eD=( As su&h
it sho's that the &on&ets of Arthur as a Ceerless 'arriorD and the ultimate
standard of &omarison 'ere resent in East Po'ys <roughly modern
Shroshire= !y the mid8se.enth &entury( This &on&et of Arthur as the
Caragon of military .alourD is &learly shared !y other non8Galfridian 4elsh
sour&es too% su&h as the oems Kadeir Teyrnon% Gereint fiAi#sB Erbin%
2+ddiddan Arth#r a?r Eryr% and !arwnat vthyr &enAdragonB% and is also to !e
found in the 'or)s of the Gogynfeirdd(
See 7( Ro'land% Eary <esh (aga Poetry: a (t#dy and Edition of the Engynion
<+am!ridge% ,$$#=% for an edition% translation and dis&ussion of the
histori&al &onte>t of this oemG 7(T( 9o&h and 7( +arey% The %etic Heroic Age:
9iterary (o#rces for Ancient %etic E#ro&e and Eary @reand and <aes <?alden%
?ass(% ,$$2=% ( 53#83" also has a translation of the 'hole oem(
e. 1a gur yv y porthaur2
Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5 <C4hat man is the gate)eeerJorterBD% also )no'n as
2+ddiddan Arth#r a Gewwyd Gafaefawr% CThe Dialogue of Arthur and
Gle'l'yd Gafaelfa'rD= is an imortant re8Galfridian Arthurian dialogue
oem from the C/la&) /oo) of +armarthenD( It should most ro!a!ly !e
3,
dated to roughly the same eriod as the other /la&) /oo) 2+ddiddan% that is
the ninth or tenth &entury <R( /rom'i&h% CIntrodu&tionD% and /(F( Ro!erts%
CRhai o Gerddi Kmddiddan Llyfr Du +aerfyrddinD% in R( /rom'i&h and R(/(
7ones <edd(= Ast#diaetha# ar yr Hengerdd <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( "#8",% "-,85"2G
/(F( Ro!erts% C%#hwch ac 6wen% The Triads% SaintsD Li.esD% in R( /rom'i&h et
a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 058$2 at ( 0-G see further
T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r% ( -#=( Ho'e.er% as 'ith mu&h Old 4elsh
.erse% a later date is imossi!le to rule out entirely and% indeed% 9o&h has
ointed out that a date of &omosition in the eighth &entury is not
imlausi!le in the &ase of this oem <in (&ec##+% 3$(1 <,$$1=% ( ,,"08"$=(
The oem is% itself% simly a summary of many earlier mythi&al Arthurian
tales% as Sims84illiams has ointed out <CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD%
in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5-=( In
it Arthur is the head of a &omany of fol)lori& heroes and agan gods 'ho
e>er&ise mar.ellous and suerhuman o'ers( It has $# e>tant lines% the
ending of the ie&e !eing lost due to a missing manus&rit leaf <'hi&h
unfortunately means that the oem !rea)s off in the middle of an e>tremely
intriguing senten&e=( In the e>tant ortion of the oem /ed'yr and +ai are
ArthurDs main hen&hmen and its general 'orld is one in 'hi&h Arthur and
his men fight !attles against human or suernatural enemies% in&luding
&yno&ehali <dog8headed men=% 'it&hes% and PalugDs +at( The relationshi
!et'een Pa g#r5 and %#hwch ac 6wen is ro!lemati&al as there is some
o.erla E ho'e.er% gi.en the length of %#hwch ac 6wen% o.erla is
understanda!le and there are many oints on 'hi&h there is no o.erla( It is
thus unli)ely that the &omilers of %#hwch dre' on a 'ritten te>t of Pa g#r5%
though they may 'ell ha.e )no'n of it( Rather they !oth seem to dra'
from the same !ody of early Arthurian tradition% !ut 'ith Pa g#r5
reresenting Ca stage rior to the merging of that tradition 'ith the story of
the 'ooing of the giantDs daughterD and one at 'hi&h Arthur and his heroes
'ere outside the gate rather than inside the &ourt <9o&h% ,$$3% ( "3,=( The
oem !egins as a dialogue !et'een Arthur and Gle'l'yd;
C4hat man is the gate)eeerBD
8CGle'l'yd Great GrasG
'hat man as)s itBD
8 CArthur and Nor 'ithO +ai the fair(D
8 C4hat N!andO goes 'ith youBD
8 CThe !est men in the 'orld(D
8CInto my house you 'ill not &ome
unless you .ou&h for themD
8 CI shall .ou&h for them%
and you 'ill see them%D
<lines ,8,#; Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 1#=

3"
This orter s&ene is ro!a!ly a sto&) narrati.e formula of .erna&ular story8
telling <analogous s&enes are to !e had in &hater 5" of the ninth8&entury
Historia .ritton#+ and in %#hwch ac 6wen= 'hi&h is deri.ed from +elti&
mythology <see 9o&h% ,$$3% ( "3,% and CFurther to Tong# /o /ia Toinges !o
Th#ath% :&(D% Ut#des %eti3#es% "$ <,$$"=% ( "1$83,=( The 'ord gwared that
Sims84illiams translates as C.ou&h forD &an also !e translated as Cdis&loseD%
Cdis&o.erD( Thomas 7ones has lausi!ly suggested in light of this that the
assage should !e ta)en as indi&ating that 'hen Arthur and his follo'ers
arri.e at the gate they are in.isi!le and that% Csin&e Arthur romises to re.eal
them%D one of ArthurDs CCendo'mentsD or magi&al gifts in the !a&)ground
story 'as the o'er to ma)e his men in.isi!leD <T( 7ones% CThe Early
E.olution of the Legend of ArthurD% ,ottingha+ !edieva (t#dies% - <,$31=% (
58", at ( ,38,0=( After the a!o.e assage the oem de.elos into a list of
ArthurDs men and their e>loits re&ounted !y Arthur% in&luding deeds !y
Arthur himself;
Though Arthur laughed Nor BlayedO
he &aused theJher !lood to flo'
in Afarna&hDs hall%
fighting 'ith a 'it&h(
He ier&ed +udgel<B= Head
in the d'ellings of Disetha&h(
On the mountain of Edin!urgh
he fought 'ith dogheads(
/y the hundred they fellG
they fell !y the hundred
!efore /ed'yr the Perfe&t Nor Perfe&t8Sine'O(
<lines 50810; Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 1,81"=
The final &onfli&t mentioned !y the oem <lines -,8$#= is a !attle against
e#on% Clions% 'ild8&atsD and the monstrous sea8&at %ath Pa#c <C+la'ing +atD%
later CPalugDs +atD= attri!uted to +ai( In other sour&es this features Arthur
rather than +ai and it seems ro!a!le that all the sour&es are re&ounting a
generally Arthurian !attle% 'ith +ai simly made rominent in Pa g#r5Ds
telling and Arthur else'here( This might 'ell aly to all the !attles referred
to in the oem and it is most interesting that the Arthurian !attle against
'ere8'ol.es at Traeth Tryfrwyd% mentioned in Pa g#r5 <lines ,$8""% 1-82,= as
in.ol.ing !oth /ed'yr and the sea8god ?ana'ydan son of Llyr% is in&luded
in Historia .ritton#+ R23 as ArthurDs tenth !attle(
For a full dis&ussion and translation of Pa g#r5 see P( Sims84illiams% CThe
Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the
<esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at ( 5-813% and T( Green% %once&ts of
Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 0$8-2% ,##8"% ,#3% ,,"8,5% ,,$8",( See also
35
A(O(H( 7arman% CThe Delineation of Arthur in Early 4elsh SerseD% in 9(
Sarty <ed(= An Arth#rian Ta&estry: Essays in !e+ory of 9ewis Thor&e <Glasgo'%
,$-,=% ( ,8", at ( 08,#G A(O(H( 7arman% CThe Arthurian Allusions in the
/la&) /oo) of +armarthenD% in P(/( Grout et a <edd(= The 9egend of Arth#r in
the !idde Ages <+am!ridge% ,$-5=% ( $$8,," at ( ,#08,,G /(F( Ro!erts%
CRhai o Gerddi Kmddiddan Llyfr Du +aerfyrddinD% in R( /rom'i&h and R(/(
7ones <edd(= Ast#diaetha# ar yr Hengerdd <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( "-,85"2 <'hi&h
in&ludes the te>t of the oem=G and /(F( Ro!erts% C%#hwch ac 6wen% the
Triads% SaintDs Li.esD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh
<+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 058$2 at ( 0-80$( For an interesting &omarison
!et'een this oem and the fragmentary English !allad C9ing Arthur and
9ing +orn'allD% see O(7( Padel% Arth#r in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff%
"###=% ( 5#85"(
f. 'ulh0ch ac !l0en
%#hwch ac 6wen is the earliest tale in the so8&alled C?a!inogionD and is
reser.ed in t'o manus&rits; the C4hite /oo) of Rhydder&hD <Peniarth 1%
&ols(12"8--= and the CRed /oo) of HergestD <&ols(-,#811=% 'ith the 4hite
/oo) only ha.ing the first t'o thirds of the story( The language of %#hwch
ac 6wen aears to !e Late Old 4elsh and the &omosition of the e>tant
reda&tion of the tale is generally la&ed in the late ele.enth &entury% although
one re&ent re.ie'er has suggested dating it to the mid8t'elfth &entury; see
R( /rom'i&h and D(S( E.ans <edd(=% %#hwch and 6wen: An edition and st#dy
of the odest Arth#rian tae <+ardiff% ,$$"=% ( >i.8>>.% l>>.ii8l>>>iiiG 7(T( 9o&h%
CThe +elti& LandsD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= !edieva Arth#rian 9iterat#re: A G#ide to
-ecent -esearch <Ne' Kor)% ,$$3=% ( "2-82$G D( Edel% CThe Arthur of
P+ulh'&h and Ol'enQ as a figure of Ei&8Heroi& TraditionD% -eading
!edieva (t#dies% $ <,$-5=% ( 5G S( Rod'ay% CThe Date and Authorshi of
+ulh'&h a& Ol'en; A ReassessmentD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% 1$
<"##2=% ( ",811( All of the a!o.e datings do% ho'e.er% &ause some
signifi&ant ro!lems if 'e &hoose to gi.e a roughly similar date to the
Auintessentially ?iddle 4elsh CFour /ran&hes of the ?a!inogiD <as has often
!een the &ase= and 7ones% 7a&)son and% most re&ently% Ford ha.e all instead
offered a mid to late tenth8 or early ele.enth8&entury date for the tale; T(
7ones and G( 7ones <trans(=% The !abinogion <London% ,$1$=% ( i>G 9(H(
7a&)son% A %etic !isceany <Harmonds'orth% ,$0,=% ( ,$08"#1G P(9( Ford%
C+ulh'&h and Ol'enD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= The ,ew Arth#rian Encyco&edia
<Garland% Ne' Kor)% ,$$3=% ( ,#18#3% also ( 2#-G see also 9o&h% ,$$3%
( "2-82$( Su&h a dating is also suggested !y 9o&h% 'ho has re&ently dated
the tale tentati.ely to c( ,### <7(T( 9o&h% The Gododdin of Aneirin <+ardiff%
,$$0=% ( &i.% &.=% and Edel% 'ho suorts a date in the se&ond half of the
tenth &entury for a 'ritten .ersion of at least some arts of %#hwch ac 6wen
<Edel% ,$-5% ( 5=(

31
The &on&et of Arthur held !y the tale is !oth that of a great o.erlord
<he is the C+hief of the 9ings of /ritainD= and a reno'ned monster8slayer(
Though %#hwch ac 6wen is most ro!a!ly a literary &omosition it 'as
&learly !ased on a num!er of earlier oral and legendary Arthurian tales
'hi&h 'ere !rought together and fused 'ith the CgiantDs daughterD fol)lore
tale8tye to &reate the story as 'e no' ossess it E the Arthurian material is
generally &onsidered to reresent the same !ody of .ery early non8histori&al
tales as Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5% Historia .ritton#+ +hater 05 and Preide#
Annwfyn do( The t'o most o!.ious e>amles of su&h re8e>isting tales
in&ororated into %#hwch ac 6wen are <,= the stories of the hunting of the
di.ine great !oar T'r&h Tr'yth E 'hi&h is an e.ent asso&iated 'ith Arthur
from at least as early as the eighth &entury on the e.iden&e of the Historia
.ritton#+ <see /rom'i&h and E.ans% ,$$"% ( l>.i; the &on&et of a mythi&al
Giant /oar ro!a!ly has its origins in agan +elti& religious !eliefs=% and <"=
the Iourney to Ireland !y Arthur in his shi Pryd'en to sei6e the &auldron
of Di'rna&h% 'hi&h is &learly related to the Iourney to the Other'orld told
in the eighth8&entury or earlier oem Preide# Annwfyn( /oth 'ould aear to
artly deri.e in %#hwch from lo&al onomasti& fol)lore( Other early
Arthurian tales 'hi&h 'ould seem to !e reser.ed in the story of %#hwch ac
6wen in&lude the )illing of the Sery /la&) 4it&h Cin the Mlands of HellDG
the )illing of the giants 4rna&h and Dillus the /eardedG the res&ue !y
ArthurDs 'ar!and of the agan god ?a!on a ?odron from an
Other'orldly fortressG and ArthurDs settling of a disute !et'een the di.ine
G'yn a Nudd and G'ythyr a Greida'l( See further arti&ularly
/rom'i&h and E.ans% ,$$"% ese&ially ( >l.ii8l>>.G T( Green% %once&ts of
Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ese&ially ( 2082$% 32% 3-83$% $28,##% ,#08#-% ,,"8
,3% ,2$83"% ,33% ,05802G Edel% ,$-5G and /(F( Ro!erts% C%#hwch ac 6wen% the
Triads% SaintDs Li.esD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh
<+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 058$2 ese&ially ( 038-#=(
At least some of the main &hara&ters of the tale <in&luding !oth +ulh'&h
and Ol'en= may not ha.e !een traditional and ha.e almost no re&orded
e>isten&e outside of the story itself% !elonging to the CgiantDs daughterD fol)8
legend that forms a frame for the re8e>isting Arthurian tales rather than
these tales themsel.es% although Ksaddaden Pen8)a'r may ha.e his origins
in re82## oral tradition <see 9o&h% ,$$3% ( "23= and the name %#hwch is
mentioned in a ro!a!ly ninth8&entury engyn from a lament to +ynddylan of
Po'ys( For the te>t 'ith suer! notes% a !i!liograhy and a full dis&ussion
see Ra&hel /rom'i&h and D( Simon E.ans <edd(= %#hwch and 6wen: An
edition and st#dy of the odest Arth#rian tae <+ardiff% ,$$"=( See also T( Green%
%once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% &haters t'o% three and fourG /(F( Ro!erts%
C%#hwch ac 6wen% the Triads% SaintDs Li.esD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The
Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 058$2G D( Edel CThe Arthur of
P+ulh'&h and Ol'enQ as a figure of Ei&8Heroi& TraditionD% -eading
!edieva (t#dies% $ <,$-5=% ( 58,2G and 7(T( 9o&h% CThe +elti& LandsD% in N(7(
32
La&y <ed(= !edieva Arth#rian 9iterat#re <Ne' Kor)% ,$$3=% ( "5$85"" at (
"2383"( ?odern and relia!le translations are a.aila!le in T( 7ones and G(
7ones <trans(=% The !abinogion <London% ,$1$= and P(9( Ford <trans(=% The
!abinogi </er)eley% ,$00=(
g. 1reideu Ann0fyn
Preide# Annwfyn <CThe Soils of the Other'orldD= is &ontained in the
fourteenth &entury C/oo) of TaliesinD <Poem HHH= and features the figures
of Taliesin and Arthur( Hay&o&) has suggested that the date of &omosition
&annot easily !e narro'ed further than to the Old 4elsh eriod in general
!ut this has !een &hallenged !y 9o&h% 'ho has sho'n that a mid to late
eighth8&entury date 'ould suit this oem% ma)ing it an earlier 'itness to the
Arthurian legend than the Historia .ritton#+; ?( Hay&o&)% CPPreiddeu
Ann'nQ and the Figure of TaliesinD% (t#dia %etica% ,-J,$ <,$-581=% ( 20G 7(T(
9o&h% CThe +elti& LandsD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= !edieva Arth#rian 9iterat#re
<Ne' Kor)% ,$$3=% ( "35832( 9o&hDs resear&h does% of &ourse% &onfirm
and .indi&ates Sir Ifor 4illiamsD oinion that the oem should !e dated to
c( $## or !efore <in R(S( Loomis% CPThe Soils of Ann'nQ; An Early 4elsh
PoemD% in R(S( Loomis% <aes and the Arth#rian 9egend <+ardiff% ,$23=% (
,5,=( It should !e noted that the features 9o&h uses to date the oem to the
mid to late eighth &entury 'ould !e resent in earlier &omositions also% and
the mid to late eighth &entury might therefore !e seen as a ter+in#s ante 3#e+(
The !a&)ground to the oem is a story of an e>edition !y Arthur in his
shi% Pryd'en% to Ann'fyn E the +elti& Other'orld E to sei6e a magi&al
&auldron !elonging to Pen Annwfyn <CThe +hief of the Other'orldD=% along
'ith one or more remar)a!leJfaery animals% from a fortress there% to 'hi&h
there are numerous analogues in +elti& literature <for e>amle% the Auest for
Di'rna&h the IrishmanDs &auldron in %#hwch ac 6wen=( There also seems to
!e a story of the imrisonment of G'eir in the Other'orld and his release
!y Arthur% 'hi&h again finds analogues in %#hwch ac 6wen <'ith the res&ue
!y ArthurDs 'ar!and of the agan god ?a!on a ?odron from an
Other'orldly fortress= and else'here( Fuller .ersions of these stories must%
!y ne&essity% ha.e !een art of the mental furniture of the audien&e of
Preide# Annwfyn in order that they might understand the no' o!s&ure
allusions &ontained 'ithin it( As su&h% these stories must re8date to some
un)no'a!le degree the &omosition of the oem; see Hay&o&)% ,$-581% (
22G T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 21830(
For dis&ussion% te>t and translation see ?( Hay&o&)% CPPreiddeu Ann'nQ
and the Figure of TaliesinD% (t#dia %etica% ,-J,$ <,$-581=% ( 2"80-G ?(
Hay&o&) <ed( and trans(=% 9egendary Poe+s fro+ the .ook of Taiesin
<A!eryst'yth% "##0=% ( 15582,( For detailed analyses of the oem see also
T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ese&ially ( 21830% ,2$83#G P(

33
Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in /rom'i&h et a <edd(=
The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at ( 21820G A( /udgey%
CPPreiddeu Ann'nQ and the 4elsh Tradition of ArthurD% in +(7( /urne% ?(
Harry and P( T Siadhail <edd(= %etic 9ang#ages and %etic Peo&e <Halifa>% No.a
S&otia% ,$$"=% ( 5$,81#1G and R(S( Loomis% CCThe Soils of Ann'nD An
Early 4elsh PoemD% in R(S( Loomis% <aes and the Arth#rian 9egend <+ardiff%
,$23=% ( ,5,80-( /oth /udgey and Loomis &ontain alternati.e translations
of the te>t% as do 7(/( +oe and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The %etic (o#rces for
the Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% and 7(T( 9o&h and 7( +arey <ed( and
trans(=% The %etic Heroic Age: 9iterary (o#rces for Ancient %etic E#ro&e and Eary
@reand and <aes <?alden% ?ass(% ,$$2=(
h. #nglynion y Beddau
The Engynion y .edda# <CStan6as of the Gra.esD= re&ord% Coften 'ith
une>e&ted oeti& o'er% the sites of the gra.es of on&e8famous heroes%
testifying to the &lose asso&iation !et'een heroes and la&es in early 4elsh
literatureD <P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in R(
/rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 1$=% and Cthe
heroes named(((!elong to legend and fol)lore rather than to historyD <A(O(H(
7arman% CThe Arthurian Allusions in the /la&) /oo) of +armarthenD% in P(/(
Grout et a <edd(= The 9egend of Arth#r in the !idde Ages <+am!ridge% ,$-5=%
( $$8,," at ( ,,,=( 4hilst the earliest e>tant manus&rit &ontaining them
<the C/la&) /oo) of +armarthenD= dates to the thirteenth &entury% there &an
!e no dou!t that the .ast maIority of the engynion are far older than this E
7enny Ro'land has re&ently dated the /la&) /oo) te>t to the mid to late
ninth &entury% !ut as antiAuarian re&ords of oral tales and toograhi&
fol)lore they may 'ell reresent mu&h older traditions; 7( Ro'land% Eary
<esh (aga Poetry: a (t#dy and Edition of the Engynion <+am!ridge% ,$$#=% (
5-$G see also T( 7ones% CThe /la&) /oo) of +armarthen; Stan6as of the
Gra.esD% Proceedings of the .ritish Acade+y% 25 <,$30=% ( $08,50( Of the 05
stan6as in the /la&) /oo)% only three <-% ," and 11= mention 'ell8)no'n
Arthurian &hara&ters and of these the most imortant is no( 11 'hi&h names
Arthur himself;
NThere isO a gra.e for ?ar&h% a gra.e for G'ythur%
a gra.e for G'ga'n Red8s'ordG
the 'orldDs 'onder <anoeth= NisO a gra.e for Arthur(
<Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 1$=
The oetDs imli&ation is that the gra.es of these Arthurian heroes are
)no'n !ut that of Arthur himself is anoeth% imossi!le to findJa&hie.e%
ro!a!ly !e&ause he 'as rumoured not to !e dead <a !elief 'hi&h is
30
referred to else'here in the re8Galfridian literature% see T( Green% %once&ts
of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 0"802=( 4ith regards to the other heroes in this
assage% G'ythur is found asso&iated 'ith Arthur in %#hwch ac 6wen and
Kan# y !eirchG G'ga'n aears in .re#ddwyd -honabwyG and ?ar&h is the
&u&)olded )ing of the semi8Arthurian Tristan stories( The follo'ing t'o
stan6as <- and ,"% rese&ti.ely= also &on&ern &hara&ters and e.ents from the
early Arthurian legend;
The gra.e of G'al&hmai is in Peryddon <&eriton=
as a reroa&h to menG
at Llan!ardarn is the gra.e of +ynon(
The gra.e of OsfranDs son is at +amlann%
after many a slaughterG
the gra.e of /ed'yr is on Tryfan hill(
<Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 2#=
The gra.e of G'al&hmai% ArthurDs nehe' in %#hwch ac 6wen% is also
referred to !y 4illiam of ?almes!ury c( ,,"2 in his Gesta -eg#+ Angor#+%
'here is it la&ed uon the sea8shore Cin the ro.in&e of 4ales &alled
R<h=osD and is said to !e fourteen feet long <&omare !oth the si6e of the
gra.e and nature of the tale 'ith the gra.e of Amr% ArthurDs son% in the
+irabiia of the Historia .ritton#+=. Ad Tryvan ro!a!ly refers to Tryfan in
Sno'donia !ut unfortunately no other non8Galfridian referen&es to a tale of
/ed'yrDs death ha.e sur.i.ed to usG +amlann is o!.iously ArthurDs last
legendary defeat and the &ollo&ation 'ith Tryfan in the a!o.e engyn suggests
it 'as identified% at least !y this ninth8&entury te>t% 'ith +amlann near
?all'yd% ?erionethshire(
See T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 0"80-% and P( Sims8
4illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=
The Arth#r of the <esh: The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re
<+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at ( 1$82,% for an e>amination of the Engynion(
O(7( PadelDs CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0
<,$$1=% ( ,85, at ( -8,"% has dis&ussion of the !elief that Arthur 'as not
dead and 'ould return% as does Green% "##0% &hater t'o( For the te>t and
dis&ussion see Thomas 7ones% CThe /la&) /oo) of +armarthen; Stan6as of
the Gra.esD% Proceedings of the .ritish Acade+y% 25 <,$30=% ( $08,50(
i. 3at /odeu
Kat Gode# <CThe /attle of the ForestD= is one of the so8&alled
transformational oems from the fourteenth8&entury C/oo) of TaliesinD( As
it stands the oem itself &ertainly dates from later than the si>th &entury !ut

3-
&ontains elements 'hi&h may refle&t mu&h older sour&es% for e>amle the
ossi!le sur.i.al of agan tree8lore <7ohn /( +oe and Simon Koung <ed( and
trans(=% The %etic (o#rces for the Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( ,1,=(
The !ul) of the oem is &on&erned 'ith a great mythologi&al !attle E also
mentioned in a .ariety of other non8Galfridian sour&es E fought !y the
di.ine sons of D^n .ia an army of magi&ally animated trees% the forest thus
animated% it has !een argued% !eing the famed %oed %eyddon% Cthe +aledonian
ForestD; Ifor 4illiams% The Poe+s of Taiesin <Du!lin% ,$3-=% ( >liii8>li.G R(
/rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads <+ardiff%
,$0-=% ( "#08#-% 21#G ?( Hay&o&)% CThe Signifi&an&e of the P+ad
GoddauQ Tree8List in the /oo) of TaliesinD% in ?(7( /ell et a <edd= %etic
9ing#istics: -eadings in the .rythonic 9ang#ages for T. Arwyn <atkins
<Amsterdam% ,$$#=% ( "$0855, at ( 5#-8#$(
Arthur himself is named only on&e% 'hen the Cdruids of the 'ise oneD are
&ommanded to Crohesy NtoO ArthurD <lines "508"5-=( The te>t here &ould
mean either Cof ArthurD or Cto ArthurD% !ut it seems more li)ely that they are
to rohesy to him and that he 'as therefore resent <P( Sims84illiams
CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r
of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at ( 2,82"=( In addition% near the
!eginning of the oem the Clord of /ritainD is mentioned in the &onte>t of
the !attle and Hay&o&) has argued that this should ro!a!ly !e seen as a
referen&e to Arthur too <see Hay&o&) ,$$#% ( "$-=;
Keint yg kat gode# bric ) -ac Prydein wedic
I sang in the .an of the tree8!attalion <or Cin the !attle of the
!ran&hy treesD= !efore the lord of /ritain( <lines "380; Sims84illiams
,$$,% ( 2"=
Therefore in Kat Gode# 'e seem to ha.e a otentially early oem that
features a mythi&al !attle fought !y the trees of %oed %eyddon% 'hi&h is in
some E erhas maIor E 'ay asso&iated 'ith ArthurG for a full dis&ussion of
all this% in&luding the otential date of Kat Gode# itself% see T( Green% %once&ts
of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 3"830( The asso&iation of this !attle 'ith
Arthur E hen&eforth &alled %ad Godda# to distinguish it from the oem of
the same name E is% to some large degree% &onfirmed !y an e>amination of
other early sour&es( Thus% in the oem Kat Gode#% at least art of the fighting
E &oming immediately after the referen&e to Cthe lord of /ritainD E is
fo&ussed around a fort &alled Kaer ,efenhir;
I 'ounded a great s&aly animal; a hundred heads on him
And a fier&e host !eneath the !ase of his tongue%
And another host is on his ne&)s(
3$
A !la&)% for)ed toad; a hundred &la's on him(
An en&hanted% &rested sna)e in 'hose s)in a hundred souls are
unished(
I 'as in Kaer ,efenhir 'here grass and trees atta&)ed%
Poets sang% 'arriors rushed forth(
<lines 5#811; P(9( Ford% The !abinogi and 6ther !edieva <esh Taes
</er)eley% ,$00=% ( ,-1=
There is only one other referen&e in medie.al 4elsh literature to this
fortress E it is named as one of the la&es &onAuered in the ast !y Arthur
in %#hwch ac 6wen <see Green% "##0% ( 32=( This is o!.iously suggesti.e of
Arthur indeed !eing the Prydein wedic% Clord of /ritainD% at the head of the
army of trees in Kat Gode#( Similarly% later 4elsh manus&rits state that an
alternate name for the !attle %ad Godda# 'as %ad Achren% a name 'hi&h is
highly suggesti.e of the name of one of the forts E %aer 6chren E that Arthur
lead the atta&) on in the early oem Preide# Annwfyn; see for this
identifi&ation% Green% "##0% ( 35G A( /udgey% CPPreiddeu Ann'nQ and the
4elsh Tradition of ArthurD% in +(7( /urne% ?( Harry and P( T Siadhail <edd(=
%etic 9ang#ages and %etic Peo&e <Halifa>% No.a S&otia% ,$$"=% ( 5$,81#1 at
( 5$3% and ?( Hay&o&)% CPPreiddeu Ann'nQ and the Figure of TaliesinD%
(t#dia %etica% ,-J,$ <,$-581=% ( 2"80- at ( 02( Su&h a lin) !et'een %ad
Achren and ArthurDs assault on %aer 6chren gains &onsidera!le suort from
the fa&t that Trioedd 2nys Prydein and other 4elsh te>ts des&ri!e the !attle of
%ad Godda# as a CfutileJointless !attleD 'hi&h 'as &aused !y a roe!u&) and
a dog% identified as a greyhound in one te>t( This a&&ords 'ell 'ith the
des&rition of ArthurDs assault on %aer 6chren in Preide# Annwfyn as a C'oeful
&onfli&tD 'hi&h seems to ha.e !een underta)en in order to retrie.e the C!east
they )ee 'ith a sil.er headD <Green% "##0% ( 35G /udgey% ,$$"% ( 5$3=(
Gi.en all this% and the fa&t that the forest animated in Kat Gode# is
&onsidered to ha.e !een %oed %eyddon% it is diffi&ult to a.oid &onne&ting this
aarently mythi&al Arthurian !attle 'ith the %at %oit %eidon <Cthe !attle of
%oed %eyddonD= attri!uted to Arthur in R23 of the early ninth8&entury Historia
.ritton#+ <Green% "##0% ( 30=( As 'ith the HistoriaDs tenth !attle% 'hi&h
aears as a !attle against 'ere8'ol.es in.ol.ing the former sea8god
?ana'ydan son of Llyr in Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5% 'e aear to ha.e a situation
in 'hi&h a mythi&al Arthurian !attle has !een !orro'ed and histori&ised !y
the author of the Historia <or his hyotheti&al sour&e= for his list of ArthurDs
suosed .i&tories against the Sa>ons(
See further on this !attle% T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% (
3"830( The full te>t of the oem &an !e found in 7( G'enog.ryn E.ans
<ed(=% The .ook of Taiesin: Facsi+ie and Te4t <Llan!edrog% ,$,#= and ?(
Hay&o&) <ed( and trans(=% 9egendary Poe+s fro+ the .ook of Taiesin
<A!eryst'yth% "##0=% ( ,308"5$G it has !een translated !y Hay&o&) in the

0#
a!o.e .olume and !y P(9( Ford as an aendi> to his The !abinogi
</er)eley% ,$00=% ( ,-58-0(
4. (ar0nat 5thyr 1en6dragon78 3adeir Teyrnon8 (ad6a0g7
drut ac #rof8 and 3anu y (eirch
Aside from Preide# Annwfyn and Kat Gode# there are four other Arthurian
referen&es in the C/oo) of TaliesinD( These are found in the oems !arwnat
Nthyr PenAdragonB <CThe Death8Song of Mthyr PendragonD E Pendragon is
a!!re.iated in the manus&rit=G Kadeir Teyrnon <CThe +hair of a Prin&eD or
CThe +hair of TeyrnonD=G !adAawgB dr#t ac Erof <C?adNa'gO the fier&e and
HerodD E !adawg is a!!re.iated in the manus&rit=G and Kan# y !eirch
<CPoem of the HorsesD=( None of these oems are usually dated any more
re&isely than to the Old 4elsh eriod in general% roughly the ninth to
ele.enth &enturies( !arwnat Nthyr Pendragon is a 'holly Arthurian ie&e%
!eing ro!a!ly en.isaged as !eing so)en !y ArthurDs father% Mthyr
Pendragon% 'ho seems% from Trioedd 2nys Prydein no( "- and GeoffreyDs
Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae% to ha.e !een a Taliesin8li)e figure% a magi&ian and
shae8&hanger in 4elsh tradition; P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh
Arthurian PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh
<+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 25( The lines that are of arti&ular signifi&an&e for Arthur
are as follo's;
A .i&torious s'ord8stro)e !efore the sons of +a'rnur(
I shared my shelter%
a ninth share in ArthurDs .alour(
I !ro)e a hundred forts(
I sle' a hundred ste'ards(
I !esto'ed a hundred mantles(
I &ut a hundred heads(
I ga.e to an old &hief
.ery great s'ords of rote&tion(
NBBBO
An iron rote&tion (((NBBBO((( mountain8to(
To my deri.ation% to my sorro'% BNsine' 'as !ra.eO(
The 'orld 'ould not e>ist 'ere it not for my offsring(
<lines ,"8"1; 7(/( +oe and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The %etic (o#rces
for the Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( ,2#82,=
Lines ,58,1 are &learly to !e related to the &on&et of Arthur as a mighty
'arrior% and Sims84illiams has suggested that Mthyr here means that he has
assed on his Aualities to his son <,$$,% ( 25=( This is reinfor&ed !y the
roud and intriguing !oast <refle&ting erhas the non8Galfridian &on&et
0,
of Arthur as the CProte&tor of /ritainD against suernatural threats= in line "1
that CThe 'orld 'ould not e>ist 'ere it not for my offsringD( 4ith regards
to Mthyr he is &learly &on&ei.ed of as a o'erful 'arrior and rote&tor
himself in the a!o.e lines% 'hilst the earlier arts of the oem ha.e
sometimes !een used to argue that Mthyr 'as a agan +elti& God <see 9(
?alone% CThe Histori&ity of ArthurD% Jo#rna of Engish and Ger+anic Phioogy%
"5 <,$"1=% ( 1358$, at ( 13$80,G R( Loomis %etic !yth and Arth#rian
-o+ance <London% ,$"3=% ( 52"=( It is interesting in this &onte>t that the god
?a!on a ?odron is des&ri!ed as MthyrDs ser.ant in lines ,58,1 of Pa g#r yv
y &ortha#r5( For a full analysis of this oem% see no' T( Green% %once&ts of
Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( ,1282#(
Kadeir Teyrnon is an o!s&ure !oasting oem uttered !y the legendary%
semi8di.ine Taliesin !efore he releases his atron Elffin from
imrisonment( He !egins !y raising a &ertain Teyrnon 'ho% if this is ta)en as
the &ommon8noun teyrnon% Ca rin&eD% may 'ell !e Arthur himself; Sims8
4illiams% ,$$,% ( 2"G T( Green% CA Note on Aad#r% Aator and Arth#rD%
(t#dia %etica% 1, <"##0=% ( "5081,G ?( Hay&o&) <ed( and trans(=% 9egendary
Poe+s fro+ the .ook of Taiesin <A!eryst'yth% "##0=% ( "$58$1% 5##(
Mnfortunately as a 'hole the oem remains diffi&ult !ut the follo'ing lines
deser.e &omment;
He !rought them from +a'rnur%
ale horses under saddle(((
The third dee matter for the 'ise one;
the !lessing of Arthur
E /lessed Arthur E
'ith harmonious song;
the defender in !attle%
the tramler on nine(
<lines ,58,1% ,08""; +oe and Koung% ,$$2% ( ,1-81$ and Sims8
4illiams% ,$$,% ( 2"=
+learly the latter lines tell us something a!out ho' the tales of Arthur 'ere
.ie'ed !y the !ards% as 'ell as &onfirming again the &on&et of Arthur as a
great 'arrior and defender( The former lines <lines ,58,1= re&all line ," of
!arwnat Nthyr Pendragon% 'hi&h refers to MthyrDs atta&) on the Csons of
+a'rnurD( Sie'ed together these t'o referen&es &an ro!a!ly !e ta)en to
imly the e>isten&e of a lost Arthurian tale in 'hi&h Arthur and Mthyr
'arred against +a'rnur and his sons <'ho 'ere ro!a!ly giants% 4elsh
cawr=( Further dis&ussion of this oem &an !e found in Green% "##0 <CA
NoteD=% and Green% "##0 <%once&ts=% ( ,,-% ,$0(
The other t'o referen&es are less signifi&ant !ut still interesting( !adawg

0"
dr#t ac Erof is a fragment of a oem;
?adog% the ramart of reIoi&ing(
?adog% !efore he 'as in the gra.e%
he 'as a fortress of generosity
N&onsistingO of feat<s= and lay(
The son of Mthyr% !efore death
he handed o.er ledges(
<Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 25821=
This ?adog is also mentioned in 2+ddiddan Arth#r a?r Eryr and it seems
&lear that he 'as ArthurDs !rother in non8Galfridian tradition( The a!o.e
ho'e.er is all that really remains of 'hate.er stories 'ere &urrent in early
4elsh tradition regarding ?adog% aside from t'o lines from a late t'elfth8
&entury religious oem <C?adog% famous leader% 'as falseG he had great
rofit; 'ret&hed sorro'VD; Sims84illiams ,$$,% ( 21=( Finally there is the
untitled oem generally &alled Kan# y !eirch% a long list of the horses of
traditional heroes;
And G'ythurDs horseG
And G'a'rddurDs horseG
And ArthurDs horse%
!oldly !esto'ing ainG
(((
And Llamrei% full .alua!le%
'ide8nostrilled and o'erfulG
<lines 5#855% 2#82,; +oe and Koung% ,$$2% ( ,1-81$=
The grouing of the heroes 'as &learly di&tated !y rhyme !ut it is
interesting that G'ythur and G'a'rddur are found else'here asso&iated
'ith Arthur <in Engynion y .edda# and 2 Gododdin rese&ti.ely=( ArthurDs
horse is not gi.en a name in this oem% !ut in %#hwch ac 6wen it is named
as 9a+rei E intriguingly% a horse so named aears later Kan# y !eirch%
though 'ithout the name of its o'ner(
The te>t of these oems &an !e found in 7( G'enog.ryn E.ans <ed(= The
.ook of Taiesin: Facsi+ie and Te4t <Llan!edrog% ,$,#=% and ?( Hay&o&) <ed(
and trans(=% 9egendary Poe+s fro+ the .ook of Taiesin <A!eryst'yth% "##0=%
(,308"5$% "$585,,% 5-081#5% 12$83"% 2#58,5( Hay&o&)Ds edition in&ludes
translations of all of these oemsG artial translations% along 'ith the
&orresonding te>t% are also gi.en !y P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh
Arthurian PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh: The
Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at (
2"821% and +oe and Koung <ed( and trans(=% The %etic (o#rces for the Arth#rian
05
9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( ,1,82,( 4(F( S)ene% The Fo#r Ancient .ooks of
<aes <Edin!urgh% ,-3-= gi.es full translations of the oems% !ut these are
not relia!le(
). .*ddiddan Arthur a9r #ryr
The 2+ddiddan Arth#r a?r Eryr <CDialogue of Arthur and the EagleD= is found
in numerous manus&rits of the fourteenth &entury and later( On linguisti&
and themati& grounds it should ro!a!ly !e dated c( ,,2# and &onsidered
non8Galfridian in &ontent( The oem is a religious one% 'ith Arthur
ortrayed as a agan 'arrior8hero 'ho gains religious enlightenment from
the eagle% 'hi&h is re.ealed to him as the rein&arnation of his dead nehe'
Eli'lad% son of ?adog% son of Mthyr;
Arthur of surassing far8flung fame%
!ear of the host% Ioy of shelter
the eagle has seen you !efore(
(((
Arthur of the terri!le s'ord%
your enemies stand not !efore your rush(
I am the son of ?adog son of Mthyr(
<stan6as " and 3; 7(/( +oe and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The %etic
(o#rces for the Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( ,#2=
The &on&et of Arthur is &learly to !e &omared 'ith that of 2 Gododdin
and !arwnad %ynddyan E he is not C9ing ArthurD !ut rather a eerless
'arrior8hero% gwryt gadarnaf% Cstrongest in .alourD% and &enn kadoed Kernyw%
C&hief of the !attalions of +orn'allD( Indeed% the dialogue seems to o&&ur on
the &oast of +orn'all% 'ith Arthur sea)ing o t# +yr% C!eside the seasD% and
addressing the eagle as one 'ho a dreiga gyncoet Kernyw% Croams the .alley8
'oods NYthe 'ooded Glynn .alley near /odminBO of +orn'allD( 4e also
find% in the first stan6a% Arthur des&ri!ing himself thus;
I am ama6ed for I am a !ardG
from the to of the oa) 'ith its !eautiful !ran&hes%
'hy does the eagle stare% 'hy does he laughB
<+oe and Koung% ,$$2% ( ,#2=
This notion of Arthur as a !ard is found else'here too% in the non8
Galfridian Trioedd 2nys Prydein <nos( ," and ,-4=% %#hwch ac 6wen% and also
in an engyn and rose fragment from ?S ?ostyn ,5,% ( 00#% 'hi&h though
late <erhas fifteenth8&enturyB= is &learly 'or)ing in the nati.e non8
Galfridian tradition of Arthur;

01
Sandde /ryd Angel dri.e the &ro'
off the fa&e of BDuran Nson of ArthurO(
Dearly and !elo.edly his mother raised him(
Arthur sang it
<7( Ro'land% Eary <esh (aga Poetry: a (t#dy and Edition of the
Engynion <+am!ridge% ,$$#=% ( "2#82,=
Another nod to re8Galfridian &on&ets of Arthur &omes later in the oem%
'hen Arthur as)s if he should mount a &amaign against God and Hea.en
to retrie.e Eli'lad from the afterlife% to 'hi&h the eagle relies Arth#r,
bendefig haeion... a /#w nithycia y+ryson% CArthur% &hief of generous men((( it is
of no use to stri.e against GodD( In this e>&hange 'e 'ould seem to ha.e a
referen&e to ArthurDs role as the li!erator of risoners from the Other'orld%
en&ountered in Preide# Annwfyn and %#hwch ac 6wen% though here su&h an
e>edition is dismissed due to the o'er of the +hristian God <&omared to
that of the agan godsB=(
4ith regards to the eagle itself% the identifi&ation of this !ird as ArthurDs
nehe' Eli'lad ma! ?adog ma! Mthyr &onfirms that% in non8Galfridian
tradition% Mthyr 'as indeed ArthurDs father and that Arthur had a !rother
named ?adog( Eli'lod a ?ad<og= a Mthur also aears in the mid8
fifteenth8&entury Pedwar !archog ar H#gain 9ys Arth#r <CT'enty8Four
9nights of ArthurDs +ourtD= as one of the CThree Golden8Tongued 9nightsD
of ArthurDs +ourt; see R( /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The
<esh Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=(
See further on this oem P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian
PoemsD% in /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh: The Arth#rian 9egend
in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at ( 2082-G O(7( Padel%
Arth#r in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% "###=% ( 31830G A(O(H( 7arman%
CThe Delineation of Arthur in Early 4elsh SerseD% in 9( Sarty <ed(= An
Arth#rian Ta&estry <Glasgo'% ,$-,=% ( ,8", at ( ,28,3G and ?( Hay&o&)%
CKmddiddan Arthur aDr EryrD% in ?( Hay&o&) <ed(= .ode#gerdd .arddas o Gan#
%refyddo %ynnar <A!erta'e% ,$$1=% ( "$085,"( For te>t see I( 4illiams%
CKmddiddan Arthur aDr EryrD% .#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% " <,$"2=% (
"3$8-3(
l. .*ddiddan (el0as ac /0enh0yfar
The 2+ddiddan !ewas ac Gwenhwyfar <CDialogue of ?el'as and
G'enh'yfarD% also )no'n as 2+ddiddan Arth#r ac Gwenhwyfar= is e>tant
rin&ially in t'o manus&rits of the si>teenth and se.enteenth &entury
<4ynnstay ,% ( $, and Llanstehen ,""% ( 1"3= and should !e seen as non8
Galfridian in origin% dating from erhas as early as the mid8t'elfth &entury;
R( /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein: The <esh Triads <+ardiff%
02
,$0-=% ( 5-58-1G P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in
R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 20( The
dialogue !egins in the A8te>t at a feast% 'here G'enh'yfar is 'aiting on the
guests% among them ?el'as;
C4ho is the man 'ho sits in the &ommon art of the feast%
'ithout for him either its !eginning or end%
sitting do'n there !elo' the daisBD
CThe ?el'as from Knys 4ydrin <Isle of Glass=G
you% 'ith the golden% gilded .essels%
I ha.e drun) none of your 'ine(D
C4ait a little(((
I do not our out my 'ine
for a man 'ho &annot hold out and 'ould not stand in !attle
NandO 'ould not stand u to +ai in his 'ine(D
<Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 2$=
In the follo'ing engynion G'enh'yfar &ontinues to taunt ?el'as% 'hile he
ro&laims his .alour .ersus that of +ai( In !oth te>ts there is a referen&e to
G'enh'yfar and ?el'as ha.ing met at a &ourt in /yfneint% CDe.onD% !ut the
nature of this meeting isnDt &lear( The !a&)ground to this oem is a re8
Galfridian 4elsh story &on&erned 'ith the res&ue of G'enh'yfar <C'hite
fairyJen&hantressD= !y Arthur from an Other'orld Island of Glass
&ontrolled !y ?el'as <Choney8youthD= E 'ho aears in other 'or)s as a
magi&ian 'ho 'as a Cthief that !y magi& and en&hantment too) a girl
Nresuma!ly G'enh'yfarO to the end of the 'orldD E similar to Preide#
Annwfyn and its analogues(
See further the ;ita Gidae of +arado& of Llan&arfan% dis&ussed !riefly
!elo'% and P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in R(
/rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at (
2-83,G also see T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 2$83#% ,2,G
/(F( Ro!erts% C%#hwch ac 6wen% the Triads% SaintsD Li.esD% in R( /rom'i&h et
a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 058$2 at ( -5G O(7( Padel
Arth#r in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% "###=% ( 3083$G and R(
/rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein: The <esh Triads <+ardiff%
,$0-=% ( 5-#8-2( For te>ts and translations of !oth .ersions see 7(/( +oe
and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The %etic (o#rces for the Arth#rian 9egend
<Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( ,,#8,2% and ?( 4illiams% CAn Early Ritual Poem in
4elshD% (&ec##+% ,5 <,$5-=% ( 5-815(

03
*. .*ddiddan /0yddno /aranhir ac /0yn ap :udd
The Arthurian interest in the C/la&) /oo) of +armarthenD oem 2+ddiddan
Gwyddno Garanhir ac Gwyn fab ,#dd <CThe Dialogue of G'yddno Garanhir
and G'ynn a NuddD= is found near to the end% in se.en stan6as that are
sometimes &onsidered as a searate 'or)% !i a <#+ <CI ha.e !eenD=( The
oem dates from erhas the tenth &entury% although it &ould !e a little later
or a little earlier than this; R( /rom'i&h% CIntrodu&tionD% and /(F( Ro!erts%
CRhai o Gerddi Kmddiddan Llyfr Du +aerfyrddinD% in R( /rom'i&h and R(/(
7ones <edd(= Ast#diaetha# ar yr Hengerdd <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( "#8",% "-,85"2G
A(O(H( 7arman% CThe Delineation of Arthur in Early 4elsh SerseD% in 9(
Sarty <ed(= An Arth#rian Ta&estry <Glasgo'% ,$-,=% ( 3( The Arthurian
referen&e is as follo's;
I ha.e !een 'here Lla&heu 'as slain
the son of Arthur% a'ful NJmar.ellousO in songs
'hen ra.ens &roa)ed o.er !lood(
<7(/( +oe and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The %etic (o#rces for the
Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( ,"2=
Lla&heu son of Arthur is also mentioned in the re8Galfridian Trioedd 2nys
Prydein <no( 1= and Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5 and thus &an !e &onsidered Ca figure
of &onsidera!le imortan&e in the early Arthurian sagaD% !elonging li)e +ai
and /ed'yr Cto the oldest stratum of Arthurian traditionD; R( /rom'i&h <ed(
and trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( 1,3G see
further T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( ,3-83$( A thirteenth8
&entury elegy !y /leddyn Fardd re&ords that CLla&hau 'as slain !elo' Lle&h
KsgarD and% 'hilst the la&e is unidentified <though it 'as the site of one of
the &ourts of ?adog a ?aredudd% d( ,,3#=% Sims84illiams suggests that
there may ha.e !een a lo&al legend underlying the a!o.e stan6a li)e that of
the Historia .ritton#+ &hater 05 <CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in R(
/rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 11G O(7(
Padel% Arth#r in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% "###=% ( $$% suggests that
C!elo' Lle&h KsgarD might refer to +ri&)heath Hill south of Os'estry%
Shroshire=(
The slayer of Lla&heu is not named in non8Galfridian sour&esG in 2 (eint
Grea he is said to ha.e !een slain !y +ai% !ut this is due to a mista)en
eAuation !et'een Lla&heu and Loholt of the Peresva#s </rom'i&h% ,$0-% (
1,08,-G +( Lloyd8?organ% C.re#ddwyd -honabwy and later Arthurian
LiteratureD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=%
( ,-58"#- at ,$0=( For some analysis of its Arthurian &ontent% see T(
Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 3,% ,3#83,% ,3-83$( For the te>t%
see /(F( Ro!erts% CRhai o Gerddi Kmddiddan Llyfr Du +aerfyrddinD% in R(
00
/rom'i&h and R(/( 7ones <edd(= Ast#diaetha# ar yr Hengerdd <+ardiff% ,$0-=%
( "-,85"2G 7( Ro'land% Eary <esh (aga Poetry: a (t#dy and Edition of the
Engynion <+am!ridge% ,$$#=% and 7(/( +oe and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The
%etic (o#rces for the Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( ,"18"2(
n. /ereint fil6ius7 #rbin
Gereint fiAi#sB Erbin <CGeraint% son of Er!inD= is found in three of our
manus&ritsG in the C/la&) /oo) of +armarthenD% the C4hite /oo) of
Rhydder&hD% and the CRed /oo) of HergestD( The date of this oem is usually
gi.en as falling !et'een the ninth and mid8t'elfth &enturies% though
Ro'land 'ould seem to &onsider a mid to late ninth8&entury date as
defensi!le; 7( Ro'land% Eary <esh (aga Poetry: a (t#dy and Edition of the
Engynion <+am!ridge% ,$$#=% ( "1,% 5-$G P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early
4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh
<+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 13G see also R( /rom'i&h% CIntrodu&tionD% and /(F(
Ro!erts% CRhai o Gerddi Kmddiddan Llyfr Du +aerfyrddinD% in R( /rom'i&h
and R(/( 7ones <edd(= Ast#diaetha# ar yr Hengerdd <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( "#8",%
"-,85"2( The oem &on&erns a !attle fought at CLlong!orthD and ta)es the
form of a eulogy to one Geraint( Geraint himself is usually identified as a
Dumnonian rin&e from the late si>th &entury% 'hilst Llong!orth &ould !e
Langort <Somerset= or some mis&ellaneous ongborth% Cshi har!ourD
<A(O(H( 7arman% CThe Arthurian Allusions in the /la&) /oo) of
+armarthenD% in P(/( Grout et a <edd(= The 9egend of Arth#r in the !idde Ages
<+am!ridge% ,$-5=% ( $$8,," at ( ,#3G +f( Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 138
10=(
The Arthurian referen&e &omes in the eighth stan6a <see Sims84illiams%
,$$,% ( 1081-% for the solution to the different readings in the /la&) /oo)
and the Red /oo)=; CAt Llong!orth 'ere slain !ra.e men of Arthur E <they=
he'ed 'ith steel E the emeror Na+era#d#rO% <the= ruler of !attle(D This might
!e interreted literally% that is to say that the oet 'as en.isaging that
ArthurDs C!ra.e menD <if not Arthur himself= 'ere resent at this !attle%
assisting Geraint( In this &ase the referen&e should ro!a!ly !e seen as
another &ase of honouring the su!Ie&t of a oem !y asso&iating him dire&tly
'ith Arthur the Caragon of military .alourD% here through ma)ing ArthurDs
men resent at his final !attle <in !arwnad %ynddyan the su!Ie&t is honoured
!y !eing made a C'hel of great ArthurD=( Alternati.ely% and !etter to my
mind% the formula C!ra.e men of Arthur%((( the emeror% the ruler of !attleD
might !e ta)en li)e C'hels of great Arthur% a mighty defenderD as simly a
&omarison honouring <and referring to= the su!Ie&t<s= of the oem% in this
&ase Geraint and his slain !rothers8in8arms referred to in the ne>t stan6a%
'hi&h forms a dou!let 'ith this one <i.e. they 'ere so .alorous that they
might !e &alledJli)ened to C!ra.e men of ArthurD% Iust as +ynddylan and his

0-
!rothers are of su&h great .alour that they might !e &alledJli)ened to
C'hels of great ArthurD=( For a full dis&ussion% see T( Green% %once&ts of
Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 0-80$(
4ith regards to the &on&et of Arthur it is &learly again that of the
Ceerless 'arriorDG the referen&e to him as CemerorD% a+era#d#r <_ Latin
i+&erator= might foreshado' Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs Arthur in the Historia
-eg#+ .ritanniae% though as 7arman notes the CCimerialD &hara&ter of the
ortrait Nof Arthur in this oemO should not% ho'e.er% !e o.eremhasised%
for the stri&t meaning of the 'ord is ro!a!ly &loser to Cgeneral%
&ommanderD% et&(D <,$-5% ( ,#3=(
Te>t and translations of the oem &an !e found in A(O(H( 7arman <ed(=%
9yfr /# %aerfyrddin <+ardiff% ,$-"=G R( /rom'i&h and R(/( 7ones <edd(=%
Ast#diaetha# ar yr Hengerdd <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( "-38$3G 7( Ro'land% Eary
<esh (aga Poetry: a (t#dy and Edition of the Engynion <+am!ridge% ,$$#=% (
12083,% 2#18#2% 35385$G and 7(/( +oe and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The
%etic (o#rces for the Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( ,,38",(
o. The ;atin Saints9 ;ives
Arthur aears in the ele.enth8 to thirteenth8&entury 9ives of Padarn%
+arannog% Illtud% Gildas% +adog% Goue6nou and EuflammG te>ts and
translations of these &an !e most readily a&&essed in 7ohn /( +oe and Simon
Koung <ed( and trans(=% The %etic (o#rces for the Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h%
,$$2=% ( ,1815( Perhas the most nota!le feature of the maIority of these
te>ts is that Arthur is usually ortrayed not in the heroi& terms en&ountered
in other early te>ts% !ut as a tyrant E in fa&t 'hat 'e are seeing is the use of
Arthur as a CfoilD for the saint( The ;itae are e&&lesiasti&al hero8tales that
share many features 'ith their se&ular &ounterarts and as su&h reAuire
&onfli&t% this &onfli&t !eing generally !et'een the religious hero and the
se&ular o'er% 'ith the ruler !eing !elittled in defeat( Thus Arthur is Can
arrogant% grasing tyrant 'ho is hum!led in ignominious defeat% not in any
armed struggle !ut in his &hildish greed and e.en in his failure to fulfil his
traditional role as giant or dragon8slayer((( the Arthurian eisodes aear to
!e genuine fragments of Arthurian legend N&onsistent 'ith the ortrayal of
Arthur found in %#hwch ac 6wen et&(O% maniulated so that they may dislay
Arthur in the 'orst ossi!le lightD; /(F( Ro!erts% C%#hwch ac 6wen% the
Triads% SaintsD Li.esD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh
<+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 058$2 at ( -5( Ho'e.er% it is 'orth noting that ArthurDs
'rong8doings in the other ;itae are not seen as irredeema!le or mali&ious%
as the deeds of other rulers that a&t as foils for saints are(
In the ;ita Gidae of +arado& of Llan&arfan <,,"#s or ,,5#s= 'e find a
.ersion of the re8Galfridian 4elsh tale of the res&ue of G'enh'yfar from
an Other'orldly Island of Glass &ontrolled !y ?el'as% 'hi&h is the
0$
!a&)ground to 2+ddiddan !ewas ac Gwenhwyfar% as 'ell as a tale of &onfli&t
!et'een Arthur and Huail a +a'% 'hi&h is referred to in %#hwch ac 6wen
and 'ould seem to refle&t the &on&et of Arthur as CProte&tor of /ritainD; T(
Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 2$83#% ,"58"0% ,2,G P( Sims8
4illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The
Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at ( 2-83,G Ro!erts% ,$$,% (
-5( In LifrisD ;ita (ancti %adoci% 'ritten !et'een ,#3, and ,,#1% 'e find t'o
tales that are not )no'n from any other sour&e% one seeming to refle&t a
toograhi& fol)tale in.ol.ing the e>&hange of magi&al or Other'orldly
animals at a ford% and another that loo)s to !e a fol)tale in 'hi&h Arthur is
a mighty 'arrior% rote&tor% and defender of the realmJguardian of the
!order 'ho e>ists outside of normal so&iety; see O(7( Padel% CThe Nature of
ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,85, at ( 08-G
Green% "##0% ( ,"-% ,$$8"##G 9( ?alone% CThe Histori&ity of ArthurD%
Jo#rna of Engish and Ger+anic Phioogy% "5 <,$"1=% ( 1358$, at ( 1-,8-"(
Also other'ise un)no'n are the tales of Arthur slaying dragons 'hi&h
ha.e !een maniulated !y the authors of the 4elsh ;ita Pri+a (ancti
%arantoci <c( ,,##B= and the t'elfth8&entury /reton ;ita E#fa+i( In the &ase
of the latter% the story 'ould seem to ha.e already !een in e>isten&e !y
c( ,,,# from the e.iden&e of the Perros Relief and it sho's &lear signs of
deri.ing from lo&al toograhi& loreG it is also interesting for its des&rition
of Arthur as ha.ing Carmed himself 'ith the trile8)notted &lu! and
defended his eager torso 'ith the shield 'hi&h a lion8s)in &o.eredD <+oe and
Koung% ,$$2% ( 5$= and the fa&t that the author seems to ha.e )no'n of
other stories of Arthur hunting monsters in /rittany% though he does not
gi.e details of these(
For dis&ussion of the SaintsD Li.es see /(F( Ro!erts% C%#hwch ac 6wen%
the Triads% SaintsD Li.esD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh
<+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 058$2 at ( -"8-1G T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud%
"##0=% arti&ularly 'ithin &haters three to si>G O(7( Padel% CThe Nature of
ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,85, at ( 38-G O(7(
Padel% Arth#r in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% "###=% ( 50810G 7(T(
9o&h% CThe +elti& LandsD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= !edieva Arth#rian 9iterat#re: A
G#ide to -ecent -esearch <Ne' Kor)% ,$$3=% ( "5$85"" at ( "3-83$% "$"G
and G( Ashe% CSaintsD Li.esD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= The ,ew Arth#rian Encyco&edia
<Ne' Kor)% ,$$3=% ( 5$18$2(
p. <e (iraculis Sanctae (ariae ;audensis8 ;iber %loridus8
and /esta &egu* Angloru*
Although not stri&tly C4elshD% these three Latin te>ts do &ontri!ute
signifi&antly to our )no'ledge of re8Galfridian Arthurian fol)lore and so
are deser.ing of &onsideration here( Su&h fol)lore is most fully referen&ed in

-#
HermanDs /e !irac#is (anctae !ariae 9a#densis <CThe ?ira&les of St ?ary of
LaonD=( This is an a&&ount of a Iourney made in ,,,5 to /ritain !y some
&anons of Laon% in northern Fran&e <O(7( Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurD%
%a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,85, at ( 183 and ( -8,#G
7(S(P( Tatlo&)% CThe English 7ourney of the Laon +anonsD% (&ec##+% -
<,$55=% ( 121832=( 4hilst tra.elling !et'een E>eter and /odmin the
&anons 'ere sho'n the CseatD and the Co.enD of 9ing Arthur and 'ere told
that this 'as CArthurian &ountryD E CArthurDs SeatD is other'ise un)no'n !ut
CArthurDs O.enD may 'ell !e the C9ingDs O.enD re&orded on Dartmoor in
,"1#( /oth 'ould seem to !e the same )ind of toograhi& fol)lore that is
found in Historia .ritton#+ R05 <see Padel% ,$$1% ( 283=( A similar ie&e of
toograhi& fol)lore is re&orded !y Lam!ert of St Omer in the 9iber Forid#s
of ,,"#% 'ho added to the +irabiia of the Historia .ritton#+ a !uilding
)no'n as CArthurDs Pala&eD% 'hi&h is no' generally a&)no'ledged to !e a
&ir&ular !uilding of Roman date near Stirling <S&otland= )no'n as CArthurDs
O.enD in the thirteenth &entury <Padel% ,$$1% ( 3=(
4hen the Laon &anons arri.ed at /odmin in +orn'all% they on&e again
en&ountered the Arthurian legend;
(((a &ertain man ha.ing a 'ithered hand )et a .igil at the shrine Nof
Our Lady of LaonO to re&o.er his health( In Iust the same 'ay as
the /retons are a&&ustomed to arguing 'ith the Fren&h a!out 9ing
Arthur% the same man !egan to !i&)er 'ith one from our
&ommunity !y the name of Hangello of the &ommunity of Lord
Guidon% Ar&hdea&on of Laon% saying that Arthur still li.ed( Then
there arose a not a small tumultG many men rushed into the &hur&h
'ith arms and if the aforementioned &leri& Algardus had not
re.ented it% it 'ould almost &ertainly ha.e &ome to the silling of
!lood( <7(/( +oe and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The %etic (o#rces for
the Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( 10=
The te>t &learly sho's that in the re8Galfridian eriod a !elief in Arthur
still li.ing 'as &ommon to !oth the /retons and the +ornish and 'as a
matter of su&h strong feeling that a riot 'as only Iust a.erted 'hen it 'as
Auestioned( This should !e .ie'ed alongside the referen&e to Arthur ha.ing
no gra.e in the ro!a!ly ninth8&entury 4elsh Engynion y .edda# and 4illiam
of ?almes!uryDs statement in his Gesta -eg#+ Angor#+ <c( ,,"2= that
CArthurDs gra.e is no'here to !e seen% 'hen&e antiAuity of fa!les still &laims
that he 'ill returnD( See on all of this O(7( PadelDs CThe Nature of ArthurD%
%a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,85, at ( -8,"% and T( Green%
%once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 05802( For the other ie&e of Arthurian
fol)lore found in 4illiamDs Gesta -eg#+ Angor#+% relating to G'al&hmaiDs
gra.e% see a!o.e under Engynion y .edda#G Green% "##0% ( 0,% ,0#80,G and
-,
P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a
<edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh: The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re
<+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at ( 1$82#(
=. Trioedd .nys 1rydein
The CEarly SersionD of Trioedd 2nys Prydein <CThe Triads of the Island of
/ritainD= is found in the mid8thirteenth8&entury NL4 Peniarth ,3( This
manus&rit ends 'ith triad 13 and the remaining triads are found in the
fourteenth8&entury C4hite /oo) of Rhydder&hD and the CRed /oo) of
HergestD <1083$=% Peniarth ?S( 10 <fifteenth &enturyG &ontains most of the
triads of the CEarly SersionD and triads 0#8-#= and Peniarth ?S( 2# <-,83=%
'ith triads -08$3 &onsisting of Cmis&ellaneous additions to Trioedd 2nys
Prydein 'hi&h aear for the first time in one or other of the late manus&rit
&olle&tionsD; R( /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein: The <esh
Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( >i( The triads 'ere originally mnemoni& de.i&es
de.ised !y the CguardiansD of 4elsh traditional material to fa&ilitate the re&all
of this material !y systematising it and asso&iating three &hara&ters or
eisodes 'ith one another on the !asis of features &ommon to all three( The
original &olle&tion of these triads% Trioedd 2nys Prydein, aears to ha.e first
!een ut together in the ele.enth or t'elfth &entury% though o!.iously the
traditions it &ontained 'ere older than this( 4ith regards to our e>tant
manus&rits% the &ontents of the CEarly SersionD <NL4 Peniarth ,3= of this
&orus &an !e &onsidered re8Galfridian in nature% 'hilst those triads found
in the CLater SersionD <4/ and R/= do sho' the influen&e of Geoffrey of
?onmouth at se.eral oints% though they are not in the main deri.ed from
him(
?any of the triads ha.e Arthurian referen&es and these are arti&ularly
rominent in the later .ersions of the triads% refle&ting the gro'ing interest
in the Arthurian legend and the dra'ing of traditional non8Arthurian figures
into this &y&le E indeed in the CLater SersionD Arthur disla&es other
&hara&ters from their original stories <as in the hunting of Hen'en% T2P no(
"34=( In Trioedd 2nys Prydein Arthur seems to !e &on&ei.ed of as the Clord of
/ritainD% as he is in %#hwch ac 6wen and erhas Kat Gode#( Thus in T2P no(
, Arthur is +hief Prin&e of the Three Tri!al Thrones of the Island of
/ritain; at ?yny' NYSt Da.idDsO in 4ales% +elli'ig in +orn'all Nhis &ourt in
%#hwch ac 6wen and Pa g#r5O% and CPen Rhionydd in the NorthD <see T(
Green% CA Note on Aladur% Alator and ArthurD% (t#dia %etica% 1, <"##0=% (
"5081, in n( ,0% for another ossi!le Arthurian o&&urren&e of this &ourt=( In
some triads 9ys Arth#r% CArthurDs +ourtD% is used as the frame of referen&e
for the triad rather than 2nys Prydein% CThe Island of /ritainD <as in T2P no(
$=G this !e&omes in&reasingly &ommon o.er time=( Arthur is not% ho'e.er%
the ina&ti.e and ineffe&tual ruler of later Roman&es !ut rather he still

-"
ossesses Cthe heroDs destru&ti.e energy as his ra.aging de.astates the land
for se.en yearsD 'here.er he goes; /(F( Ro!erts% C%#hwch ac 6wen% the
Triads% SaintDs Li.esD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh
<+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 058$2 at ( -,G T2P nos( "# and "#4(
ArthurDs high status in 4elsh tradition is made &lear !y the fa&t that his
name is sometimes added at the end of a triad Cas a fourth and e>&etional
e>amle of a arti&ular featureD <Ro!erts% ,$$,% ( -#= E for e>amle in T2P
no( " Arthur is said to !e Cmore generousD than the three named CGenerous
?enD% and in T2P no( 2" he is Cmore e>altedD than the Three E>alted
Prisoners <t'o of 'hi&h he himself frees in Preide# Annwfyn and %#hwch ac
6wen=( Turning a'ay from the ortrayal of Arthur to his deeds% 'e find
referen&es to tales of his final !attle at +amlann and &onfli&t 'ith ?edraut%
though these are late andJor ro!a!ly influen&ed !y Geoffrey of
?onmouth <nos( 2,% 25% 21% 2$% -1=G his imrisonment <no( 2"% in the
Other'orldB=G his attemts to ro&ureJhunt !oars <nos( "3 and "34=G and
his role as Prote&tor of /ritain <no( 50R=% 'hen he dis&loses the CHead of
/r`n the !lessed from the 4hite Hill% !e&ause it did not seem right to him
that this island should !e defended !y the strength of anyone !ut !y his
o'nD( Additionally Arthur is named as one of the Three Fri.olous /ards
<no( ,"= and in no( ,-4 an engyn is attri!uted to him on his Three /attle8
Horsemen(
For an indisensa!le dis&ussion% te>t and translation of all the Arthurian
triads% see R( /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein: The <esh
Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=% 'hi&h has re&ently !een udated into a third edition
<+ardiff% "##3=( See also /(F( Ro!erts% C%#hwch ac 6wen% the Triads% SaintDs
Li.esD% in /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% (
058$2G T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ese&ially throughout
&haters three% four and si>G and O(7( Padel% Arth#r in !edieva <esh
9iterat#re <+ardiff% "###=% ( -18--(
r. Tri Thl0s ar <deg .nys Brydain
Tri Thws ar /deg 2nys .rydain <CThe Thirteen Treasures of the Island of
/ritainD= is found in o.er forty manus&rits% the earliest !eing NL4 Peniarth
2, <c. ,13#=( In all fifteen treasures are named% though ea&h list &ontains only
thirteen( T'o of the feeding .essels mentioned in this te>t E the CHamer of
G'yddno GaranhirD and the C+auldron of Di'rna&h the GiantD E are also
mentioned in %#hwch ac 6wen% and the late date of the manus&rits of Tri
Thws ar /deg 2nys .rydain shouldnDt !e allo'ed to o!s&ure the fa&t that 'e
ha.e here an attemt to transmit and reser.e genuinely an&ient fragments
of lost traditional literature of medie.al 4ales( The origins of these
CtreasuresD are ro!a!ly to !e sought in stories of magi& o!Ie&ts 'on <or
!esto'ed= from the Other'orld% 'ith this te>t !eing simly a list of ,5 of
-5
these traditional talismans( There are t'o items of se&ifi& Arthurian
interest in the list( The first is the &auldron of Di'rna&h the Giant% 'hi&h is
undou!tedly the same as that &auldron of Di'rna&h 4yddel ta)en from
Ireland <a euhemerisation of the Other'orld= !y Arthur in %#hwch ac 6wen(
Of this it is stated;
if meat for a &o'ard 'ere ut in it to !oil% it 'ould ne.er !oilG !ut
if meat for a !ra.e man 'ere ut into it% it 'ould !oil Aui&)ly <and
thus the !ra.e &ould !e distinguished from the &o'ardly=(
<7(/( +oe and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The %etic (o#rces for the
Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( -$=
This should o!.iously !e &omared 'ith the statement in the erhas
eighth8&entury oem Preide# Annwfyn that the &auldron of the +hief of
Ann'fyn% 'hi&h Arthur tra.els to the Other'orld to sei6e%
!oils not a &o'ardDs food <+oe and Koung% ,$$2% ( ,50=
underlining !oth the relationshi !et'een the Preideu Annwfyn tale and that
in %#hwch ac 6wen% and the traditional nature of this CTreasureD( The se&ond
item is;
The mantle of Arthur in +orn'all; 4hoe.er 'as under it &ould not
!e seen% and he &ould see e.ery!ody( <+oe and Koung% ,$$2% ( $,=
ArthurDs mantle again aears to !e traditional Other'orldly talisman and
treasure( It is mentioned !riefly in %#hwch ac 6wen and in .re#ddwyd
-honabwy it is &alled G'enn <C'hite% ure% sa&red% holyD=; CA&&ording to the
tale% one of the roerties of the mantle 'as Pthat the man around 'hom it
might !e 'raed% no one 'ould see him and he 'ould see e.eryone( And
no &olour 'ould e.er stay on it e>&et its o'n &olourQ( Its o'n &olour 'as
'hite% and it 'as !rought to Arthur !y a red man mounted on a red horse(
Its Other'orldly origins are &lear(D <P(9( Ford% COn the Signifi&an&e of some
Arthurian Names in 4elshD% .#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% 5# <,$-5=% (
"3-805 at ( "0#=(
See on Tri Thws ar /deg 2nys .rydain, /(F( Ro!erts% C%#hwch ac 6wen% the
Triads% SaintDs Li.esD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh
<+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 058$2 at ( -28--G R( /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd
2nys Prydein: The <esh Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=G and T( Green% %once&ts of
Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% ( 20% ,,2( On the Other'orldly ossessions of
Arthur and the stories surrounding them see P(9( Ford% COn the
Signifi&an&e of some Arthurian Names in 4elshD% .#etin of the .oard of %etic
(t#dies% 5# <,$-5=% ( "3-805(

-1
s. Breudd0yd &honab0y
.re#ddwyd -honabwy <CThe Dream of Rhona!'yD= is ro!a!ly of a late
thirteenth8 or early fourteenth8&entury date% though ossi!le &omosition8
dates range from the mid8t'elfth &entury to the mid8fourteenth &entury <the
latter date is ro.ided !y a referen&e to CRhona!'yDs DreamD !y the oet
?adog D'ygraig <f( ,50#8-#==( Interestingly% the tale on the 'hole seems to
!e largely indeendent of Galfridian influen&e( Although it is normally
&onsidered alongside the C?a!inogionD grou of tales% it differs in se.eral
'ays from the others in this CgrouD E it is only &ontained in the Red /oo)
of Hergest <&ols( 222(,#820,=% not the 4hite /oo) of Rhydder&hG it is
searated from the other C?a!inogionD tales in the Red /oo) !y some 23
&olumnsG and it aears to ha.e !een 'ritten !y one single author and not
to ha.e e.ol.ed o.er time li)e the other tales( ?ost imortantly% traditional
material is utilised not as an end in itself !ut so as to &reate a &omletely
original Arthurian tale &omosed in Ca satiri& rather than a heroi& .ein% 'ith
a highly &omle> interlay of am!iguities and ironiesD <+( Lloyd8?organ%
C.re#ddwyd -honabwy and Later Arthurian LiteratureD% in /rom'i&h et a <edd(=
The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( ,-58"#- at ( ,-2=% 'ith 9ing
Arthur himself !eing ortrayed in a non8heroi& light E although%
interestingly% he is ortrayed as a giant( In effe&t% the CDream of Rhona!'yD
!rea)s all the CrulesD that the other C?a!inogionD tales sti&) to 'hile !eing
.ery familiar 'ith these &on.entions% and -honabwy should ro!a!ly !e !est
seen as a arody of the 'hole fa!ri& of Arthurian literary &on.entions in
general(
See for a full dis&ussion of .re#ddwyd -honabwy, +( Lloyd8?organ%
C.re#ddwyd -honabwy and Later Arthurian LiteratureD% in R( /rom'i&h et a
<edd(=% The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( ,-58"#-G 7(T( 9o&h% CThe
+elti& LandsD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= !edieva Arth#rian 9iterat#re <Ne' Kor)%
,$$3=% ( "5$85"" at ( "0-8-#G O(7( Padel% Arth#r in !edieva <esh
9iterat#re <+ardiff% "###=% ( $18$$(
t. The /ogynfeirdd and 'y0ydd0yr
The Arthurian legend ma)es a num!er of aearan&es in the 'or)s of the
t'elfth8 and thirteenth8&entury Gogynfeirdd <the &ourt oets of the 4elsh
rin&es= and later 4elsh oetry( It is freAuently used as a sour&e for ositi.e
&omarisons 'ith 'hi&h to honour the su!Ie&t of a oem% and this usage
o!.iously e&hoes that of the earlier re8Galfridian oets( In these t'elfth8
&entury and later &omositions Arthur aears generally in his re8
Galfridian guise as a Caragon of military .alourD% Iust as he does 'hen used
as a &omarison in 2 Gododdin and !arwnad %ynddyan( Thus the mid8t'elfth
&entury oet G'al&hmai a ?eilyr E 'ho seems to ha.e !een named after
-2
ArthurDs nehe' E raises ?adog a ?aredudd% )ing of Po'ys <d( ,,3#= for
ha.ing Arth#r gedernyd <CArthurDs StrengthD=% and +ynddel' <c( ,,0#=
&omares the fearsome shout of ?adogDs army to that of ArthurDs host(
Similarly Prydydd y ?o&h <'ho flourished c( ,,0#8,""#= refers to CGenerous
Arthur% the !attle8famous lordD and says that Che 'as a 'hirl'ind% atta&)ing
!eyond measureD(
Other elements of the Arthurian legend 'hi&h aear in the 'or) of the
Gogynfeirdd in&lude ?edraut <the referen&es to 'hom are al'ays fa.oura!le%
for e>amle ?eilyr /rydydd% in a lament for the death of Gruffudd a
+ynan <d( ,,50=% raises his su!Ie&t for ha.ing ?edrautDs .alour in !attle%
and ?eilyrDs son G'al&hmai lauds ?adog a ?aredudd for ossessing the
Cgood nature of ?edra'dD=G ArthurDs son Lla&heu <'ho aears% li)e his
father% as a aragon of .alour% thus +ynddel'Ds referen&e to 9ache# #ar%
CLla&heuDs fero&ityD=G G'enh'yfarDs father Ogrfan Ga'r <'ith Hy'el a!
O'ain% d( ,,0#% seeming to ma)e a referen&e to a lost tale of ArthurDs suit
for G'enh'yfar=G and also% in assing% G'al&hmai% +ai% the T'r&h Tr'yth%
Kei wic and +amlann <'hi&h seems% &uriously% to !e ortrayed as a
su&&essful !attle=( On the 'hole the fragments of Arthuriana that are found
in the 'or)s of the Gogynfeirdd aear to !e non8Galfridian in &hara&ter E
the oets ma)ing referen&e to tales and &hara&ters )no'n to us from re8
Galfridian materials% su&h as the T'r&h Tr'yth and +aiDs )illing of Dillus
the /earded E and% indeed% seem in some 'ays to go &learly against the
Galfridian narrati.e% as in the treatment of ?edraut and the !attle of
+amlann( See further O(7( Padel% Arth#r in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff%
"###=% ( 2,83,G R( /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein: The
<esh Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=(
It is instru&ti.e to note that although the Arthurian legend &learly had a
la&e in the !ody of legends dra'n uon !y the t'elfth8 and early
thirteenth8&entury Gogynfeirdd% it 'as not nearly so rominent as it 'as to !e
in the 'or) of the later oets( This rominen&e in&reases o.er time
ro!a!ly as a dire&t result of ArthurDs gro'ing international fame and the
oularity in 4ales of Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae
<'hi&h the oets &ertainly seem to ha.e !een a'are of and 'hi&h 'as
translated three times into 4elsh in the thirteenth &entury as .r#t y
.renhinedd= and 2 Tair -ha+ant <CThe Three Roman&esD=% from 'hi&h many
of the late referen&es seem to deri.e; /(F( Ro!erts% CGeoffrey of ?onmouth%
Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae and .r#t y .renhineddD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=
The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( ,,,G Padel% "###% ( 21% 3#83,% $$G
+( Lloyd8?organ% C.re#ddwyd -honabwy and Later Arthurian LiteratureD% in R(
/rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( "#"8#5(
As Lloyd8?organ oints out <,$$,% ( ,$-ff(=% 4elsh 'riters in general
seem to ha.e seen this ne' material as a .alua!le resour&e% e>tending and
enri&hing their nati.e sto&) of stories% and it Aui&)ly &ame to dominate% 'ith
the 'riters !lending it% 'here ossi!le% 'ith the nati.e traditions( In &ontrast

-3
to the rose 'riters% ho'e.er% the cywyddwyr E the oets of the fourteenth%
fifteenth and si>teenth &enturies E seem to ha.e !een some'hat sele&ti.e in
ho' many of the &ontinental and Galfridian de.eloments they &hose to
adot and ho' &losely they follo'ed them( They seem to ha.e !een hay
to &ontinue to dra' on the nati.e and non8Galfridian Arthurian tradition%
and 'hen there 'as any dis&rean&y !et'een this and the non8nati.e
material they freAuently sided 'ith the former( Thus in the fourteenth
&entury Lla&heu &ontinues to feature as a standard of raiseG ?edraut
remains an honoura!le and .aliant &hara&ter <rather than the traitor of the
Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae=G and the oetsD &on&et of +ai is that of %#hwch
rather than that of the C?atter of /ritainD( 4hen Dafydd a G'ilym and
Dafydd a! Edm'nd refer to the a!du&tion of G'enh'yfar !y ?el'as they
are referring not to &ontinental tales of infidelity !ut to the Other'orldly
re8Galfridian tale that underlies 2+ddiddan !ewas ac Gwenhwyfar and the
;ita Gidae of +arado& of Llan&arfan(
Of &ourse% this is not to say that the cywyddwyr <or the late Gogynfeirdd=
routinely reIe&ted the non8nati.e materials( Indeed% they seem to ha.e
generally fa.oured the .r#tia# and the CThree Roman&esD o.er %#hwch ac
6wen and the li)e as a sour&e for oeti& referen&es and &omarisons <Lloyd8
?organ% ,$$,% ( "#5% for e>amle the referen&es to Peredur% Geraint and
O'ain made in the oems of /leddyn Fardd in the late thirteenth &entury
and the aearan&e of the grail and &hara&ters su&h as Lan&elot in fifteenth8
&entury te>ts=( Additionally 'e &an see that the influen&e and dominan&e of
the ost8Galfridian material on their 'or) did in&rease o.er time and that
the nati.e traditional material 'as in&reasingly e&lised !y or !lended 'ith
this( For e>amle% the oetsD &on&etion of G'enh'yfar ro!a!ly &hanged
during the fourteenth &entury from a .i&tim of a!du&tion to a 'illing
adulterer% and ?edraut% though he manages to remain a ositi.e &hara&ter
throughout the middle ages in nati.e tradition% finally !e&omes the enemy of
ArthurJtraitor that he is the Galfridian tale in the 'or) of the early
si>teenth8&entury oet Tudur Aled( On the 'hole% ho'e.er% the resistan&e
!y the oets to o!.ious &hanges in the nature of the esta!lished nati.e
Arthurian &hara&ters is nota!le and surrisingly long8lasting( Referen&e to
the full range of the ?atter of /ritain did not really aear until .ery late
and only then in the 'or) of &ertain oets of the later fifteenth and early
si>teenth &entury% su&h as Si^n a Hy'el and Tudur Aled <Padel% "###% (
$$8,#,% ,,,% ,,58,$=(
/oth this &ontinuing use of nati.e Arthurian tradition and the adotion
and &o8e>isten&e of non8nati.e elements &an also !e 'itnessed in the later
.ersions of Trioedd 2nys Prydein and related te>ts su&h as the mid8fifteenth8
&entury Pedwar !archog ar H#gain 9ys Arth#r <CT'enty8Four 9nights of
ArthurDs +ourtD=( An a'areness of the Galfridian tale of Arthur and
?edraut% for e>amle% is &learly the sour&e of se.eral of the later Triads
-0
&on&erning +amlann !ut it also seems to a&t as a &atalyst for the re&ording
of other aarently non8Galfridian <and sometimes &ontradi&tory= traditions
regarding the !attle <su&h as T2P nos( 25% 2$ and -1=( Similarly in Pedwar
!archog ar H#gain 9ys Arth#r some of the grous of )nights are dra'n
straight from the re8Galfridian tradition of %#hwch ac 6wen <for e>amle%
CThree Irresisti!le 9nightsD=% others are largely non8Galfridian in &hara&ter
!ut !etray some influen&e <for e>amle% CThree Golden8Tongued 9nightsD=%
and yet others are entirely non8nati.e <for e>amle% CThree Sirgin 9nightsD=(
See /rom'i&h% ,$0-G Padel% "###% ( -08--% $,8"G Lloyd8?organ% ,$$,% (
"##8#"(
See further O(7( Padel% Arth#r in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% "###=%
( 2,83,% 0,% $$8,#,% ,,,% ,,58,$G R( /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd
2nys Prydein: The <esh Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=G R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=% The
Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% arti&ularly the &haters !y +( Lloyd8
?organ and P( Sims84illiamsG T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=G
and 7( Ro'lands% Eary <esh (aga Poetry: a (t#dy and Edition of the Engynion
<+am!ridge% ,$$#=% ( "2#82$( On the Gogynfeirdd see 7(E( +aer'yn
4illiams% The Poets of the Princes <+ardiff% ,$0-= and A(O(H( 7arman and G(R(
Hughes <ed(=% A G#ide to <esh 9iterat#re @ <S'ansea% ,$03=(

5
A Ga6etteer of Arthurian
Onomasti& and Toograhi&
Fol)lore
$,
A Ga6etteer of Arthurian Onomasti& and
Toograhi& Fol)lore
'ontents
,( Introdu&tion
"( Arthurian Fol)lore; Early Literary Referen&es
a. Historia .ritton#+ OKE 0 %#hwch ac 6wen
b. The 9atin (aints? 9ives
c. Engynion y .edda#, /e -eb#s Gestis Angor#+ 0 2+ddiddan
Gwyddno Garanhir ac Gwyn fab ,#dd
d. /e !irac#is (anctae !ariae 9a#densis. 9iber Forid#s, @tinerari#+
Ka+brie 0 !arwnat %adwaon a& %adfan
5( A +atalogue of Arthurian Onomasti& and Toograhi& Fol)lore
a. Arth#r?s (tones
b. Arth#r?s 1#oits
c. Arth#r?s /ining (ites
d. Arth#r?s (eats
e. Arth#r?s -esidences
f. Arth#r?s Graves
g. !isceaneo#s Arth#riana
1. Introduction
One ase&t of the Arthurian legend 'hi&h has often re&ei.ed little
&onsideration is ArthurDs freAuent aearan&e in the onomasti& and
toograhi& fol)lore of /ritain and /rittany( ?ost usually the attitude has
!een that 'e should C&on&lude that literature rather than genuine fol)lore
a&&ounts for most of themD(
,
Su&h notions do not% ho'e.er% stand u to
s&rutiny( Instead% as Oli.er Padel has re&ently demonstrated% Arthurian
onomasti& and toograhi& tales should ro!a!ly !e seen as &entral to the
legend and its origins( Arthur aears to ha.e !een rimarily a mythi&al
andJor legendary hero% Cthe leader of a !and of heroes 'ho li.e outside
, G( Ashe% CToograhy and Lo&al LegendsD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= The ,ew Arth#rian
Encyco&aedia <Ne' Kor) : London% ,$$3=% ( 12282- at ( 120(

$"
so&iety% 'hose main 'orld is one of magi&al animals% giants% and other
'ondrous haenings% lo&ated in the 'ild arts of the lands&aeD( This
&on&et of Arthur 'as% from at least the ninth &entury% freAuently
manifested through tales atta&hed to remar)a!le features in this lands&ae(
In arti&ular% natural ro&)s and rehistori& antiAuities 'ere often used !y
these tales% reutedly !eing the .isi!le lo&al remnants of ArthurDs a&ti.ity%
sometimes E !ut !y no means al'ays E &alled CArthurDs HD in remem!ran&e
of this(
,

The a!o.e &on&et of Arthur as a lo&al hero of toograhi& and
onomasti& fol)lore &an !e demonstrated 'here.er a /rittoni& language 'as
on&e so)en E in southern S&otland% 4ales% the 4elsh !orders% south8'est
England% and /rittany E and it is resent in e.en the earliest sour&es <see
!elo'=( ?oreo.er% su&h a situation is not% in fa&t% at all unusualG su&h lo&al
fol)8tales% ese&ially la&e8name tales% are a re&urring feature of literature
and fol)lore in +elti& languages( For e>amle% the legend of Fionn ma&
+umhaill in early Irish tradition E 'hi&h Padel and others see as &losely
analogous to the early Arthurian legend E aears to ha.e originated in Iust
su&h disarate ie&es of lo&al fol)lore( These usually narrated a single
eisode in the heroDs life and ad.entures in the 'ilderness% 'ith a distin&ti.e
lands&ae8feature or la&e8name ser.ing as the fo&us for the taleG a &oherent
a&&ount of FionnDs life and e>loits only seems to ha.e emerged later as a
literary de.eloment of this oral tradition(
"
Similarly the Tristan legend% as
found in the 'or)s of the &ontinental oets su&h as /Wroul% is no' generally
a&&eted as deri.ing from +ornish onomasti& and toograhi& fol)lore(
5

Indeed% so oular 'ere these stories that they !e&ame a genre in their o'n
right% )no'n to the Irish as dinnsheanchas% Cla&e8loreD% the /la&) /oo) of
+armarthen Engynion y .edda# !eing a se&ialised 4elsh e>amle of this%
&on&erned 'ith the suosed resting la&es of mythi&alJfol)lori& heroes
<in&luding se.eral Arthurian &hara&ters=(
4hat follo's is slit into t'o se&tions( The first !riefly highlights )ey
early literary referen&es to su&h Arthurian onomasti& and toograhi&
fol)lore( The se&ond &omrises a ga6etteer of some of this material( 4ith
regards to the latter% although the ga6etteer itself is restri&ted largely to that
material asso&iated 'ith a name in the form CArthurDs HD% other Arthurian
onomasti& and toograhi& lore did% of &ourse% e>ist( Indeed% it is re&orded
from the earliest eriod right through to the nineteenth &entury% and it is
argua!ly dominant in the non8Galfridian material( Imortant instan&es of
, O(7( Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% (
,85,% Auotation at ( ,1(
" Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( ""G D( T hTgUin% Fionn +ac %#+hai: @+ages of the
Gaeic Hero <Du!lin% ,$--=(
5 See ese&ially O(7( Padel% CThe +ornish /a&)ground of the Tristan StoriesD%
%a+bridge !edieva %etic (t#dies% , <,$-,=% ( 258-,(
$5
this E for e>amle% la&e8names refle&ting the lo&alisation of the .arious
tales in %#hwch ac 6wen in the 4elsh lands&ae% su&h as !es#r'y'Peir%
C?easure of the +auldronD% referring to the la&e 'here Arthur and his men
landed 'ith a &atured &auldron E are dis&ussed !elo' and in T( Green%
%once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=( Ho'e.er% the nature of this material%
ese&ially the unidentified lo&ation of some of the names% means that it is
not readily amena!le for in&lusion in a ga6etteer(
For this reason the fo&us in the &atalogue ro.ided !elo' is on the more
easily lo&ata!le and &lassifia!le su!set of the lore 'hi&h relates to a la&e or
o!Ie&t named after <and !y imli&ation% !elonging to= Arthur% su&h as
CArthurDs StoneD and CArthurDs +hairD( This is% of &ourse% Iust that material
'hi&h is most often &riti&ised and su!Ie&t to s&eti&ism o.er its origins( In
art% this is Iustified( As Grooms has noted% mu&h of this tye of Arthurian
toograhi& and onomasti& fol)lore is only re&orded from the si>teenth
&entury on'ards% 'ith one &lass E CArthurDs @uoitsD E &ertainly una!le to
ha.e an origin any earlier than this(
,
In &onseAuen&e% antiAuarian in.ention
&annot !e dis&ounted for a num!er of the names( On the other hand% 'hilst
some are late% others are most definitely early( Thus% to gi.e a fe' e>amles%
'e ha.e an CArthurDs SeatD and an CArthurDs O.enD re&orded as early as ,,,5%
an CArthurDs Pala&eD in ,,"# <'hi&h is also )no'n as CArthurDs ODenD in the
thirteenth &entury=% an CArthurDs /o'erD do&umented in the ,,0#s% an
CArthurDs SeatD des&ri!ed in c. ,,$#% and .arious CArthurDs StonesD and other
similar items referred to from at least the thirteenth &entury on'ards(
"

Indeed% in the erhas tenth8&entury oem !arwnat %adwaon a& %adfan 'e
learn that a se.enth8&entury !attle 'as suosedly fought at Ffynnawn
Netwyr% C/ed'yrDs SringD </ed'yr !eing one of ArthurDs &losest &omanions
in the earliest stratum of the Arthurian legend and ha.ing no e>isten&e
outside of this material=(
5
All this 'ould tend to &onfirm that su&h items of
lo&al fol)lore had a genuine and early la&e in Arthurian story( Although the
earliest tales <su&h as those related in %#hwch ac 6wen= are aarently
dominated !y toograhi& and onomasti& fol)lore 'hi&h is not in the form
CArthurDs HD% this is &learly no reason to dismiss this material( Furthermore%
Padel
1
has esta!lished a good &onte>t for these tye of names 'ithin the
non8Galfridian legend% 'hi&h ma)es their e>isten&e &omrehensi!le 'ithout
re&ourse to 'ide8sread antiAuarian in.ention( @uite simly% this is e>a&tly
, +( Grooms% The Giants of <aes. %ewri %y+r#% 4elsh Studies .ol ,# <Lameter%
,$$5=% ( l% ,,-G Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( "0G T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r
<Stroud% "##0=% ( "11812(
" See !elo' for some dis&ussion of theseG also Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( 183%
"28"3 and Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,3% ,"0(
5 7(T( 9o&h and 7( +arey% The %etic Heroic Age: 9iterary (o#rces for Ancient %etic
E#ro&e 0 Eary @reand 0 <aes% fourth edition <A!eryst'yth% "##5=% ( 505G
&omare the CArthurDs FountainD and the CArthurDs 4ellD noted in the ga6etteer(
1 Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurD% &assi+.

$1
the tye of fol)lore that the nature of Arthur in the early 4elsh sour&es
'ould lead us to e>e&t to find in the /ritish lands&ae(
Indeed% it is 'orth remem!ering that !oth the names and the stories
atta&hed to these Cremar)a!le featuresD in the lands&ae E the .isi!le
reminders of ArthurDs ad.entures and deeds E are astonishingly &onsistent
a&ross the &enturies in their ortrayal of the /ritish non8Galfridian Arthur(
The stories and la&e8names re&orded !y nineteenth8 and t'entieth8&entury
&olle&tors of oral traditions differ little from those re&orded !y &han&e in the
t'elfth or thirteenth &enturies% or e.en those found in the ninth8&entury
Engynion y .edda# and Historia .ritton#+( This% in itself% does gi.e the lie to
the old .ie' that ost8Galfridian and% ese&ially% ost8medie.al Arthurian
onomasti& and toograhi& fol)lore is of no .alue as it mainly results from
<or is &ontaminated !y= the international literary legend(
,
To &ite one
e>amle of this nota!le &ontinuity from the erse&ti.e of stories% the
4elsh %arreg %arn !arch Arth#r <CStone of ArthurDs SteedDs HoofD% !earing
the footrint of ArthurDs horse made as he hunted the monstrous Afan&=
and the CArthurDs StoneD in St +olum!% +orn'all <'hi&h is said to !ear the
imression of the footrints of ArthurDs horse and is asso&iated 'ith the
legends of him hunting in this area=% !ear .ery &lose &omarison 'ith the
Arthurian tale surrounding a remar)a!le stone ato +orn Gafallt% a hill near
Rhaeadr% re&orded in the Historia .ritton#+ of -"$J5#(
"

In the light of the a!o.e% the late re&ording of some of this lore%
ese&ially that 'here the la&e8name is in the form CArthurDs HD <for instan&e
the %oetan Arth#r% CArthurDs @uoitsD=% does not seem so mu&h of a ro!lem
as has sometimes !een assumed( 4hilst allo'ing that some e>amles 'ill
ha.e !een in.ented !y antiAuarians and thus not ha.e genuine fol)8tales
underlying and e>laining them% mass in.ention &annot !e seen as the most
&redi!le e>lanation for the &orus as a 'hole( Pla&e8lore aears to !e too
&entral to the early Arthurian legend% and the tye and nature of the names
and stories are too &onsistent o.er the &ourse of more than ,### years( As
Padel has re&ently o!ser.ed%
4hat interests us% and is so imressi.e% is not the antiAuity of any
indi.idual name% !ut the .itality and &onsisten&y of the tradition in
the .arious /rittoni& areas[ The fol)lore may in some &ases ha.e
!een !oosted !y the literary de.eloments[ N!utO it remained
largely unaffe&ted !y the literary Arthurian &y&le% and retained its
&hara&ter throughout the eriod(
5

, Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( "285#G Green% %once&ts of Arth#r% ( "1"812(
" See !elo' and Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurD% ( "85% "-G Green% %once&ts of
Arth#r% ( 3080#% ,#2% "1"815(
5 Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( "0 and "$85#(
$2
/efore ending this introdu&tion% three final features of the material
&ategorised and listed in the ga6etteer reAuire &omment( First% all instan&es
)no'n to the resent 'riter of a name in the form CArthurDs HD are in&luded%
!ut the le.el of detail of the material &o.ered .aries &onsidera!ly !et'een
instan&es( In some &ases 'e ha.e a full tale re&orded or summarisedG in
others 'e ha.e only the name sur.i.ing% not the e>lanatory story that
originally a&&omanied it( In su&h &ir&umstan&es the original fol)8tale &an
only !e guessed at% through &omarison 'ith either Arthurian literary te>ts
or other similar onomasti& and toograhi& lore% Arthurian or other'ise
<this is a ro!lem &ommon to all &hara&ters 'ho feature in toograhi& and
onomasti& fol)lore=(
,
It is% of &ourse% su&h instan&es 'here only the name E
not the story E sur.i.es that are most oen% still% to the susi&ion of ost8
medie.al antiAuarian in.ention% though it should !e re&alled here that 'e
find Iust the same situation in the medie.al eriod too% so that <for e>amle=
only the name C/ed'yrDs 4ellD sur.i.es in the early 4elsh oem !arwnat
%adwaon a& %adfan( S&eti&ism in some of these &ases may 'ell !e Iustified%
!ut hyer8s&eti&ism is &ertainly not(
The se&ond is the fa&t that Arthur aears to ha.e !een seen as a giant
and he &ometes 'ith other giants for rominen&e in his fol)lori&
&onne&tion 'ith .arious CAuoitsD and other Cremar)a!leD features in the
lands&ae( Su&h a &on&et &an also erhas !e o!ser.ed in early 4elsh
literary sour&es E in&luding Historia .ritton#+ R05% Preide# Annwfyn and
.re#ddwyd -honabwy E !ut it is arti&ularly &lear in the onomasti& and
toograhi& lore% 'ith fol)lore &olle&tors su&h as ?yrddin Fardd referring
to stories of CArthur the GiantD and a large se&tion of Grooms re&ent sur.ey
of 4elsh Giant8lore de.oted to tales of Arthur( As is noted in the ga6etteer%
the .ery nature of many of the CArthurDs HD names ne&essarily imlies a
giganti& si6e and strength for Arthur(
"
Finally% it should !e noted that the follo'ing ga6etteer is ine.ita!ly
!iased( Some regions sa' their lo&al fol)lore re&orded in detail and from a
.ery early date% 'hilst in others su&h antiAuarian a&ti.ity 'as largely la&)ing(
This fa&t almost &ertainly lays at the root of the large num!er of 4elsh sites
in this list &omared to% for e>amle% the au&ity of material from the south8
'est( That this situation does not refle&t reality &an !e readily seen from the
'or) of the mid8nineteenth8&entury +ornish fol)lorist Ro!ert Hunt% 'ho
stated that in eastern +orn'all Call the mar)s of any e&uliar )ind found on
ro&)s[ are almost al'ays attri!uted to ArthurD and that C9ing ArthurDs
!eds% and &hairs% and &a.esN% and AuoitsO are freAuently to !e met 'ithD% !ut
'ho then seems &ontent to des&ri!e more fully only one su&h site% the stone
, Grooms% Giants of <aes% &assi+.
" See further Green% %once&ts of Arth#r% arti&ularly &hater t'o for Arthur and
&hater four for his giganti& &omanions and family( See also Padel% CNature of
ArthurD% and Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,58"-(

$3
in St +olum!% +orn'all(
,
Another fa&tor 'hi&h affe&ts the distri!ution is%
naturally% the a.aila!ility of su&h re&ords E thus GroomsD material from
/rittany is as yet unu!lished% and there is therefore .ery little /reton
fol)lore in the follo'ing ga6etteer( In &onseAuen&e% the ga6etteer must !e
&onsidered a ro.isional listG its &omilation% needless to say% o'es a
&onsidera!le de!t to +hris GroomsD imortant study and Geoffrey AsheDs
Traveer?s G#ide to Arth#rian .ritain(
"
2. Arthurian %ol)lore: A Brief /uide to #arly ;iterary &eferences
a. Historia Brittonu* ->3 and 'ulh0ch ac !l0en
That one maIor e>ression of ArthurDs early legend 'as through lo&al
onomasti& and toograhi& fol)lore is made .ery &lear !y the Historia
.ritton#+% 'ritten in A(D( -"$ or -5#( +haters 30802 of this 'or) &ontain a
des&rition of .arious +irabiia% Cmar.elsD% from /ritain and Ireland that the
author had either heard of or had ersonally e>erien&edG t'o of these are
Arthurian in &hara&ter( One des&ri!es a toograhi& fol)8tale relating to
ArthurDs murder and !urial of his son% Amr;
There is another 'onder in the &ountry &alled Ergyng <Ercing=(
There is a tom! there !y a sring% &alled Llygad Amr <9icat A+r=G
the name of the man 'ho 'as !uried in the tom! 'as Amr( He 'as
the son of the 'arrior Arthur% and he )illed him there and !uried
him( ?en &ome to measure the tom!% and it is sometimes si> feet
long% sometimes nine% sometimes t'el.e% sometimes fifteen( At
'hate.er measure you measure it on one o&&asion% you ne.er find it
again of the same measure% and I ha.e tried it myself(
5
This is 'ithout a dou!t a &han&e E and e>&etionally earlyG gi.en that most
/ritish fol)lore goes unre&orded !efore the t'elfth &entury E sur.i.al of an
onomasti& toograhi& tale dra'n from lo&al% oular fol)lore% here
designed to e>lain the name 9icat A+r and an asso&iated gra.e( The story
, R( Hunt% Po&#ar -o+ances of the <est of Engand. The /ros, Traditions and
(#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa% third edition of ,--, <Felinfa&h% ,$$5=% I% ( ,-3(
Similarly /orlase remar)ed of +orn'all in the mid8eighteenth &entury that
C'hate.er is great% and the use and Author un)no'n% is attri!uted to ArthurD%
although he only identifies a fe' su&h sites; Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( "$(
" Grooms% Giant of <aes% ( ,,58"-G G( Ashe% The Traveer?s G#ide to Arth#rian
.ritain <Glaston!ury% ,$$0=(
5 ,enni#s: .ritish History and The <esh Annas, ed( and trans( 7( ?orris <+hi&hester%
,$-#=% ( 1"(
$0
of Arthur )illing Amr is other'ise un)no'n% although CAmhar son of
ArthurD aears in Geraint as one of ArthurDs four &ham!erlains(
Nonetheless% this is suffi&ient to demonstrate !oth the early e>isten&e of this
material and the manner in 'hi&h remar)a!le features in the 'ilds of the
lands&ae had e>lanatory Arthurian stories atta&hed to them( E.en more
interesting is the other Arthurian +irabie;
There is another 'onder in the &ountry &alled /uilth( There is a
hea of stones there% and one of these stones la&ed on the to of
the ile has the footrint of a dog on it( 4hen he hunted T'r&h
Tr'yth% +afal <%aba=% the 'arrior ArthurDs hound% imressed his
footrint on the stone% and Arthur later !rought together the ile of
stones% under the stone in 'hi&h 'as his dogDs footrint% and it is
&alled +arn +afal <%arn %aba=( ?en &ome and ta)e the stone in
their hands for the sa&e of a day and a night% and on the morro' it
is found uon the stone ile(
,
%arn %aba is a rehistori& &airn 'hi&h gi.es its name to +orn +afallt% a hill
near Rhaeadr <Po'ys=( Again 'e ha.e an unusual and 'ondrous lands&ae
feature ha.ing its e>isten&e and name !eing e>lained through the
atta&hment to it of an Arthurian onomasti& and toograhi& tale( This
C'onderD is arti&ularly interesting as 'e )no' from the ele.enth8&entury
rose tale %#hwch ac 6wen that the hunting of the giant di.ine !oar Twrch
Trwyth <more &orre&tly Trwyd= 'as a de.eloed and imortant Arthurian tale(
It is &onseAuently signifi&ant that here% at its earliest o&&urren&e% it is
thoroughly rooted in lo&al fol)lore( Indeed% this aears true of the tale e.en
in %#hwch too; there the hunt is lo&alised in a num!er of la&es a&ross south
4ales% su&h as +'m 9er'yn% the highest oint on the Preselly mountains%
and .arious sites 'ith names mainly asso&iated E either &orre&tly or through
fol)8etymology E 'ith igs(
"
The tale of Twrch Trwyd is not the only one in %#hwch 'hi&h aears to
ha.e !een e>ressed through andJor had its origins in lo&al onomasti& and
toograhi& fol)lore( For e>amle% the tale of ArthurDs raid on Ireland for
the &auldron of Di'rna&h 4yddel E 'hi&h is a euhemerism of ArthurDs
&auldron8see)ing raid into the Other'orld related in the early oem Preide#
Annwfyn E is &learly deri.ati.e of a re8e>isting onomasti& tale in %#hwch;
And they disem!ar)ed at the house of Ll'ydeu son of +el +oed% at
Porth +erddin in Dyfed( And ?esur8y8Peir Na la&e8name% C?easure
of the +auldronDO is there(
5

, ,enni#s% ( 1"(
" See Green% %once&ts of Arth#r% ( 3080"(
5 The !abinogion% trans( G( 7ones and T( 7ones <London% ,$1$=% ( ,5#(

$-
This la&e8name is no' lostG ho'e.er% 9enneth 7a&)son has identified a
!ess#r Pritg#enn <C?easure of NArthurDs shiO Pryd'enD= in the t'elfth8
&entury &harters of the /oo) of Llandaf% 'hi&h he &onsiders to !e art of
this onomasti& tale and &onfirmation of its re8e>isten&e(
,

Indeed% a deeer in.estigation imlies that many early Arthurian tales
may ha.e !een e>ressed% at least artially% through su&h material( To &ite
some further e>amles% the Arthurian )illings of the Sery /la&) 4it&h and
Dillus Farfa'g in %#hwch !oth loo) to fall into this &ategory of Arthurian
tales 'hi&h deri.e from <or are e>ressed in= lo&al fol)lore% as does the
&learly fol)lore8deri.ed !attle !et'een Arthur and the giant RithoJRetho in
Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae(
"
b. The ;atin Saints9 ;ives
Arthur ma)es a num!er of aearan&es in the ele.enth8 to thirteenth8
&entury Latin SaintsD Li.es( There he is most usually Can arrogant% grasing
tyrant 'ho is hum!led in ignominious defeat% not in any armed struggle !ut
in his &hildish greed and e.en in his failure to fulfil his traditional role as
giant or dragon8slayerD( Nonetheless% it has re&ently !een &on&luded that Cthe
Arthurian eisodes aear to !e genuine fragments of Arthurian legend
N&onsistent 'ith the ortrayal of Arthur found in %#hwch ac 6wen et&(O%
maniulated so that they may dislay Arthur in the 'orst ossi!le light(D
5
In
se.eral instan&es these eisodes aear% on&e again% to !e at least in art
dra'n from lo&al onomasti& and toograhi& lore( Thus in LifrisD ;ita (ancti
%adoci% 'ritten !et'een ,#3, and ,,#1% 'e find t'o tales of Arthur
un)no'n from any other sour&e% one seeming to refle&t a toograhi&
fol)tale in.ol.ing the e>&hange of magi&al or Other'orldly animals at a
ford% and another that loo)s to !e a similar fol)tale in 'hi&h Arthur is a
mighty 'arrior% rote&tor% and defender of the realmJguardian of the !order
'ho e>ists outside of normal so&iety(
1
Also other'ise un)no'n are the tales
of Arthur slaying dragons 'hi&h ha.e !een maniulated !y the authors of
the 4elsh ;ita Pri+a (ancti %arantoci <c( ,,##B= and the t'elfth8&entury
/reton ;ita E#fa+i( In the &ase of the latter at least% the story 'ould seem
to ha.e already !een in e>isten&e !y c. ,,,# E Iudging !y the e.iden&e of the
, See 7(T( 9o&h CThe +elti& LandsD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= !edieva Arth#rian 9iterat#re:
A G#ide to -ecent -esearch <Ne' Kor)% ,$$3=% ( "5$85"" at ( "23820(
" Green% %once&ts of Arth#r% &hater three for a full dis&ussion and de.eloment of
these ointsG for la&e8names in %#hwch ac 6wen% see also %#hwch and 6wen. An
Edition and (t#dy of the 6dest Arth#rian Tae% edd( R( /rom'i&h and D( Simon
E.ans <+ardiff% ,$$"=(
5 /(F( Ro!erts C%#hwch ac 6wen% the Triads% SaintsD Li.esD% in R( /rom'i&h et a
<edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 058$2 at (-5(
1 Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurD% ( 08-G Green% %once&ts of Arth#r% ( ,"-8"$%
,$$8"##(
$$
Perros Relief E and it sho's .ery &lear signs of deri.ing from lo&al
toograhi& lore(
,
c. #nglynion y Beddau8 <e &ebus /estis Angloru* ?
.*ddiddan /0yddno /aranhir ac /0yn fab :udd
As noted in the introdu&tion% the mid8late ninth8&entury Engynion y .edda# is
effe&ti.ely an early 4elsh &atalogue of Cla&e8loreD% &on&erned 'ith the
suosed resting la&es of mythi&alJfol)lori& heroes( Although it &laims no
)no'ledge of ArthurDs gra.e% it does refer to that of his nehe'% G'al&hmai
E CThe gra.e of G'al&hmai is in Peryddon <&eriton= J as a reroa&h to menD E
and to that of one of his &onstant &omanion% /ed'yr E Cthe gra.e of
/ed'yr is on Tryfan hill(D
"

+learly in these 'e ha.e further e.iden&e for the .ery early e>isten&e of
Arthurian !urial8fol)lore% li)e that related in the Historia .ritton#+(
Mnfortunately no further details are gi.en of the stories atta&hed to these
sites in the Engynion y .edda#( Ho'e.er% the gra.e of G'al&hmai is also
referred to !y 4illiam of ?almes!ury in his Gesta -eg#+ Angor#+ of c. ,,"2;
At this time <,#338-0= 'as found in the ro.in&e of 4ales &alled
R<h=os the tom! of 4al'en% 'ho 'as the not degenerate nehe'
of Arthur !y his sister[ NThisO 'as found in the time of 9ing
4illiam Nthe +onAueror% ,#338,#-0O uon the sea shore% fourteen
feet in lengthG and here some say he 'as 'ounded !y his foes and
&ast out in a shi're&)% !ut a&&ording to others he 'as )illed !y his
fello'8&iti6ens at a u!li& !anAuet( 9no'ledge of the truth
therefore remains dou!tful% although neither story 'ould !e
in&onsistent 'ith the defen&e of his fame(
5

This e>ansion of the Engynion y .edda#Ds !rief referen&e o!.iously aids
&onsidera!ly our understanding of the underlying fol)tale E though mu&h is
o!.iously missing E and !oth the si6e of the gra.e and nature of the tale
!ear &omarison 'ith the gra.e of Amr% ArthurDs son% in the +irabiia of the
Historia .ritton#+( 4ith regards to the lo&ation of G'al&hmaiDs gra.e% the
site of the gra.e re&orded in !oth sour&es 'ould aear% uon in.estigation%
to !e identi&al% suggesting that the dis&o.ery in Cthe time of 9ing 4illiamD
'as either an oening or e>&a.ation of the traditional site of G'al&hmaiDs
!urial re&orded in the Engynion y .edda#(
1

, See Green% %once&ts of Arth#r% &hater three for a full dis&ussion(
" P( Sims84illiams CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a
<edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at ( 2#(
5 E(9( +ham!ers% Arth#r of .ritain <London% ,$"0=% ( ,0(
1 Green% %once&ts of Arth#r% ( ,0#80,G Sims84illiams% CEarly 4elsh Arthurian

,##
In&identally% another of ArthurDs sons% Lla&heu% also aears to ha.e a
traditional !urial site( In the erhas tenth8&entury 2+ddiddan Gwyddno
Garanhir ac Gwyn fab ,#dd 'e find e.iden&e for the e>isten&e of some story
of his death;
I ha.e !een 'here Lla&heu 'as slain
the son of Arthur% a'ful NJmar.ellousO in songs
'hen ra.ens &roa)ed o.er !lood(
,

4here this o&&urred is not stated !ut 'e find% in a thirteenth8&entury elegy
!y /leddyn Fardd% the statement that CLla&hau 'as slain !elo' Lle&h KsgarD(
4hilst the la&e is unidentified E though it 'as the site of one of the &ourts
of ?adog a ?aredudd% d( ,,3# E Sims84illiams has suggested that there
&ould 'ell ha.e !een a lo&al legend underlying the a!o.e li)e those &ited
re.iously(
"
d. <e (iraculis Sanctae (ariae ;audensis8 ;iber %loridus8
Itinerariu* 3a*brie ? (ar0nat 'ad0allon ap 'adfan
HermanDs /e !irac#is (anctae !ariae 9a#densis% CThe ?ira&les of St ?ary of
LaonD% is an a&&ount of a Iourney made in ,,,5 to /ritain !y some &anons of
Laon% in northern Fran&e(
5
From the &urrent erse&ti.e the rimary
imortan&e of this te>t lies 'ith the fa&t that% 'hilst tra.elling !et'een
E>eter and /odmin% the &anons 'ere sho'n the CseatD and the Co.enD of
9ing Arthur and 'ere told that this 'as CArthurian &ountryD( These are
some of the earliest re&orded instan&es of se&ifi& sites a&tually !eing
granted a name of the form CArthurDs HD% although 'e la&) the stories 'hi&h
e>lained 'hy these sites 'ere so des&ri!ed <see the ga6etteer !elo' for
some later &omarati.e material that might 'ell allo' these to !e guessed
at=(
Similar une>lained ie&es of onomasti& and toograhi& fol)lore are
found in other early sour&es too( Lam!ert of St Omer% in his 9iber Forid#s
of ,,"#% made additions to the +irabiia of the Historia .ritton#+ in&luding a
!uilding )no'n as CArthurDs Pala&eD% 'hi&h is no' generally a&)no'ledged
to !e a &ir&ular !uilding of Roman date near Stirling <S&otland= )no'n as
PoemsD% ( 2#(
, The %etic (o#rces for the Arth#rian 9egend% ed( and trans( 7(/( +oe and S( Koung
<Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( ,"2(
" Sims84illiams% CEarly 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% ( 11G O(7( Padel% Arth#r in
!edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% "###=% ( $$% suggests that C!elo' Lle&h KsgarD
might refer to +ri&)heath Hill south of Os'estry% Shroshire(
5 Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( 183% -8,#G 7(S(P( Tatlo&)% CThe English 7ourney of
the Laon +anonsD% (&ec##+% - <,$55=% ( 121832(
,#,
CArthurDs ODenD in the thirteenth &entury(
,
Gerald of 4ales refers% in his
c. ,,$# @tinerari#+ Ka+brie <I("=% to a hill C&alled 9airarthur% that is ArthurDs
seat% !e&ause of the t'in ea)s of a roIe&tion rising u in the form of a
&hairD% to !e identified as Pen y Fan% the highest oint of the /re&on
/ea&ons(
"
And in the erhas tenth8&entury oem !arwnat %adwaon a&
%adfan 'e learn that a se.enth8&entury !attle 'as suosedly fought at
Ffynnawn Netwyr% C/ed'yrDs SringD% a otentially .ery early instan&e of
Arthurian naming and one 'hi&h% on&e again% naturally imlies some )ind of
lost toograhi& legend(
5
3. A /a@etteer of Arthurian !no*astic and Topographic %ol)lore
a. Arthur9s Stones
There are numerous CArthurDs StonesD <usually% in 4elsh% %arreg Arth#r or
!aen Arth#r=( The imli&ation is that these are enormous and remar)a!le
stones that ArthurDs giganti& strength allo'ed him to mar) his mar) uon%
or la&e in their &urrent osition% 'hilst 'andering in the 'ilds of the
lands&ae(
1
Although some may 'ell !e antiAuarian in.entions% Padel has
esta!lished a &on.in&ing &onte>t for these names and 'e ha.e e>amles
!a&) into the medie.al eriod E as su&h there is little reason to dou!t that a
large roortion reresent the remnants of genuine onomasti& and
toograhi& fol)8tales% &reated at .arious times o.er the ast ,### years(
One e>amle is a Neolithi& or /ron6e Age !urial8&ham!er found in
Herefordshire and first re&orded in the thirteenth &entury <SO5,-15#=(
2

Other e>amles in&lude;
A dou!le megalithi& &ham!ered tom! 'ith &astone in
Llanrhidian Lo'er on the Go'er eninsula <SS1$,5$#22=;
CLegend has it that 'hen Arthur 'as 'al)ing through
+armarthenshire on his 'ay to +amlann% he felt a e!!le in his
shoe and tossed it a'ay( It fle' se.en miles o.er /urry Inlet
and landed in Go'er% on to of the smaller stones of ?aen
+etti(D
3
T'o CArthurDs StoneDs are mentioned in 4ales in the fourteenth
, Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( 3(
" Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( "28"3(
5 9o&h and +arey% The %etic Heroic Age% ( 505(
1 Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurDG Grooms% The Giants of <aes(
2 Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( 1G Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,28,3(
3 Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,2(

,#"
&entury(
,

An CArthurDs StoneD in /ett's% +armarthenshire <SN311,","=
An CArthurDs StoneD in ?anafon% ?ontgomery <S7,"$3#1$3=
An CArthurDs StoneD in Llanfair +aereinion% ?ontgomery
<S7,##3=
An CArthurDs StoneD on /er'yn ?ountains% ?ontgomery
<S7,,5$=
An CArthurDs StoneD in Llandd'y'e8is8y8graig% ?erioneth
<SH3#55""-5=
A stone &ir&le )no'n as CArthurDs StonesD in Llana!er%
?erioneth <SH35,3,--3=
The CStones of the Sons of ArthurD are a grou of standing
stones in ?yna&hlog8ddu% Pem!ro)eshire <SN,,-,5,#"= 'here
there are numerous other Arthurian sites( They are aarently
meant to reresent the site of a !attle
An CArthurDs StoneD <in Den!igh% S7""110#= 'here a giantess
&alled on CArthur the GiantD from the Egl'yseg Ro&)s for hel
against St +ollen
The "2 ton &astone of an an&ient !urial &ham!er near
Reynoldston% north of +efn /rynis% 4est Glamorgan
<SS1$#$#2= is &alled ArthurDs stone and his ghost is o&&asionally
said to emerge from underneath it E it is e>lained as a stone
that 'as tossed from ArthurDs shoe
A megalithi& !urial of c. 5### /+ is )no'n as ArthurDs Stone%
Iust north of Dorstone <SD5,1,=
An CArthurDs StoneD in Llanfe&hell arish% Anglesey around half
a mile from the arish &hur&h <SH53-1$#"2=
An CArthurDs StoneD near +olomendy Lodge% Den!igh
<S7,5""3$5-=
An CArthurDs StoneD in the arish of Dol!enmaen%
+aernar.onshire <SH2#$151=
An CArthurDs StoneD lying at the to of a hill in ?aen Arthur
4ood near Pont8rhyd8y8groes% +ardiganshire <SN0"305#=% 'ith
the name of ArthurDs horse resent in near!y Rhos Gafallt
An CArthurDs StoneD near Penarthur% Pem!ro)eshire
<S?013"30= and related in fol)lore to a +oetan Arthur
<ArthurDs @uoit=
An CArthurDs StoneD near +ouar Angus% Perthshire
<NO"3,15#=
, Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,3(
,#5
CStone ArthurD is on to of a mountain in 4estmorland
<NK51-#$"=
In addition to these% there are se.eral CArthurDs StonesD 'hose origin8stories
dire&tly referen&ed ArthurDs <giganti&B= horse;
T'o instan&es of %arreg %arn !arch Arth#r% the CStone of
ArthurDs SteedDs HoofD% one in Llanferres arish% Den!igh
<S7"#53"3= and the other near Llyn /arfog a!o.e A!er8tafol%
?erioneth <SN32#2$-,3=(
,
The latter is asso&iated 'ith
ArthurDs dragging of the demoni& Afanc from Llyn /arfog% the
referen&ed mar)s !eing left on the stone !y ArthurDs horseDs
hoo.es as he undertoo) this endea.our(
An CArthurDs StoneD in St +olum!% +orn'all <S4$,5350=% near
ArthurDs Hunting LodgeJSeat% 'hi&h is said to !ear the
imression of the footrints of ArthurDs horse and is asso&iated
'ith the legends of him hunting in this area
The stone ato +orn Gafallt% a hill near Rhaeadr% in 'hi&h
ArthurDs steed left imressions of his hoo.es 'hilst Arthur
&hased the Twrch Trwyd <as re&orded in the ninth8&entury
Historia .ritton#+ R05 and fully de.eloed in %#hwch ac 6wen=(
Although not a&tually named as an CArthurDs StoneD% the
similarity of this ie&e of lore to those noted a!o.e should !e
o!.ious( It may thus ro.ide some indi&ation of the )ind of
e>lanatory stories that many of these names on&e had atta&hed
to them% as 'ell as further &onfirmation that su&h material had
a genuine la&e in the Arthurian tradition(
b. Arthur9s Auoits
The name CArthurDs @uoitD <4elsh %oeten Arth#r% CAuoitD meaning Cdis&us% a
solid &ir&ular o!Ie&t thro'n for sortD= is usually alied to a &romle&h and
ro!a!ly originally referred to the &astone of su&h rehistori& stru&tures(
Su&h features% 'hen not !eing named after Arthur% are freAuently asso&iated
'ith giants and refle&t the &on&et of Arthur as a giant referred to a!o.e%
Arthur ha.ing the reAuisite giant8li)e strength to fling these enormous
stones for sort( It should !e noted that these names must all date from
after the si>teenth &entury% gi.en that this is 'hen the 'ord CAuoitD 'as
!orro'ed into 4elsh;( As su&h they are late &oinings% !ut their relationshi
to the earlier CArthurDs StonesD is o!.ious and they fit 'ell into the &onte>t
, Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,0(

,#1
'hi&h Padel has esta!lished for this tye of Arthurian fol)lore( As su&h they
testify to the &ontinued .itality of su&h Arthurian onomasti& and
toograhi& fol)lore% although antiAuarian in.ention of at least some of the
e>amles !elo' might !e suse&ted(
,
E>amles in&lude;
An CArthurDs @uoitD <SN1#225-3#= 'ith Ca tra&e of ArthurDs
thum!mar) [ lainly seen on it no'D 'as tossed to Llangeler
and Pen!oyr !y Arthur from Pen +odfolG Canother of the
giantDs Auoit landed on the land of Ll'yn8ffynnonG this la&e is
&alled +ae +oetan ArthurD(
"

A &romle&h named CArthurDs @uoitD is found in ?yllteyrn
arish% +aernar.onshire <SH""$05123=( Grooms translates the
follo'ing from ?yrddin Fardd <'riting in the nineteenth
&entury=% 'hi&h is 'orth reeating for its illustration of the
lo&al fol)lori& traditions surrounding these stones;

A multitude of tales are told a!out him NArthurO(
Sometimes% he is ortrayed as a )ing and mighty soldier%
other times li)e a giant huge in si6e% and they are found
the length and !readth of the land of stones% in tons in
'eight% and the tradition &onne&ts them 'ith his name E a
fe' of them ha.e !een in his shoes time after time%
!othering him% and &omelling him also to ull them% and
to thro' them some un!elie.a!le distan&e[ A &romle&h
re&ogni6ed !y the name C+oetan ArthurD is on the land of
Trefg'm% in the arish of ?yllteyrnG it &onsists of a great
stone resting on three other stones( The tradition states
that CArthur the GiantD thre' this &oetan from +arn
Fadrun% a mountain se.eral miles from Trefg'm% and his
'ife too) three other stones in her aron and roed
them u under the &oetan(
5
Three CArthurDs @uoitsD are mentioned in the nineteenth
&entury in Ardud'y% ?erionethshire <SH3#-2"13#%
SH3#5""5-5 and SH2--3""-0=% 'here Cthe tradition states that
9ing Arthur thre' it NthemO from the to of ?oelfre to the
la&es 'here they rest resently( It is !elie.ed that mar)s of his
fingers are the indentations to !e seen on the last stone that
, Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( "38"0G see further Green% %once&ts of Arth#r% (
"11812(
" Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,-(
5 Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,-8,$(
,#2
'as noted(D
,

Three CArthurDs @uoitDs mentioned in the nineteenth &entury in
+aernar.onshire% in the arishes of Llanrug <SH2533",=%
Llanystumd'y <SH1$-$1,5"= and Rhoslan <SH1-151#$3=
An CArthurDs @uoitD <the remains of a !urial &ham!er= re&orded
in Ne'ort arish% Pem!ro)eshire <SN#3#55$52=
An CArthurDs @uoitD in Llangadog arish% +armarthenshire
<SN0500""#2= E this is a large ro&) in the ri.er Sa'dd'y%
'hi&h Arthur flung into osition from Pen Arthur% a mile
distant% and is a&&omanied !y a similar large ro&) that 'as
tossed from the shoe of a lady a&Auaintan&e of Arthur(
"

An CArthurDs @uoitD in Llangadog arish% +armarthenshire
<SN3$$3""$-=
An CArthurDs @uoitD in ?yna&hlog8ddu arish% Pem!ro)eshire
<SN,155"2=% said to ha.e !een hurled !y Arthur from HenryDs
?oat arish% 'here there is a stone &ir&leG asso&iated 'ith
ArthurDs Gra.e and ArthurDs +airn
A !urial &ham!er and large &astone lying near St Da.idDs
Head% Pem!ro)eshire <S?0"2"-,=% &lose8!y an ArthurDs Hill
A ,0 feet long stone )no'n as ArthurDs @uoit !ut no' lost%
near Ll'ydiarth% Anglesey <SH15"0-202=
The &astone of the Llug'y dolmen near ?oelfre% Anglesey
<SH2#,5-3#5=
A &astone destroyed in ,-12 in Llanlla'er arish%
Pem!ro)eshire <SN##3-53,0=
An CArthurDs @uoitD at Pentre Ifan% Pem!ro)eshire
<SN#$$150#,=
An CArthurDs @uoitD in +aeo arish% +armarthenshire
<SN32351-=
An CArthurDs @uoitD in +elynin Parish% +aernar.onshire
re&orded in the se.enteenth &entury <SH0-30,$=
An CArthurDs @uoitD in LlanIestin arish% +aernar.onshire
re&orded in the se.enteenth &entury <SH"2,52,=
A lost CArthurDs @uoitD in +aernar.onshire <SH1,$1$#=
An CArthurDs @uoitD &romle&h near ?anor!ier% Pem!ro)eshire
<SS#2$5$0"-=
An CArthurDs @uoitD in +as8ael arish% Pem!ro)eshire
<SN##$25#"2=
, Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,$(
" Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,"#8",(

,#3
An CArthurDs @uoitD in Llang'yryfon arish% +ardiganshire
<SN3#$"301-=
T'o CArthurDs @uoitDs in +lynnog% +aernar.onshire
<SH1#01$3=
An CArthurDs @uoitD re&orded in ,-5- in +aernar.onshire
<SH2#-$15$#=
An BDArthurDs @uoitD &romle&h at +arn Pen!ery% Pem!ro)eshire
<S?033"$5=
A lost CArthurDs @uoitD at the Pem!ro)e estuary <S?$0J##8,=
A &romle&h )no'n as ArthurDs @uoit in Pem!ro)eshire <S?
$"=
An CArthurDs @uoitD in Llan'nda arish% Pem!ro)eshire
<S?$,$5-#=
An CArthurDs @uoitD or CGiantDs @uoitD &romle&h in St +olum!
?aIor arish% +orn'all <S4$"53,$=
An CArthurDs @uoitD <a &astone of a &romle&h= near Tintagel%
+orn'all
An CArthurDs @uoitD near Llanendd'yn% ?onmouthshire
<SH2--""$=% sometimes )no'n as CArthurDs StoneD% 'hi&h is
art of a &ham!ered long &airn
Trethe.y @uoit in +orn'all <SH"2$3-$= is sometimes &alled
CArthurDs @uoitD
c. Arthur9s <ining Sites
There are a num!er of sites 'hi&h &laim to !e asso&iated 'ith Arthur dining
in the 'ilderness( +ertainly some of these% at least% ought to !e seen to
arallel the f#achta E an&ient &oo)ing la&es in 'ild areas E often attri!uted
to Fionn and his men% 'hose legend &losely arallels that of the non8
Galfridian Arthur(
T'o sites &arry the name CArthurDs O.enD( One of these 'as seen in
,,,5 !y some &anons of Laon% in northern Fran&e% 'ho 'ere touring
England to try and raise funds for their monastery after a fire the re.ious
year( It is ro!a!ly the C9ingDs O.enD <f#rn#s regis= re&orded on Dartmoor in
the ne>t &entury and !eyond <SH301-,"=( This 'as a feature rominent
enough to !e used as a mar)er in the !ounds of the royal forest of
Dartmoor in ,"1#% and it is !elie.ed to !e an an&ient tin8smelting furna&e%
'hi&h has !een a!andoned and <fun&tion forgotten= later aroriated !y
the Arthurian legend to feature in onomasti& and toograhi& lore( Another
CArthurDs O.enD is a &ir&ular !uilding of Roman date near Stirling
,#0
<NS-0$-"0=% )no'n as ArthurDs ODen <O.en= from at least the thirteenth
&entury and destroyed in the eighteenth &entury(
,

Also rele.ant is Ffynnon %egin Arth#r% CThe Sring of ArthurDs 9it&henD% in
Llanddeiniolen arish% +ardiganshire <SH22231-=% 'hi&h is mentioned !y
the +ardiganshire oet Ieuan a Rhydder&h <f. ,15#80#= thus; CSome .aour
surrounding ArthurDs 9it&hen% Rust on e.ery &ommote of ain% an ugly
riddle% hantomDs snareD( R(7( Thomas &ommented that CThe sring is &alled
Ffynnon +egin Arthur% not !e&ause there is any dire&t &onne&tion 'ith
Arthur% !ut !e&ause it 'as a &ommon &ustom 'ithin la&e8names of
&onne&ting Arthur the Giant 'ith e.erything huge or e>&etionalD <the
sring is &oloured red 'ith iron o>ide=(
"
Related is the %rochan Arth#r%
ArthurDs Pot or +auldron% 'hi&h 'as suosedly used !y him for &oo)ing
and 'hi&h is near to ArthurDs Ta!le in +armarthenshire <SN,0#"20=(
In addition 'e might also &onsider 'hether the +ornish CArthurDs +us
and Sau&ersD ossi!ly fall 'ithin this &ategory( These are t'enty small
&ir&ular deressions% 28,2 &m a&ross% found on the headland at Tintagel%
+orn'all% 'here there is also an ArthurDs +hair% ArthurDs Footrint and%
near!y% an ArthurDs @uoit(
5
Finally% 'e should note the numerous CArthurDs
Ta!lesD that e>ist( One .ery interesting Cta!leD <a flat toed stone=
asso&iated 'ith Arthur is that at the !oundary of Gul.al% \ennor and
?adron in +orn'all% 'here Arthur is said to ha.e dined !efore defeating
the in.ading Si)ings of far8'estern +orn'all(
1
A similar legend is also
atta&hed to the Ta!le ?an% Sennen <+orn'all=(
2
Other e>amles in&lude;

An CArthurDs Ta!leD from +aernar.onshire <SN,0#"20=
An CArthurDs Ta!leD in the ?ynydd Llangyndeyrn <SN1-0,5#=
An CArthurDs Ta!leD at Llangynog <SN553,3,=
/'rdd Arthur <ArthurDs Ta!le=% Anglesey <SH2---,3=% 'hi&h is
a&tually a hillfort
/'rdd Arthur <ArthurDs Ta!le=% Den!ighshire <SH$3,30"=% a
&ir&le of indentations in a ro&)y hillside re&orded in the
si>teenth &entury
+aerleon% ?onmouthshire <ST55$$#3=% 'here the old Roman
amhitheatre 'as )no'n as the CRound Ta!leD
, See Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( 283 for !oth of these sites and the ossi!ility
that the se&ond 'as first mentioned in ,,"#(
" Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,1% ,"0(
5 Initials are &ut among them urorting to date from as far !a&) as the
se.enteenth &entury% !ut see +harles Thomas% Tintage: Arth#r and Archaeoogy
<London% ,$$5=% ( 1$% for dou!ts as to the fol)lori& origin of the attri!ution(
1 ?(A( +ourtney% %ornish Feasts and Fokore <,-$#=% ( 01(
2 Hunt% Po&#ar -o+ances of the <est of Engand% II% ( 5#28#3(

,#-
?ary!orough% 4estmorland <NK2"5"-1=% 'hi&h is an
earth'or) )no'n as the CRound Ta!leD
A CRound Ta!leD from Stirling% Stirlingshire <NS0-$$53= 'hi&h
is first mentioned c( ,10- !y 4illiam of 4or&ester
Some of these% of &ourse% may o'e their origins to the international literary
legend and medie.al seudo8Arthurian e.ents and feasts% rather than
toograhi& fol)lore(
d. Arthur9s Seats
There are a large num!er of toograhi& features !earing the name
CArthurDs SeatD <4elsh Eisteddfa Arth#r=( T'o of these ha.e !een mentioned
in se&tion t'o% !eing an unlo&ated feature in De.on sho'n to the &anons of
Laon 'hen tra.elling !et'een E>eter and /odmin in ,,,5 and the hill
C&alled 9airarthur NsicO% that is ArthurDs seat% !e&ause of the t'in ea)s of a
roIe&tion rising u in the form of a &hairD% referred to in c. ,,$# !y Gerald
of 4ales in his @tinerari#+ Ka+brie <I("= and identified as Pen y Fan% the
highest oint of the /re&on /ea&ons <SO#,#",1=( Another famous
CArthurDs SeatD is that in Edin!urgh% first re&orded as Arth#rissete in ,2#-
<NT"020"$= !ut ossi!ly referred to as the site of a mythi&al !attle in the
re8Galfridian oem Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5
,
In all &ases% the &on&et of Arthur
'ould seem to !e% on&e again% that of a giant% 'ith these enormous ro&)8
formations ro.iding him furniture 'hilst he roamed the 'ilds of the
lands&ae% Iust as they do for other giants in the non8Arthurian giant8lore
re&orded !y Grooms( Other instan&es in&lude the follo'ing;
E>amles found in north Pem!ro)eshire <in the modern
eriod= in the arishes of Ne.ern and ?eline
CArthurDs SeatD as an alternati.e name for %adair @dris <CIdrisDs
+hairD= in 4ales
A mountain in the Hart Fell area% Dumfrieshire <NT,,#,"3= is
)no'n as CArthurDs SeatD
+ertain stones )no'n as %adeir Arth#r% CArthurDs +hairD on the
ea) Pen8y8f`l <Sugar Loaf= in ?onmouthshire <SO"05,--=
An CArthurDs SeatD at Dum!arro' Hill% Angus <NO22"10$=
An CArthurDs SeatD east of Liddesdale% +um!erland
<NK1$20-5=% also &alled Arthur Seat and ArthurDs Hill
, See Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( "28"3G Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,1G and
Green% %once&ts of Arth#r% ( -1% ,,$8",(
,#$
An CArthurDs +hairD at Tintagel% +orn'all 'hi&h has initials
urorting to date !a&) to the se.enteenth &entury &ut into it
and a slit )no'n as the 4indo'(
,

An CArthurDs +hairD north8'est of Se'ingshields%
Northum!erland <NK-##0##=( This is found at 9ingDs +rags
and has its air in @ueenDs +rags% 'here there is G'enh'yfarDs
+hair( Arthur% &learly &on&ei.ed of as a giant% suosedly thre'
a !oulder from his &hair at G'enh'yfar 'hi&h !oun&ed off of
her &om! to land on the ground% 'ith the teeth8mar)s from the
&om! still .isi!le on the ro&)(
e. Arthur9s &esidences
A num!er of sites ha.e !een &laimed as ArthurDs residen&e in the
'ilderness( One of these is mentioned in an en&y&loaedia &omleted in
,,"# !y Lam!ert of St( Omer% 'hose te>t is related to the Historia .ritton#+(
"

In his list of +irabiia <'onders% fol)lore= of the island of /ritain he notes a
Cala&eD of Art#ri +iitis 'hi&h 'as lo&ated in Pi&tland and had s&ulted on it
his deeds and !attles( This +irabie is no' generally a&&eted as !eing a
&ir&ular !uilding of Roman date near Stirling <NS -0$-"0=% )no'n as
ArthurDs ODen <O.en= from at least the thirteenth &entury(
5

Another site 'ith a &laim to !e ArthurDs &ourt is Kei wic( This site
aears in some of the earliest Arthurian tales% su&h as the early dialogue
oem Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5 and the ele.enth &entury +ulh'&h ac 6wen% and it
has !een identified 'ith a num!er of sites a&ross the &ountry( +ertainly it is
a 'ilderness site% kei wic meaning Cforest gro.eD% !ut 'hether it e.er had a
real lo&ation E to !e deri.ed li)e the a!o.e from toograhi& fol)lore E is to
!e se.erely dou!ted; its origins seem more lausi!ly fi&tional% or e.en
mythi&al(
1
Other &laimed sites for ArthurDs residen&e in&lude;
CArthurDs HallD% +orn'all <SH,5#000=% a stone en&losure on
/odmin ?oor 'hi&h 'as re&orded first in the si>teenth
&entury( It &onsists of a re&tangular !an) <en&losing marshy
, See further Thomas% Tintage% ( 1$(
" D(N( Dum.ille% CThe 9iber Forid#s of Lam!ert of Saint8Omer and the Historia
.ritton#+D% .#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% "3 <,$0183=% ( ,#58""(
5 Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( 3(
1 P(9( Ford% COn the Signifi&an&e of some Arthurian Names in 4elshD% .#etin of
the .oard of %etic (t#dies% 5# <,$-5=% ( "3-805 at ( "0,G O(7( Padel% CSome
south8'estern sites 'ith Arthurian asso&iationsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The
Arth#r of the <esh <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( ""$81-G Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( ,"8
,5(

,,#
ground= 'ith a re&tangle of uright granite sla!s 'ithin( It 'as
also )no'n as ArthurDs Hunting Lodge( Near!y are ArthurDs
/ed% ArthurDs Troughs and ArthurDs Do'ns(
CArthurDs Hunting LodgeD <or Hunting Seat= in +astle8an8Dinas%
+orn'all% near St +olum!% from 'hi&h Arthur rode in the hunt
on Tregoss ?oor E a stone in St +olum! !ears the four
footrints that his horse made 'hilst he 'as out hunting(
Treryn Dinas% an an&ient fort in +orn'all% is &laimed to ha.e
!een a C&astleD of Arthur(
9ys Arth#r% CArthurDs +ourtJHallJPala&eD lies &lose to the site
of +ai and /ed'yrDs !attle 'ith Dillus Farfog% at SN0-00-1(
,
+ad!ury +astle% Somerset% 'as re&orded as ArthurDs +amelot in
the si>teenth &entury !y Leland( The name C+amelotD seems to
ha.e only !e&ome atta&hed to the Arthurian legend in the late8
t'elfth &entury and has no la&e in /ritish traditions% as
indi&ated !y Trioedd 2nys Prydein( In ,2-3% ho'e.er% it 'as
re&orded that lo&als &alled +ad!ury +astle CArthurDs Pala&eD E a
name 'hi&h &ould &on&ei.a!ly ha.e re&eded <and informed=
its designation as +amelot% in light of the 9iber Forid#s E and
the resen&e of CArthurDs Hunting +ause'ayD !eside +ad!ury
+astle should also !e noted% gi.en the +ornish traditions( A
C9ing ArthurDs 4ellD is found in the lo'est ramart of the fort(
There is a rehistori& hill8fort )no'n as e %a+& d?Art#s%(
CArthurDs +amD% at Huelgoat </rittany=% 'ith a a Grotte d?Art#s%
CArthurDs +a.eD near!y(
In addition to ArthurDs ala&es and halls% 'e also ha.e a .#r#+ Art#ri%
CArthurDs /o'erD% that is ro!a!ly C!ed8&ham!erD( This is a toograhi&
feature lo&ated in +arlisle and first re&orded in the ,,0#s(
"
Also rele.ant may
!e numerous CArthurDs +a.esD% arti&ularly as a num!er of these ha.e stories
atta&hed in 'hi&h he ta)es temorary refuge there% or slum!ers there
eternally( +a.es% real or legendary% 'ith Arthurian asso&iations in&lude
+ad!ury +astle% +aerleon% Sno'donia% OgoDr Dinas% Alderley Edge% +raig8y8
Dinas% ?elrose% Ri&hmond% ?ar&hlyn ?a'r% Se'ingshields% Llantrisant
<?id8Glamorgan=% Pumsaint <+armarthenshire=% Threl)eld <+um!erland=
and Snee <Northum!erland=( There is an 6gof Arth#r in Angelsey% another
in ?erioneth% and one more t'o or three miles north of ?onmouth a!o.e
the 4ye in Herefordshire <SO212,22=(
Finally% although erhas !etter in&luded 'ith the Arthurian gra.es% 'e
ha.e se.eral Arthurian !eds( C9ing ArthurDs /edD is lo&ated on /odmin
, Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,30(
" Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( "2(
,,,
?oor% east +orn'all <SH"1#023=( It ta)es the form of a granite monolith on
to of a hill% 'ith a natural hollo' in it shaed li)e a human torso( The first
re&ord of it is found in the 'or)s of an eighteenth8&entury +ornish
antiAuary% 4illiam /orlase <'riting in ,021=% 'ho a&&omanies his
des&rition 'ith the follo'ing remar)s;
Round ArthurDs /ed% on a ro&)y Tor in the arish of North8hill%
there are many Nro&)8!asinsO% 'hi&h the &ountry eole &all ArthurDs
Troughs% in 'hi&h he usDd to feed his Dogs( Near !y also% is
ArthurDs Hall% and 'hate.er is great% and the use and Author of
un)no'n% is attri!uted to Arthur(
,
Another CArthurDs /edD E Gwey Arth#r E is near Pen Arthur in Dyfed and yet
another is found near Tintagel <see Arth#r?s Graves=(
f. Arthur9s /raves
Early8re&orded gra.es of Arthurian heroes are dis&ussed in the se&ond
se&tion% a!o.e( In addition to these, there are se.eral sites either said to !e
ArthurDs gra.e or &alled this% desite the Engynion y .edda#Ds &laim <!a&)ed
u !y other early sour&es= that no gra.e for Arthur 'as )no'n( One of
these is CArthurDs <or GiantDs= Gra.eD% 4ar!sto'e% +orn'all <SH"#"$#-=%
'hi&h is a long !arro' mound in the dou!le8ramarted 4ar!sto'e /ury
hill8fort( Another site is .edd Arth#r in Preselly ?ountains% Pem!ro)eshire
<SN,5#5"2=% 'hi&h is a &airn on to of a hill that is sometimes )no'n as
%arn Arth#r( The most famous Cgra.eD is% of &ourse% that found at
Glaston!ury !ut this &annot !e &onsidered fol)lori& in origin( Other
fol)lori& sites in&lude;
.edd Arth#r <CArthurDs Gra.eD= is asso&iated 'ith ArthurDs @uoit
in ?yna&hlog8ddu arish <SN,#,"52-#=(
"

A &romle&h near TrW!eurden <+^tes8du8Nord% /rittany= is said
to !e ArthurDs gra.e(
5

First re&orded in the thirteenth &entury% a Neolithi& or /ron6e
Age !urial8&ham!er in Herefordshire <SO5,-15#= is said to !e
ArthurDs gra.e <or that of a giant he )illed=% 'ith mar)s in the
stone !eing made either !y the giantDs el!o's or )nees
There is a %arnedd Arth#r <CArthurDs +airnD= at Sno'donia%
, Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( "$(
" Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,3(
5 Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( "0(

,,"
'here the )ing 'as suosedly !uried after ?ordred )illed him
at +amlann <the !attle is reorted to ha.e !een fought in a
near!y .alley= and 'hi&h has a C&a.e legendD atta&hed to it
Another &airn% )no'n as CArthurhouseD% is resuma!ly another
gra.e for Arthur and is the most northerly ie&e of Arthurian
la&e8lore% lo&ated at Gar.o&)% 9in&ardineshire <NO01-0,-=
A final ossi!le fol)lori& gra.e for Arthur is lo&ated Iust outside the &hael
at Tintagel% 'here there 'ould aear to !e a ro&)8&ut gra.e of the medie.al
eriod( This 'as re&orded !y Leland in the si>teenth &entury and so has lain
oen sin&e at least this oint% and in the modern eriod it is .ariously
)no'n as 9ing ArthurDs /ed% El!o' +hair and Hi8/ath( The main interest
lies 'ith the Cremar)a!leD roerties as&ri!ed to this toograhi& feature(
Thus 7ohn Norden 'rote c. ,3##;
Ther is in this +astle a hole he'ed out of a ro&)e% made in manner
of a graue% 'hi&h is sayde to haue !ene done !y a Hermite for his
!uriallG and the gra.ue 'ill fitt euerye stature% as it is effa!uledG !ut
e>erien&e doth not so assure me(
,
This o!.iously arallels the gra.e of ArthurDs son mentioned in Historia
.ritton#+ R05% dis&ussed a!o.e% and PadelDs &omments are 'orth Auoting at
length on this matter;
Saria!le8length gra.es are re&orded o&&asionally else'here in +elti&
fol)lore% in addition to the 9icat A+r in the Historia .ritton#+( 4hat
is signifi&ant here is finding one in an Arthurian &onte>t% and
NordenDs remar) of ha.ing tried its length% e&hoing so &losely
<though 'ith a different result= the remar) in the Historia .ritton#+
almost eight hundred years earlier% in relation to 9icat A+r; Cet ego
solus ro!a.iD <Cand I myself ha.e tried itD=( Not only the fol)lore% it
seems% !ut the s&eti&ism of .isitors has !een remar)a!ly &onstant
o.er the &enturies(
"
g. (iscellaneous Arthuriana
In addition to the a!o.e &ategories of Arthurian onomasti& and toograhi&
fol)lore% 'e ha.e a num!er of other features and la&es named after Arthur
or asso&iated 'ith him( Some of these des&ri!e furniture or !elongings of
, Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( "0(
" Padel% CNature of ArthurD% ( "-(
,,5
Arthur% or mar)s made !y him on ro&)s% suggesti.e of an underlying
&on&et of CArthur the giantD similar to that !ehind the instan&es of
CArthurDs SeatD and CArthurDs @uoitD;
%ist Arth#r% CArthurDs +hestD% re&orded in the arish of Llandeilo
/ertholau% ?onmouthshire <SO 5",-= !y Ed'ard Lhuyd in the
se.enteenth8&entury thus; CThere is uon S)erid Sa'r a great
stone shaed li)e a house &alled +ist ArthurD(
,
It is lo&ated near
an CArthurDs SeatD
CArthurDs FootrintJFootsteD E this is found on the headland
at Tintagel% +orn'all% on the highest oint of the island( It 'as
re&orded as C9ing ArthurDs FootsteD in ,-0" and his Footrint
in ,$#, and ,$#-% and ta)es the form of an eroded hollo'% the
!ase of 'hi&h has the shae of a large human footrint( It is
reuted to ha.e !een imrinted in the solid ro&) 'hen Arthur
Csteed at one stride a&ross the sea to Tintagel +hur&hD <,--$=
and thus may !e seen to arallel tales from other areas 'here
Arthur is a giant 'ho lea.es imressions on .arious ro&)s(
Thomas has suggested that hollo' may a&tually ha.e had a
&eremonial use in the ost8Roman eriod(
"
?oses 4illiams <,3-28,01"= re&ords CArthurDs SearD <a thin
standing stone= C&lose to the Lle&h at one end of the 'ay that
leads from /'l&h8y8ddeufain to A!erD <+aernar.onshire% SH
05-30,30=(
5
Other instan&es of CArthurDs HD 'ould seem to referen&e the &on&et of
Arthur as someone 'ho hunted in the 'ild arts of the lands&ae;
CArthurDs Hunting +ause'ayD E this is found !eside +ad!ury
+astle% Somerset% and is an an&ient tra&) assing the &am
to'ards Glaston!ury( In addition to e.iden&ing CArthur the
hunterD it 'ould seem to !e related the 'idesread fol)lori&
!elief that Arthur led the 4ild Hunt% 'ith tales of Arthur and
his men riding along this a night8time% in.isi!le e>&et for the
glint of sil.er horse shoes( The riders are said to sto to 'ater
their horses at Cthe 4ishing 4ellD(
1
CArthurDs TroughsD E these are found on /odmin ?oor%
, Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,,-(
" Thomas% Tintage% ( $38$$(
5 Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,"-(
1 9( Palmer% The Fokore of (o+erset <London% ,$03=% ( -5G +ham!ers% Arth#r of
.ritain% ( ,-18-2(

,,1
+orn'all% in the arish of North8Hill( They are reuted to !e
'here Arthur fed his hunting dogs( Near!y are ArthurDs /ed%
ArthurDs Do'ns% and ArthurDs Hall(
Finally% yet others atta&h his name to a .ariety of lands&ae featuresG 'hat
stories underlie these is !eyond &onIe&ture% !ut the liminal lo&ations of some
of these reinfor&e the notion that it is in these untamed% remote or strange
arts of the lands&ae that Arthur 'as a&ti.e in /ritish fol)lore;
CArthurDs Do'nsD% lo&ated Iust to the north of ArthurDs Hall
<SH,5#000= on /odmin ?oor% +orn'all( Perhas ArthurDs
hunting groundsB
.#arth Arth#r% CArthurDs En&losureD% is the remains of a stone
&ir&le in +armarthenshire <SN,1""33=(
Fons Arth#ri% CArthurDs FountainD E re&orded in +ra'ford arish%
Lanar)shire <NS$23"#2= as a landmar) in a ,55$ land grant
Pen Arth#r% CArthurDs HillD( Numerous instan&es of this name are
re&orded E they are erhas to !e related to those Arthurian
tales found in the SaintsD Li.es and %#hwch ac 6wen that !egin
'ith Arthur andJor his men sat on a hillto% ready for
ad.enture <a osition Fionn and his men are often found in=(
Se.eral e>amles &ome from 'ithin the .i&inity of an CArthurDs
@uoitD in Llangadog% +armarthenshire% 'here there is .anc Pen
Arth#r <SH0,2"1#= and t'o farms% Pen Arth#r and Pen Arth#r'
isaf( Another e>amle &omes from near St Da.idDs%
Pem!ro)eshire <S?0"""0$=( The t'o ea)s of the /re&on
/ea&ons% re&orded in the t'elfth &entury as CArthurDs SeatD are
also )no'n as CArthurDs HillD or CHill8ToD in the si>teenth
&entury% and there is a !oe Arth#r <ArthurDs Hill= in Flintshire
<S7,1233#=% a Pencraig Arth#r in Den!ighshire <SH-,231$=% a
.en Arth#r in Argyllshire <NN"2$#2$=% an CArthurDs HillD at
Ne'&astle% and CArthurDs SeatD% east of Liddesdale% +um!erland
<NK1$20-5=% is also )no'n as CArthurDs HillD(
CArthurDs SloughD E the follo'ing is re&orded in ,otes 0 1#eries%
.olume ,#% third series% De&em!er "$ ,-33% (2#$;
On my 'ay from 4ells to Glaston!ury some years sin&e%
I o.ertoo) on the road a &ountryman 'ho ointed out to
me a morass 'hi&h he said 'as )no'n in those arts as
ArthurDs Slough( +an CN( : @(D inform me 'hether any
tradition of 9ing Arthur% 'ho 'as !uried at Glaston!ury%
atta&hes to this marshB
,,2
Mnfortunately the &orresondent ne.er seems to ha.e re&ei.ed
an ans'er(
%oed Arth#r% CArthurDs 4oodD% is found at ST#1#0,2 in South
Glamorgan(
CArthurDs FoldD E a farm in Perthshire% 'hi&h 'as near an
CArthurDs StoneD !ut no longer e>ists( There is% ho'e.er% a
near!y Arthur!an) <NO"211"0=
CArthurDs 4ellD( This is found in the lo'est ramart of +ad!ury
+astle% Somerset( In this area Arthur and his )nights are said to
ride at night in the 4ild Hunt and 'ater their horses either
here or at another 'ell !y the .illage &hur&h of Sutton ?ontis(
,

Another ArthurDs 4ell is found near 4altoun8+rags%
Northum!erland <NK300330=(
CGreat ArthurD and CLittle ArthurD E the names of t'o of the
S&illy Isles% off the &oast of +orn'all(
CLo&h ArthurD E a lo&h in 9ir)&ud!rightshire <NH$#23$#=(
, +ham!ers% Arth#r of .ritain% ( ,-18-2(

1
Lin&olnshire and the Arthurian
Legend
,,$
Lin&olnshire and the Arthurian Legend
1. Introduction
A-THN-: How do yo# do, good ady5 @ a+ Arth#r, King of the .ritons. <hose
caste is that5
<6!A,: King of the who5
A-THN-: The .ritons.
<6!A,: <ho are the .ritons5
<C?onty Python and the Holy GrailD% ,$02% S&ene III=
In all !ut the most e&&entri& theories a!out the origins of Arthur it is agreed
that he 'as indeed a /riton% !e he a real or imaginary one( Sometimes he is
an emerorG more often he is a )ing% or a general% of the /ritons( /ut
ine.ita!ly the Auestion follo's% 'hi&h /ritonsB 4ho 'ere the /ritons that
he suosedly ledB The follo'ing arti&le suggests that% if Arthur e>isted all%
then the ans'er to this Auestion might !e the /ritons of Lin&olnshire(
This is% of &ourse% something of a dearture from the usual theories of a
Chistori&al ArthurD !ut% unli)e many of these oular theories% this
&on&lusion follo's from a &onsideration of the latest histori&al and
ar&haeologi&al resear&h( It has its genesis !oth in resear&h into the Late
Roman and Early ?edie.al East ?idlands and in a &riti&al e>amination of
hyotheses regarding the suosed histori&al reality of the most famous
legendary inha!itant of /ritain during this eriod( From the latter study
se.eral )ey themes emerged% 'hi&h are ela!orated uon and dis&ussed
!elo'( 4hat 'as arti&ularly stri)ing% ho'e.er% 'as the almost &omlete
un'illingness of theorists 'ho !elie.e there a&tually 'as a histori&al Arthur
to address one ossi!ility for his area of oerations that aears in e.en the
earliest sour&es that refer to him as a figure of history; se&ifi&ally%
Lin&olnshire( This arti&le is intended to re&tify this% ro&eeding from the
'idely8held assumtion of the e>isten&e of a genuinely Chistori&al ArthurD%
!efore going on to &onsider the e.en more fundamental Auestion of
'hether 'e ought to !elie.e in ArthurDs e>isten&e at all(
2. The Arthur of the Historia Brittonu*
/efore 'e &an e.en !egin to &onsider 'here any ossi!le histori&al Arthur

,"#
may ha.e !een !ased% if he e>isted% some essential !a&)ground must !e
esta!lished( The earliest sour&es to feature Arthur as a histori&al figure la&e
him in the eriod around the end of the fifth &entury and the !eginning of
the si>th &entury( Se&ifi&ally% he is la&ed at the /attle of /adon Hill% an
e.ent that is also mentioned <though Arthur himself is not= !y the near8
&ontemorary 'riter Gildas in his /e E4cidio .ritanniae% R"3( Although the
e>a&t date of this e.ent is mu&h de!ated% for our uroses it &an !e la&ed
'ith a reasona!le degree of &onfiden&e around A(D( 2## <see Sims84illiams%
,$-5G Laidge and Dum.ille <edd(=% ,$-1G Higham% ,$$1G Ho'lett% ,$$-(
Snyder% ,$$-; 12% "-#8-,% has a good summary of re&ent oinions and their
merits=(
The first sour&e 'ith su&h an indisuta!ly histori&al &on&et of Arthur is
the Historia .ritton#+ of A(D( -"$J5#% often 'rongly attri!uted to one
Nennius <see further Dum.ille% ,$01% ,$0283% ,$-3 and ,$$1=( Argua!ly the
Historia is the only histori&al sour&e that is of any .alue to resear&hers% gi.en
that it is the most detailed of the early sour&es and later sour&es add little of
histori&al imort% often aearing to !e deri.ati.e of it <+harles8Ed'ards%
,$$,G 9o&h% ,$$3; "2"825G Green% ,$$-G Higham% "##"; "#,8#"G Green%
"##0a% &hater ,=( It oens its Arthurian se&tion% R23% 'ith the follo'ing
statement;
Then Arthur fought against them Ni.e. the Anglo8Sa>on in.adersO in
those days% together 'ith the )ings of the /ritons% !ut he 'as their
!attle leader <d#4 beor#+=( <9o&h and +arey% "##5; "$$=
Arthur is &learly here &on&ei.ed of as a great 'arrior% not ne&essarily a )ing
<though this is not e>li&itly e>&luded; 7a&)son% ,$2$; $G Snyder% "##2=% 'ho
'on fame !y fighting the Anglo8Sa>on in.aders( Some ha.e seen in this an
Arthur 'ho is the leader of a the /ritons against the in.aders% a Cgeneral
&ommanding a &om!ined /ritish for&eD <Al&o&)% ,$0, and ,$0"; ,28,0G
?orris% ,$05=% 'ith Arthur and his army riding around /ritain and fighting
in la&es as far aart as /ath and southern S&otland <!ased on the
identifi&ations of the t'el.e !attles su!seAuently assigned to Arthur !y the
author of the Historia=( Su&h a notion is% ho'e.er% reIe&ted !y most modern
resear&hers for a .ariety reasons% in&luding !oth the fa&t that it is
imlausi!le in the histori&al &onte>t of the time and gi.en the nature and
relia!ility of the Historia itself and its !attle list <for e>amle% 7a&)son% ,$128
3; 20G 7ones% ,$31; -G /rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,3-83$G Padel% ,$$1; ,2G Green%
,$$-G Green% "##0a; &hater ,=( In &onseAuen&e% if 'e are to ha.e a
histori&al Arthur underlying the Historia .ritton#+% he must !e seen as a
&hara&ter of regional% not national% influen&e 'ho fought the Anglo8Sa>ons
c. 2##(
,",
3. The ;ocality of Arthur in the BHistorical9 Sources
In light of the a!o.e% the Auestion must !e&ome in 'hat <if any= region do
the Chistori&alD sour&es suggest that Arthur oerated% if 'e are to !elie.e that
he genuinely e>isted and that any &oherent information a!out a single
histori&al figure &an !e retrie.ed from the Historia .ritton#+ <on 'hi&h
assumtions% see further !elo' and Green% "##0a=( ?odern historians do
not% it should !e remem!ered% ha.e an o.erly high oinion of the Historia as
a reository of a&&urate information a!out the ost8Roman eriod( 4ritten
o.er 5## years after Arthur suosedly li.ed and 'ith its o'n agenda% its
testimony must !e treated 'ith &onsidera!le &aution <see ese&ially
Hanning% ,$33G Dum.ille% ,$00a% ,$-3 and ,$$1G Green% ,$$-G Higham%
"##"G Green% "##0a; ,285-=( 4hat that testimony &onsists of is a list of
t'el.e !attles that the author of the Historia as&ri!es to Arthur(
4hen it &omes to using these to lo&ate a single histori&al Arthur% any
!rief sur.ey of the .arious theories that ha.e !een roounded 'ill sho'
one thing .ery &learly; the .ast maIority of these theorists la&) &aution( They
set out to find Arthur and his !attles in a arti&ular la&e and% lo and
!ehold% here they de&lare him <and them= found( +olling'ood <,$"$= sought
an Arthur 'ho fought Hengest and the 7utes in the south8east% and find him
he did( S)eat <,-3-% I; 2"82-= thought Arthur should reside in the S&ottish
!orders% and there indeed he 'as found( In almost all su&h &ases% the
authors aear to indulge in a 'ilful ignoran&e of hilology( ?any of the
!attle sites in the Historia are highly o!s&ure and some &annot !e identified
if 'e adhere to sound s&holarshiG others do ha.e se&ure identifi&ations%
'hi&h ha.e !een thoroughly and &omrehensi.ely in.estigated !y 9enneth
7a&)son <see ese&ially 7a&)son% ,$1283=( ?any% ho'e.er% refer to either
indulge in logi& of the tye CH so#nds li)e Tri!ruit% so H is Tri!ruitD or to
ma)e huge leas in the translation and interretation of the names in order
to get them to fit la&es in the lo&ality they are interested in(
If the &ase for Arthur oerating in the Lin&olnshire region reAuired su&h
ingenuity then this resent ie&e 'ould ha.e made it no further than idle
se&ulation( Fortunately it does not( Indeed% the .ery idea of su&h a &ase has
its genesis in the fa&t that the site of ArthurDs alleged se&ond% third% fourth
and fifth !attles% !y the ri.er &alled /#bgas C'hi&h is in the &ountry of
9inn#is <in regione 9inn#is=D% is one of the fe' identifi&ations that is se&ure and
!ased on good hilology; 9inn#is is Lindsey% the northern art of
Lin&olnshire(
Lindsey 'as an indeendent Anglo8Sa>on )ingdom in the se.enth
&entury <Eagles% ,$-$G Foot% ,$$5=% and the a.aila!le e.iden&e indi&ates that
this )ingdom 'as the su&&essor to an earlier /ritish one !ased around the
territory of the Romano8/ritish ro.in&ial &aital of Lin&oln <Leahy% ,$$5G
Kor)e% ,$$5G Green% forth&oming and !elo'=( The name of this ost8

,""
Roman olity sur.i.ed in the Old English )ingdom8name that !e&ame
modern Lindsey% 9indesige% 'hi&h deri.es from the Late /ritish fol)8and
territory8name =9indYs% Cthe eole of Lin&olnD% lus Old English ig)eg% Can
islandD <7a&)son% ,$25; 55"% 215G +ameron% ,$$,; "80G Gelling% ,$-$ E
=9indYs deri.es from Romano8/ritish F9indenses% of the same meaning=(
Lindsey is thus the regular English de.eloment of =9indYs% and the C&ountry
of 9inn#isD of the Historia .ritton#+ is simly the regular Old 4elsh
de.eloment of the same )ingdom8name; =9indYs > Ar&hai& 4elsh =9innYs
> Old 4elsh 9inn#is <and so not Ca gar!led rendering of a 'ord meaning the
eole of[ Lin&olnD% as Rea.ill% "##5% suggests=(
The imortan&e of this should !e &lear E no se&ulation is ne&essary
'ith regards to other% hyotheti&al% ost8Roman =9indYs that &ould rodu&e
the HistoriaDs 9inn#is% as 'e ha.e in the name CLindseyD &ertain e.iden&e for
=9indYs a&tually !eing used as a signifi&ant region8name in ost8Roman
/ritain( Gi.en this 'e &an say that% at the .ery least% the author of this ninth8
&entury te>t thought that Arthur fought one or more !attles in Lindsey <the
four !attles said to ha.e ta)en la&e here &ould refle&t the ri.er /#bgas in
Lindsey !eing a arti&ularly &ontested lo&ation% !ut it is more li)ely that they
are duli&ations made !y the author of the Historia for stylisti& reasons% see
Hanning% ,$33; ,,$8"#=( 4here e>a&tly these !attles 'ere &onsidered to
ha.e ta)en la&e 'ithin Lindsey is oen to disute% ho'e.er% as no ri.er
/#bgas% C!lue8!la&) <'ater=D% no' e>ists( Perhas this is unsurrising; most
Lin&olnshire ri.ers ha.e !een renamed sin&e the fifth &entury( I 'ould
suggest% ho'e.er% that Rea.illDs reasoning is ro!a!ly &orre&t 'hen he
tentati.ely identifies it as an alternati.e name for the 4itham% on a&&ount of
the eaty &omosition of the soil it flo's through <Rea.ill% "##5; 1G the
ri.er8name 4itham is% in&identally% no longer so &ertainly an early name as it
on&e seemed to !e=(
4e thus ha.e a se&ure !ase to !uild a theory of a Lindsey Arthur
around% 'hi&h has its origins in the earliest and !est sour&e for information
on any histori&al Arthur( From this relati.ely solid foundation 'e &an no'
loo) again at the other ossi!le identifi&ations of !attles in the Historia
.ritton#+ list( 4e )no' that at least one !attle% and erhas four% as&ri!ed to
Arthur in the ninth &entury 'as suosed to ha.e !een fought in
Lin&olnshire( Gi.en the a!o.e &on&lusion that any histori&al Arthur
<assuming he e>isted= 'as unli)ely to !e a figure that fought all a&ross
/ritain% the Auestion &an no' !e legitimately as)ed; &ould any of his other
suosed !attles ha.e ta)en la&e here tooB
The most famous !attle on the list is% of &ourse% /adon% the &ulmination
of ArthurDs &amaign in the Historia and the only !attle 'hose e>isten&e E
though not ArthurDs in.ol.ement E is &onfirmed !y an early and trust'orthy
sour&e <GildasD /e E4cidio .ritanniae of c. 21#=( +ould this too ha.e !een
fought in the Lin&olnshire regionB Surrisingly for su&h a signifi&ant .i&tory
,"5
its lo&ation has long !een disuted E /ath is one ossi!ility </ur)itt and
/ur)itt% ,$$#= !ut it is !y no means a &ertainty( 7a&)son <,$2-= and Gelling
<,$--; 3#83,= ha.e argued that it &ould eAually 'ell !e one of se.eral sites
'hose name might deri.e from .adon b Old English byrig)b#rh%
Cfortifi&ation% fortified la&eD( ?ost of these are lo&ated E li)e /ath E in
southern England% for e>amle /ad!ury Rings in Dorset% leading to a
'idesread &onsensus that this is 'here /adon 'as fought( Ho'e.er% there
is no sound !asis to this% other than the fa&t that this is 'here the maIority
of ossi!ilities are found( There is% in fa&t% one often o.erloo)ed alternati.e;
/aum!er% near Horn&astle in Lindsey% is also &onsidered to !e a ossi!le
.adon b b#rh% ta)ing the form .adeb#rg in the Domesday /oo) <Gelling%
,$--; 3#83,G +o>% ,$$08-=(
Stri&tly sea)ing there is no reason 'hy /aum!er should !e any less
li)ely as a &andidate for /adon than any of the othersG all rest almost
e>&lusi.ely on etymologi&al arguments( +ertainly% as 'e 'ill see !elo'% the
histori&al &onte>t of Lindsey c. 2## is no less lausi!le a la&e for a !attle
!et'een /ritons and the Anglo8Sa>on immigrants than% say% /ath( Indeed% it
should !e !orn in mind that near!y Horn&astle% a fortified Roman Csmall
to'nD% is &onsidered to !e art of the Late Roman defen&es of the east &oast
and Cone of the leading settlements in the Lin&oln areaD <Field and Hurst%
,$-5; -2=% so a !attle at /aum!er E at a high oint on the Roman road from
Lin&oln to Horn&astle E 'ould not !e at all imlausi!le( In this &onte>t it
may !e 'orth noting that the se&ond element% b#rh% indi&ates that there 'as
a fortifi&ation of some sort E the literal meaning of Old English b#rh E at
/aum!er in the early Anglo8Sa>on eriod at least% 'hen most Lin&olnshire
names in.ol.ing this element 'ere &oined <+o>% ,$$1=( A find of an Anglo8
Sa>on s'ord ommel dated to c. 12#82## from /aum!er may or may not !e
rele.ant here <Lin&olnshire Histori& En.ironment Re&ord% PRN 15,10G
there ha.e !een no detailed ar&haeologi&al in.estigations 'ithin the arish=(
Of &ourse% /adon does not ha.e to !e /aum!er( Ho'e.er% if 'e are to
see 9inn#is and /adon as genuinely Arthurian !attle sites% then their
otential ro>imity might 'ell !e seen as signifi&ant% arti&ularly gi.en the
fa&t that 9inn#is is one of the fe' se&urely identifia!le !attles sites in the
Historia and the &urrent a&ademi& reIe&tion of C'ide8rangingD Arthur
theories(
?o.ing !eyond /adon% it is 'orth &onsidering the site of ArthurDs
suosed first !attle in the Historia E mentioned immediately !efore the
four !attles in regione 9inn#is E said to ha.e !een fought at Cthe mouth of the
ri.er 'hi&h is &alled GeinD( This ri.er8name is unre&orded in ?odern 4elsh%
'here it 'ould ta)e the form =Gain% !ut it is in fa&t etymologi&ally identi&al
to the ri.er Glen in south Lin&olnshire and an eAuation has often !een
made !et'een the t'o <7a&)son% ,$1283; 13=( It must% of &ourse% !e
remem!ered that Gein is simly an Old 4elsh 'ord meaning Cure% &lear
<'ater=D% and there is at least one other ri.er in England E in

,"1
Northum!erland E that !ears a name 'hi&h is ro!a!ly deri.ati.e of this(
Nonetheless% in light of the a!o.e &onsiderations% the &oin&iden&e of
another of the HistoriaDs !attle8names in Lin&olnshire is interesting and the
histori&al &onte>t for a genuine late fifth8 or early si>th8&entury !attle against
Anglo8Sa>on immigrants E if 'e are to treat the !attle on the Gein as su&h E
is argua!ly far !etter from Lin&olnshire than it is from Northum!erland <see
!elo'=( Indeed% the Lin&olnshire Glen aears to ha.e !een &analised !y the
Romans and may 'ell ha.e !een a arti&ularly temting entry8oint for the
region% something &onfirmed !y late fifth8 and si>th8&entury Anglian
ar&haeologi&al finds from around the oint at 'hi&h the ri.er e>its the dry%
higher ground to flo' into the Fens to'ards the 4ash <Hayes and Lane%
,$$"; ,1381-G ,2$83,=(
Finally% note should also !e made of the ninth !attle% fought at the +ity
of the Legions <in #rbe 9egionis=( Again this is one of those !attles 'hi&h &an%
at least otentially% ha.e their intended lo&ations identified( O!.iously it
&annot ha.e !een lo&ated in Lin&olnshire% as there 'as no Roman legionary
&ity there( ?ost freAuently the C+ity of the LegionsD is identified 'ith
+hester and &onsidered to !e an intrusion into the Arthurian !attle8list%
!orro'ed from a !attle !et'een the 4elsh and the Anglo8Sa>ons fought
there in 3,3 <7a&)son% ,$1283; 2#% 20G /rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,0,=( Su&h
!orro'ings are a freAuent o&&urren&e in 4elsh !attle8lists and this is a
&on.in&ing interretation <see /rom'i&h% ,$0283% ese&ially ( ,0,80"% on
this me&hanism=( Ne.ertheless% the ossi!ility has re&ently !een raised that
in #rbe 9egionis may in fa&t ha.e !een intended as a referen&e to Kor) rather
than +hester% although this is hotly &ontested <Field% ,$$$G Green% "##0a;
"#$=( If it &ould !e a&&eted% this roosition &ertainly has a !etter histori&al
&onte>t for a real !attle of c. 2## than +hester% and its ro>imity to
Lin&olnshire is on&e more suggesti.e for the theory !eing set out here(
O.erall 'e &an sum u as follo's( 4ithout any se&ial leading it is &lear
that four of ArthurDs !attles <though there may ha.e !een some duli&ation=
'ere &laimed to ha.e !een fought in Lin&olnshire in the first half of the
ninth &entury( From this relati.ely se&ure !asis% and in light of a reIe&tion of
fan&iful notions of a histori&al Arthur riding around the 'hole of /ritain
fighting the in.aders from /ath to S&otland% the ossi!ility has to !e
&onsidered that the other !attles 'ith less se&ure identifi&ations may ha.e
also !een fought in this region% if 'e are to !elie.e that Arthur did indeed
e>ist and that the Historia reser.es genuine details of his deeds( In fa&t% as
'e ha.e seen% there is otential for as many as three of the other !attles to
!e identified either in Lin&olnshire or &lose8!y it% in&luding the imortant
/attle of /adon Hill 'hi&h seems <in the Historia= to !e the &lima> of
ArthurDs C&areerD and the reason for his fame( Of the remaining fi.e !attles%
three are &omletely unidentifia!le !y sound hilologyG one is either
unidentifia!le or !orro'ed from the mid8late si>th8&entury hero Mrien of
,"2
Rheged <deending on 'hi&h re&ension of the Historia 'e use% as the name
of the !attle8site .aries; see further Green% "##0a; "#-8#$G 7a&)son% ,$1$G
/rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,0,80"=G and the last% %at %oit %eidon E the C/attle of the
+aledonian ForestD E is ro!a!ly either the misattri!ution to Arthur of the
late si>th8&entury /attle of Arthuret% 'hi&h is lin)ed 'ith %oed %eyddon in
medie.al 4elsh oetry% or a mythi&al &onfli&t gi.en a false histori&ity <Padel%
,$$1; ,-G Green% ,$$-G Green% "##0a; 3"830=(
O!.iously the &ase is not !eyond dou!t( /adon &ould easily not !e
/aum!er !ut some'here else entirely </ur)itt and /ur)itt% ,$$#% ha.e made
a good &ase for /ath=% as too &ould !e the C+ity of the LegionsD and the ri.er
GeinG the identifi&ations of all three of these sites remain un&ertain and
in&aa!le of roof( Ho'e.er% on&e again% if 9inn#is is se&urely lo&ated as
Lindsey and a 'ide8ranging Arthur is reIe&ted% then the ossi!ility that the
a!o.e identifi&ations are &orre&t and that Arthur oerated at least mainly in
the Lin&olnshire and East Kor)shire region is an attra&ti.e one% !ased on
the e.iden&e 'e ha.e( Of &ourse% this only 'or)s if 'e ma)e &ertain
assumtions a!out the !attle8list of the Historia .ritton#+% namely that%
'hilst it may ha.e !orro'ed !attles from other leaders and mythology% at its
&ore there is an a&&urate re&ord of the deeds of a single% genuinely histori&al%
figure named Arthur% 'ho fought the Anglo8Sa>ons c. 2##( This is oen to
.ery serious de!ate <see !elo' and Green% ,$$- and "##0a=( Ne.ertheless% if
'e allo' these assumtions then it does seem that a otential &ase e>ists for
seeing this single leader as oerating in the region around the Hum!er( T'o
further Auestions must &onseAuently !e as)ed( First% 'hether other early
Arthurian literature ro.ides any &lues that &an allo' us to reIe&t or further
suort this hyothesis( Se&ond% 'hether an Arthur !ased around the
Hum!er has a &on.in&ing histori&al &onte>t(
. The ;ocality of Arthur in the ;egendary Sources
It is an undenia!le fa&t that there is .astly more ClegendaryD material on
Arthur than there is Chistori&alD% and argua!ly some of this does ante8date
the Historia .ritton#+( It 'ould &onseAuently !e remiss if 'e did not loo) to
this to further our understanding of the origins of any ossi!le histori&al
Arthur( In doing so 'e are in good &omany% for su&h an aroa&h is that
adoted !y Ra&hel /rom'i&h in her imortant !ut underused sur.ey of the
Arthurian Auestion </rom'i&h% ,$0283=( /rom'i&h sets out a detailed &ase
for &onsidering the 4elsh and +ornish .ersions of the Arthurian legend to
!e se&ondary de.eloments( Instead she identifies the legendary Arthur as
originally !eing a hero of 2 Gogedd% the /ritish COld NorthD <that is northern
England and southern S&otland=( She rooses that ArthurDs later% 'ider%
fame &an !e set in the &onte>t of the 'ell8esta!lished mo.ement of early

,"3
traditions &on&erning Northern heroes% su&h as Mrien of Rheged and
Lly'ar&h Hen% south to 4ales !y Cat least as early as the ninth &enturyD
</rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,-#=(
T'o ie&es of e.iden&e are arti&ularly imortant in suorting this
.ie'oint( The first ie&e is the Arthurian referen&e in the oem 2
Gododdin% as&ri!ed to Aneirin( In re&ent years there has !een mu&h 'ritten
a!out the statement there that the 'arrior G'a'ddur Cfed !la&) ra.ens on
the ramart of a fort% though he 'as no ArthurD </L(5-=( The oem itself is
the tale of a !attle at %atraeth <+atteri&)= fought in the late si>th &entury% and
it has often !een &onsidered to ha.e !een &omosed c. 3## in the COld
NorthD <7a&)son% ,$3$G 7arman% ,$--=( 4hether the Arthurian stan6a
!elonged to this original &ore is% ho'e.er% .ery mu&h de!ated( On the one
hand% 7ohn 9o&h has re&ently underta)en a maIor study of the oem and
in&luded the stan6a in his re&onstru&tion of the re835- te>t( On the other
hand% his &on&lusions ha.e not !een a&&eted !y all &ommentators% some of
'hom 'ould refer a ninth8 or tenth8&entury dating for the stan6a <9o&h%
,$$3; "1"812 and ,$$0G Padel% ,$$-G Isaa&% ,$$$( See Green% "##0a; ,58,2%
2#82" for a thorough dis&ussion of this referen&e% its dating and imort=( If
9o&h is right E and he has as many suorters as detra&tors E then this is
e>tremely .alua!le to our resent interests( E.en if he is not% the referen&e
is still otentially as old as that found in the Historia .ritton#+( 4hate.er the
&ase% 2 Gododdin is E as 7arman has noted E a .ery self8&ontained and insular
'or)% &on&erned largely only 'ith the COld NorthD% and thus the mention of
Arthur in it has !een seen as imlying that he 'as of that region <7arman%
,$-$8$#; ,08"#G &f( Green% "##0a; ,58,2% ho'e.er% for serious dou!ts on this
oint=(
The se&ond )ey ie&e of e.iden&e is the fa&t that three or four eole
li.ing in the COld NorthD 'ere named Arthur in the se&ond half of the si>th
&entury and the first Auarter of the se.enth &entury( None of these eole
&an !e seen as the CtrueD Arthur% as /rom'i&h and others ha.e made .ery
&lear% and 'hat e>a&tly these names signify is un&lear </rom'i&h% ,$0283;
,0-8-#G Padel% ,$$1; "1G Dar)% "###aG Dooley% "##2G Green% "##0a; ,"8,5%
1-82#% "2,=( Ho'e.er% it does seems &lear that they must refle&t in some 'ay
a .ery early lo&al )no'ledge and interest in Arthur in this region% 'hi&h
/rom'i&h and her suorters interret as further suort for any histori&al
Arthur ha.ing his origins in the COld NorthD(
Other e.iden&e 'hi&h is often !rought to !ear in&ludes the fa&t that the
!attle list in the Historia .ritton#+ may ha.e its origins in the COld NorthD
too% rather than in 4ales li)e the rest of the te>t </rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,018
03=( Dum.ille <,$0380= has argued strongly against this notion of a searate
CNorthern HistoryD !eing in&ororated into the Historia% !ut it has !een
suorted re&ently !y !oth Da.ies <,$-"; "#28#3% "11= and 9o&h <,$$3;
"1081-G ,$$0G "##3; ,"#=( If a&&eted% this 'ould o!.iously strongly suort
,"0
the notion of a CNorthern ArthurD and the idea that the !attles E if 'e
!elie.e them to genuinely !elong to an Arthur 'ho really e>isted E are to !e
found in northern% not southern% England(
So far 'e ha.e tal)ed of the COld NorthD in general !ut this does erhas
need &loser definition if the arguments a!o.e are to ha.e a arti&ular
ali&a!ility to our interest in an Arthur 'ho might ha.e fought in
Lin&olnshire and erhas the East Riding of Kor)shire( The COld NorthD is
usually said to in&lude the entire area from the Hum!er u to Edin!urgh%
and most of the e.iden&e marshalled for Arthur as a hero of the COld
NorthD has its immediate origins in the most northerly ortions of this
region( /rom'i&h has argued that this% ho'e.er% simly refle&ts the fa&t
that% !y the time the Arthurian legend 'as 'ritten do'n and re&orded% this
'as the only ortion of the COld NorthD still in /ritish hands( Anglian
in.aders &onAuered the southernmost ortions to &reate the )ingdoms of
Deira and /erni&ia during the si>th &entury% and so the far north 'as the
only la&e 'here memories of a Northern Arthur &ould sur.i.e and !e
&ele!rated </rom'i&h% ,$35=( In suort of this otential for an ultimate
legendary origin for Arthur in the southern art of the COld NorthD%
/rom'i&h has suggested that the 2 Gododdin referen&e to Arthur should !e
read as imlying Cthat Arthur 'as regarded as the ad.ersary in a re.ious
generation of the same enemies as those 'ho oosed ?ynydda'gDs for&e
at +atraeth N+atteri&)OD% that is the Cearly Anglian raiders and settlers in the
East Riding Nof Kor)shireO% 'ho 'ere in the ro&ess of laying the
foundations of the )ingdom of DeiraD </rom'i&h% ,$0-; "02=(
This is% of &ourse% of the utmost imortan&e in the resent &onte>t( One
of the most rese&ta!le a&ademi& a&&ounts of the early origins of the
Arthurian legend oints to Cthe south8eastern &orner of the COld NorthD% that
is[ the East Riding of Kor)shire and ossi!ly[Kor) itselfD as the area in
'hi&h this legend originated </rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,-#G also /rom'i&h%
,$35=( Indeed% of all the COld NorthD this is really the only area that &an fit
'ith the ar&haeologi&al and histori&al e.iden&e in ro.iding a lausi!le
&onte>t for any histori&al Arthur% as only here do 'e see Anglian
immigration and a&ti.ity in the late fifth &entury on the )ind of s&ale that
ma)e stories of a /ritish 'ar8leader famed for fighting the in.aders% 'ith a
&lima> c. 2##% lausi!le <see% for e>amle% Dum.ille% ,$-$G Hines% ,$$#G
Higham% ,$$"G Dar)% "###!; ,,=(
This does% of &ourse% tally Auite ni&ely 'ith the e.iden&e of the Historia
.ritton#+ as dis&ussed re.iously( /oth the histori&al and the legendary
material oint to the area around the Hum!er as !eing otentially the region
of oerations for any histori&al Arthur( Indeed% if the C+ity of the LegionsD
&an !e seen as Kor)% as Field <,$$$= has argued% then the fit 'ith
/rom'i&hDs sur.ey of the Arthurian legend is &lose indeed( O!.iously% on&e
again% it is 'orth remem!ering that &ertain assumtions ha.e !een made in
rea&hing these &on&lusions E in arti&ular% that the Historia .ritton#+

,"-
&ontains a &ore of fa&t relating to the .i&tories of a histori&al figure named
Arthur( If these are allo'ed then the e.iden&e does seem to !e reasona!ly
&onsistent 'ith any su&h Arthur ha.ing his !ase of oerations in
Lin&olnshire or the East Riding of Kor)shire around the year 2##% fighting
against the Anglian in.aders 'hose resen&e in signifi&ant num!ers in these
areas is indi&ated !y large &remation &emeteries su&h as those at San&ton
<East Riding=% +leatham% South El)ingtonJLouth and Old /oling!ro)e
<Lin&olnshire% the latter near to Horn&astle=(
". The Historical 'onte,t
No matter ho' ingenious the theory of a histori&al Arthur% it must fit 'ithin
the &onte>t of the eriod( ArthurDs only &laim to histori&al fame is that he
fought and defeated the in.ading Anglo8Sa>ons( All other &laims E imerial
and foreign ad.enturesG &ata&lysmi& !attles 'ith internal% /ritish% enemies E
!elong to the legendary Arthur and do not aear in the earliest sour&es
<+amlann% for e>amle% 'ould seem to ha.e its origins in the de.eloment
of the Arthurian legend% not history; +harles8Ed'ards% ,$$,; "28"0% "-G
Green% "##0a; 02800=( In light of this% Arthur must !e la&ed in a &onte>t
that 'ould allo' him to do this c. 2##% if 'e are to a&&et the Historia as a
sour&e of any .alue( This is% ho'e.er% something that many theorists forget
'hen they try to lo&ate Arthur in +orn'all% North 4ales or southern
S&otland( So the Auestion is% does Lin&olnshire ro.ide a &on.in&ing &onte>t
for a late fifth8&entury /ritish 'ar8leaderB
At the most !asi& le.el% as 'as noted a!o.e% the ans'er must !e CyesD(
The East Riding of Kor)shire is the northernmost limit of signifi&ant fifth8
&entury Anglo8Sa>on settlement and Lin&olnshire is% along 'ith East Anglia%
one of the most hea.ily settled areas of /ritain% 'ith a large num!er of
&remation &emeteries ea&h &ontaining u to "### !urials and !eginning
during the fifth &entury <Leahy% ,$$5; 53=( As su&h Lin&olnshire 'ould seem
to !e Iust the )ind of area that 'e might e>e&t an Arthur8li)e figure to !e
oerating in(
Loo)ing in more detail at the nature of this settlement% there is a 'hole
host of ar&haeologi&al% histori&al% literary% and etymologi&al e.iden&e 'hi&h
suggests that 'ith the dearture of the Romans from /ritain% the lo&al
c#riaes <aristo&ra&y= too) o.er &ontrol of Roman Lin&oln E one of four
ro.in&ial &aitals in Late Roman /ritain E and the territory that it
&ontrolled <Eagles% ,$-$G Leahy% ,$$5G Kor)e% ,$$5aG Green% "##0a; ",#8,"G
Green% forth&oming=( The resulting oliti&al unit ro!a!ly en&omassed
modern Lindsey <'hi&h inherited its name% =9indYs% Cthe eole of Lin&olnD=
and at least some territory to the south of Lin&oln <Eagles% ,$-$; "#"=% 'ith
its &entre remaining at Lin&oln% 'here there 'ould seem to ha.e !een a
,"$
/ritish &hur&h and ro!a!ly !isho through the fifth &entury and into the
si>th &entury <7ones% ,$$1G Green% forth&oming=( Ho' long this /ritish
=9indYs sur.i.ed is un&ertain( Lin&oln is &learly in Anglian hands !y the early
se.enth &entury and +essford has suggested that the ynwyssawr 'ho aear
in 2 Gododdin 'ere CLindseymenD 'ho fought at +atraeth for ?ynydda'g in
c. 20#% after their o'n )ingdom had finally !een ta)en o.er !y the Anglian
in.aders <+essford% ,$$0; ""#8",=( Ho' this ta)e8o.er 'as a&tually a&hie.ed
is un&lear% !ut it may !e 'orth noting that the Old English royal genealogy
for Lindsey in&ludes a /ritish name% %XdbXd% for a man 'ho 'ould ha.e
li.ed in the early8mid si>th &entury <Dum.ille% ,$00!; $#G Stafford% ,$-2; -0G
Foot% ,$$5; ,55 E this is no' generally &onsidered a 'holly /rittoni& name
and not one of mi>ed origins% as has sometimes !een assumed=(
The distri!ution of Anglian ar&haeology in Lin&olnshire suorts this
notion of a /ritish C)ingdomD !ased around Lin&oln% 'ith the large
&remation &emeteries forming a ring around the &ity% the &losest !eing
Lo.edon Hill <,0 miles to the south= and +leatham <,$ miles to the north=(
As Leahy <,$$5; 53= o!ser.es% this is unusual in &omarison to many Roman
&ities and to'ns of the region% su&h as Kor)% +aistor8!y8Nor'i&h% Lei&ester%
and An&aster( The most lausi!le e>lanation for this distri!ution is that the
ost8Roman /ritons retained &ontrol of Lin&oln and its territory throughout
the fifth &entury and 'ere a!le to &ontrol and manage the Anglian settlers
'ithin their territory <see further Leahy% ,$$5G Sa'yer% ,$$-G Green%
forth&oming=(
This% then% 'ould seem to !e a .ery &on.in&ing &onte>t for any histori&al
Arthur( Here% in the heart of the region that sa' mass Anglo8Sa>on
immigration <see S&ull% ,$$2 on ho' the e.iden&e from East Anglia% and !y
e>tension Lin&olnshire% must !e interreted in this light=% 'e ha.e a /ritish8
ruled territory( This% unli)e other similar territories% seems to ha.e !een a!le
to su&&essfully resist ressure from the in.aders and re.ent them from
en&roa&hing on their &hief settlement% Lin&oln% during the fifth &entury and
ro!a!ly at least art'ay into the si>th &entury( In further suort of this it
should !e noted that the name Lin&oln% OE F9indco#n% is deri.ed 'ith little
&hange from the Late /ritish form% F9indgo#n% something that is not true for
most other Roman &ities in /ritain <+ameron% ,$-2; ,85=(
$. So*e 'onclusions
This study 'as romted !y the un'illingness of most histori&al Arthur
theorists to e.en &onsider the ossi!ility that he might ha.e fought in the
region around Lin&olnshire( A detailed e>amination of the earliest and !est
sour&e of information on any histori&al Arthur E the Historia .ritton#+ E
suggests that this idea is not as imlausi!le as it might at first seem(

,5#
4or)ing 'ith the assumtion that &hater 23 of the Historia% 'hilst it
may ha.e !orro'ed !attles from other leaders and mythology% has at its core
an a&&urate re&ord of a single leader named Arthur 'ho fought the Anglo8
Sa>ons c. 2##% a reasona!ly strong &ase &an !e &onstru&ted from the Historia
alone for &onsidering the Lin&olnshire region <in&luding erhas the East
Riding of Kor)shire= as the main shere of ArthurDs a&ti.ities( 4idening our
&onsideration of the e.iden&e to loo) at the ClegendaryD material results in a
strengthening of this &on&lusion E a&ademi& oinion has often indi&ated
that the legendary material oints to the .ery south8east of the COld NorthD
for the origins of the Arthurian legend% that is the East Riding of Kor)shire(
Ta)en together% this all suggests that 'e should see the area either side of
the Hum!er as the li)ely region of oerations for any histori&al Arthur(
Finally% any theory that is to !e in any 'ay lausi!le must ha.e an
aroriate histori&al &onte>t for Arthur( The Arthur of the HistoriaDs fame
&omes from his suosed .i&tories o.er the Anglo8Sa>ons of c. 2## and%
gi.en that it is no' generally agreed that he is unli)ely to ha.e rode all
around /ritain fighting% 'e therefore need <at the .ery least= to la&e him
near to 'here Anglo8Sa>on immigrants 'ere at that time( This is 'here
theories that la&e him in southern S&otland% North 4ales and +orn'all fall
do'n( The region around the Hum!er is% in &ontrast% one of the rimary
regions of early Anglo8Sa>on settlement% 'ith Lin&olnshire in arti&ular
&ontaining t'o of the three largest &remation &emeteries in England( This
&onte>t is e.en more aroriate% ho'e.er% 'hen 'e realise that a .ariety of
e.iden&e indi&ates that E desite this hea.y immigration E the /ritish rulers
of the territory of the former ro.in&ial &aital Lin&oln aear to ha.e !een
a!le to &ontrol and resist the in.aders% at least until the early8si>th &entury%
and in note'orthy &ontrast to most other /ritish elites in eastern /ritain(
4hy% if there is so mu&h e.iden&e% has no8one seriously made this &ase
!eforeB One is temted to suggest that the less8than8ideal methodology that
often !esmir&hes histori&al Arthur studies is to !lame; no8one e>e&ted any
histori&al Arthur to !e found in Lin&olnshire% so he 'asnDt( Furthermore%
the &onte>tual e.iden&e dis&ussed a!o.e emerges from .ery re&ent studies
and fe' Arthurian theorists aear a'are of re&ent trends and dis&o.eries in
the a&ademi& study of early8medie.al eastern England <many still rely uon
the no'8outdated sur.ey of Al&o&)% ,$0,=(
All told% this ie&e has aimed to ro.ide a more methodologi&ally
a&&eta!le aroa&h to the Auestion of ArthurDs identity% if 'e &hoose to
!elie.e that he really e>isted and that the Historia is a sour&e of real .alue( It
has tried to a.oid the logi&al leas8of8faith that many studies emloy( It has
also tried to use a of the a.aila!le e.iden&e% histori&al% legendary and
ar&haeologi&al E many theories tend to rely on Iust one or t'o of these
&ategories( Thus 'e end u 'ith theories that fit the literary e.iden&e !ut
fail to find a lausi!le &onte>t for their Arthurs <su&h as notions that Arthur
,5,
is to !e found in southern S&otland=% or theories that ha.e a .ery good
&onte>t <su&h as those !ased in southern England= !ut fail to e>lain the
aarent CnorthernD !ias% o!ser.ed !y many +elti&ists% in the legendary
materials( /y la&ing Arthur around the Hum!er 'e a.oid these itfalls; he
is far enough south and east to ha.e a lausi!le histori&al &onte>t !ut far
enough north to e>lain 'hy he might !e famous in the legends of 2
Gogedd% the COld NorthD% and finally E and most imortantly E la&ing him
here fits in 'ith the e.iden&e of the only sour&e modern historians are
'illing to e.en artially trust <the Historia .ritton#+= 'ithout doing damage
to it(
Indeed% I find that I am erhas not alone in this &on&lusion( 7ohn 9o&h
has also re&ently &onsidered 9inn#is to !e otentially signifi&ant as the only
se&urely identifia!le !attle8site 'hi&h is a&tually in the CrightD area for its
.i&tor to ha.e !een !attling the Anglo8Sa>ons c. 2##( He rightly &on&edes
that the HistoriaDs !attle8list is .ery unrelia!le% !ut !elie.es that its &laim that
Arthur e>isted ro!a!ly does deri.e ultimately from 4elsh oral tradition(
His suggestion% 'ith regards to the aroriateness of the lo&ation of
9inn#is <Lindsey=% is that this C&ertainly raises the ossi!ility that the same
oral tradition also &orre&tly remem!ered that Arthur fought and 'on thereD
<9o&h% "##3; ,"#=% a ossi!ility that the resent in.estigation has tried to
e>amine fully(
>. So*e 'aveats
One final feature of tyi&al theories of a histori&al Arthur is the
un'illingness on the art of their authors to re&ognise the assumtions they
ha.e made and the otential ro!lems 'ith their theories( As 'as noted
earlier% a of the a!o.e is !ased around the assumtion that there is a single%
histori&al /ritish 'ar8leader &alled Arthur !uried some'here 'ithin the te>t
of the Historia .ritton#+( This is an assumtion 'ith a .ery rese&ta!le
edigree% !ut it is also highly de!ata!le( In&reasingly historians ha.e atta&)ed
'hat Da.id Dum.ille has termed the Cno smo)e 'ithout fireD s&hool of
thought 'ith regards to Arthur <Dum.ille% ,$00a; ,-0=( 4e need to
re&ognise that the first referen&e to Arthur as a figure of history o&&urs
more than 5## years after he is suosed to ha.e li.ed% in a te>t that is often
rightly treated 'ith e>treme &aution as a sour&e for the fifth and si>th
&enturies( In fa&t% it is !e&oming in&reasingly &lear that the Historia
.ritton#+Ds &on&et of Arthur as a 'ar8leader% and the !attles it as&ri!es to
him% may 'ell not !e a!le to &arry the 'eight of the assumtions and
theories that ha.e !een atta&hed to it <and them=( Rather% most modern
resear&h reIe&ts the notion that the Historia has any real .alue as a sour&e
!eyond telling us that% !y the ninth &entury% some eole !elie.ed that a

,5"
histori&al 'ar8leader &alled Arthur had on&e e>isted% 'ith the !attles listed in
the Historia !eing too unrelia!le to allo' any sensi!le re&onstru&tions of the
&areer of this Arthur% e.en if he did genuinely e>ist <see Dum.ille% ,$-3 and
,$$1G +harles8Ed'ards% ,$$,G Green% ,$$-G Higham% "##"G Green% "##0a;
&hater ,=(
In addition to the a!o.e &on&erns% it has also !een argued re&ently that if
'e loo) at the 'hole !ody of early Arthurian material E as oosed to Iust
the Chistori&alD sour&es in isolation E then the 'eight of the e.iden&e oints
to Arthur !eing rimarily and originally a figure of an8/rittoni& fol)lore
and mythology% asso&iated 'ith the Other'orld% suernatural enemies and
suerhuman deeds% not history <Padel% ,$$1G Green% ,$$-G Green% "##0a; see
also% for e>amle% /rom'i&h and E.ans% ,$$"; >>.iii8>>i>=( Instead of !eing
a histori&al figure 'ho 'as a!sor!ed into fol)lore and legend% Arthur is
more lausi!ly seen as a fol)lori& or mythi&al figure 'ho 'as o&&asionally
ortrayed as histori&al% in the same manner as Hengest and the Gaeli& Fionn
ma& +umhaill% a osition 'ith 'hi&h Ra&hel /rom'i&h has re&ently
e>ressed &onsidera!le symathy </rom'i&h% "##3; "-"8-5G see also
Higham% "##"( On Hengest and Fionn% see Kor)e% ,$$5! and T hTgUin%
,$--=(
Indeed% not only does the a!o.e argument &riti&ally undermine the
notion of an originally histori&al Arthur% it also atta&)s the idea of a northern
!ias in the legendary sour&es; Arthur emerges from the entirety of the early
material as a fol)lori& figure 'ho 'as )no'n throughout the 'hole of
/ritain from the .ery start% 'ith no identifia!le la&e of origin( +ertainly
issues 'ith the suosed northern !ias of the legendary material ha.e !een
raised !efore% if ne.er so o'erfully% though /rom'i&h and others ha.e
tried to suggest solutions 'hi&h reser.e their &ase( 4ith regards to these
solutions it must !e said that% as long as 'e see Arthur as a figure of history%
the CNorthern ArthurD theory remains a &on.in&ing interretation% gi.en the
fa&t that a histori&al Arthur &an no longer !e lausi!ly seen as a national
figure from the .ery start( On the other hand% 'hen Arthur is freed from his
histori&al !onds% his &lear an8/rittoni& nature and the e.iden&e for this &an
simly !e a&&eted rather than ignored or e>lained a'ay <see /rom'i&h%
,$0283; ,00ff(G Padel% ,$$1G Green% "##0a% ese&ially ( 1# and 0-% on all of
this=(
If 'e adot these ne' erse&ti.es on the early Arthurian sour&es% it
does not mean that the sear&h for a histori&al Arthur is in .ain( The
HistoriaDs Arthur may !e a se&ondary &reation !ut its .ision and &on&et of a
histori&al Arthur may not !e entirely false; so+eone 'on the /attle of /adon
<it is mentioned in the near8&ontemorary /e E4cidio .ritanniae of Gildas=
and thus% to some degree% there was a histori&al CArthurD% e.en though he
may ha.e !orne a different name and had his deeds reattri!uted to Arthur
!y the ninth &entury( 4ho might this CArthurD !eB In this &onte>t it is 'orth
,55
noting that in GildasDs /e E4cidio .ritanniae Am!rosius Aurelianus is gi.en
rominen&e as the initiator of the /ritish &ounter8atta&) 'hi&h% after the
fighting of se.eral !attles% &ulminates in the !attle of /adon% Iust as Arthur
in the Historia .ritton#+ initiates the /ritish &ounter8atta&) 'hi&h% after the
fighting of se.eral !attles% &ulminates in the !attle of /adon( On the !asis of
this 'e &ould 'ell !e a!le to say that% to some e>tent% 'e do ha.e a
histori&al Arthur E Am!rosius E in the sense that the &on&et of Arthur as a
histori&al figure and the frame'or) for his histori&isation 'ere !ased on his
deeds( Indeed% !oth Oli.er Padel and ?i&hael 4ood ha.e argued that a re8
e>amination of the /L +otton Sitellius A(.i manus&rit of Gildas has the
/attle of ?ount /adon no' reading Cnaturally as the .i&tory that &ro'ned
the &areer of Am!rosius AurelianusD% 'hi&h la&es this &ontention on an
e.en sounder footing <Padel% ,$$1; ,38,-% at ( ,0G 4ood% ,$$$; 5185-G see
also Green% ,$$- and the full dis&ussion in Green% "##0a; 5,85" and &hater
3=(
This is not to say% ho'e.er% that 'e &an therefore assign all the !attles
re&orded in the Historia to Am!rosius Aurelianus( As has already !een
noted% the relia!ility of the list of !attles has !een &alled seriously into
Auestion( ?ost signifi&antly% the !attles as&ri!ed to Arthur and used to
histori&ise him seem to !e dra'n from many different sour&es( /adon% 'e
ha.e seen% otentially !elonged originally to Am!rosius Aurelianus( The
C!attle on the !an) of the ri.er &alled Tribr#itD and %at %oit %eidon &ould !e
a&tual Arthurian mythi& !attles% dra'n into history at the same time as
ArthurDs name !e&ame atta&hed to /adon% as may !e at least one other
!attle <Green% ,$$-G Green% "##0a; 3"830% ,,$8",% "#08#-=( .reg#oinDs
asso&iation 'ith Mrien of Rheged has !een dis&ussed a!o.e% and 7a&)son
thought another <#rbs 9egionis= 'as a !orro'ed se.enth8&entury !attle
<7a&)son% ,$1283=( The Arthur of &hater 23 of the Historia .ritton#+ 'ould
thus aear to !e a &omosite figure% to some degree% 'hen .ie'ed in light
of re&ent resear&h <and as Hogan long ago thought E Hogan% ,$55; 15813=(
4here then does this lea.e the &ase for a Lin&olnshire ArthurB As I see
it% there are three ossi!le &on&lusions( The first in.ol.es a&&eting the
a!o.e assumtion E that a histori&al 'ar8leader &alled Arthur does underlie
the Historia E on the !asis of Cno smo)e 'ithout fireD( There are good
arguments for not doing this% !ut% as 'as o!ser.ed a little earlier% it is an
assumtion 'ith a .ery rese&ta!le edigree <for e>amle% /a&hra&h% ,$$#G
9o&h% ,$$0; ,1-=( If 'e do de&ide to do this then I thin) that the
Lin&olnshire and East Riding Arthur is the most elegant and histori&ally
lausi!le solution to the Auestion of this leaderDs identity% doing no damage
to either the rimary histori&al e.iden&e or the redominant a&ademi&
oinion on the origins of the legendary material% 'hilst !eing in harmony
'ith the ar&haeologi&al e.iden&e for otential 6ones of Anglo8/ritish
&onfli&t around A(D( 2##(
The se&ond and third alternati.es a&&et the .alidity of re&ent 'or) on

,51
the e>isten&e of Arthur and the notion that the histori&al Arthur 'as a
se&ondary de.eloment of a &hara&ter from /ritish fol)lore and myth( The
se&ond alternati.e as)s% if there is a histori&al figure E 'ho fought at /adon
E at the heart of the Historia% &alled erhas Am!rosius Aurelianus rather
than Arthur% then &ould the Lin&olnshire C&oreD that has !een suggested here
in the HistoriaDs a&&ount reresent his deedsB +ertainly% if /aum!er is /adon%
this 'ould seem a distin&t ossi!ility( In this &onte>t it is 'orth noting the
follo'ing( First% unli)e many of the other !attles% !oth 9inn#is and Gein
ha.e ne.er !een suggested as !attles that are !orro'ed from myth or other
histori&al figures E their .ery o!s&urity may thus oint to them !elonging to
any original histori&al &ore that might !e resent in the Historia .ritton#+(
Se&ond% not only 'ould the histori&al &onte>t esta!lished a!o.e fit su&h a
figure .ery 'ell% !ut there is a highly rese&ta!le s&hool of a&ademi& thought
that holds that Gildas 'as% in his a&&ount of the /ritish &ounter8atta&) in the
late fifth &entury led !y Am!rosius Aurelianus% 'riting a!out the region of
the East Riding of Kor) <Thomson% ,$0$; ",28,$G Sims84illiams% ,$-5; 0G
Dum.ille% ,$-1; 3"833( See% ho'e.er% Higham% ,$$1; $#8,,0 for an
alternati.e erse&ti.e=( As su&h% this hyothesis &annot !e easily dismissed
'ithout dis&ussion% and I ha.e re&ently offered a .ery tentati.e argument in
suort of it in %once&ts of Arth#r <Green% "##0a; &hater 3=(
Finally% there is a minimalist interretation( /adon &ould easily ha.e !een
some'here other than /aum!er( If 'e reIe&t the idea that a genuinely
histori&al Arthur lay at the &ore of the Historia% then the se&ure identifi&ation
of 9inn#is as Lindsey &an no longer ri.ilege the idea that the other !attles
mentioned may !e &lose !y% as argued a!o.e( Fundamentally% the
histori&ised Arthur of &hater 23 of the Historia aears to !e a &omosite
figure% made u of a frame'or) !ased on the deeds of Am!rosius
Aurelianus to 'hi&h ha.e !een gathered .arious histori&al and mythi&al
!attles( 9inn#isJLindsey &ould !e Iust one of these !orro'ings(
This does not% ho'e.er% mean that all is in .ain( There is no reason to
thin) that 9inn#is 'as a mythi&al !attle and% as su&h% its resen&e in the
!attle8list imlies that it is a !orro'ing of a histori&al &onfli&t <or &onfli&ts=(
This in turn suggests that% in the ninth &entury% memories of a /ritish
'arrior 'ho fought the Anglians in Lindsey sur.i.ed and &ir&ulated in the
/ritish 'est and 'ere e.entually re8used and re8attri!uted to Arthur !y the
author of the Historia <or his hyotheti&al sour&e=( This may 'ell !e the
most &on.in&ing ossi!ility E it is also one that is of great interest to all
those 'ho are interested in the ost8Roman history of eastern England and
ho' the nati.e /ritons intera&ted 'ith the immigrants there(
,52
C. Bibliography
Al&o&)% L( ,$0,% Arth#r?s .ritain: History and Archaeoogy A./. EIK'IEH
<Harmonds'orth=
Al&o&)% L( ,$0"% C.y (o#th %adb#ry, is that %a+eot...? E4cavations at %adb#ry
%aste STII'KF <London=
/a&hra&h% /( S( ,$$#% CThe @uestions of 9ing ArthurDs E>isten&e and of
Romano8/ritish Na.al OerationsD% The Haskins (ociety Jo#rna% "% ( ,58"-
/artrum; +( ,$32% CArthuriana in the Genealogi&al ?SSD% The ,ationa 9ibrary
of <aes Jo#rna% ,1% ( "15812
/rom'i&h% R( ,$35% CS&otland and the Earliest Arthurian TraditionD% .#etin
.ibiogra&hi3#e de a (ociZtZ @nternationae Arth#rienne% ,2% ( -28$2
/rom'i&h% R( ,$0283% C+on&ets of ArthurD% (t#dia %etica% ,#J,,% ( ,358-,
/rom'i&h% R( ,$0-% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads <+ardiff; se&ond
edition=
/rom'i&h% R( "##3% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads <+ardiff; third
edition=
/rom'i&h% R( and E.ans% D( S( ,$$"% %#hwch and 6wen. An Edition and
(t#dy of the 6dest Arth#rian Tae <+ardiff=
/ur)itt% T( and A( ,$$#% CThe frontier 6one and the siege of ?ount /adon; a
re.ie' of the e.iden&e for their lo&ationD% Proceedings of the (o+erset
Archaeoogica and ,at#ra History (ociety% ,51% ( -,8$5
+ameron% 9( ,$-2% The Pace',a+es of 9inconshire S <English Pla&e8Name
So&iety 2-% +am!ridge=
+ameron% 9( ,$$,% The Pace',a+es of 9inconshire R <English Pla&e8Name
So&iety 31J2% +am!ridge=
+essford% +( ,$$0% CNorthern England and the Gododdin PoemD% ,orthern
History% 55% ( ",-8""
+harles8Ed'ards% T( ?( ,$$,% CThe Arthur of HistoryD% in R( /rom'i&h et a

,53
<edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh. The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re
<+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( ,285"
+olling'ood% 4( G( ,$"$% CArthurDs !attlesD% Anti3#ity% 5% ( "$"8$-
+o>% /( ,$$1% CThe attern of Old English b#rh in early LindseyD% Ango'
(a4on Engand% "5% ( 52823
+o>% /( ,$$08-% C/aum!er in LindseyD% Engish Pace',a+e (ociety Jo#rna% 5#%
( "085"
Dar)% 9( R( "###a% CA Famous Arthur in the Si>th +enturyB Re&onsidering
the origins of the Arthurian LegendD% -eading !edieva (t#dies% "3% ( 008$2
Dar)% 9( R( "###!% .ritain and the End of the -o+an E+&ire <Stroud=
Da.ies% 4( ,$-"% <aes in the Eary !idde Ages <London=
Dooley% A( "##2% CArthur of the Irish; a Sia!le +on&etBD% in +( Lloyd8
?organ <ed(= Arth#rian 9iterat#re [[@: %etic Arth#rian !ateria <+am!ridge=%
( $8"-
Dum.ille% D( N( ,$01% CSome Ase&ts of the +hronology of the Historia
.ritton#+D% .#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% "2% ( 15$812
Dum.ille% D( N( ,$0283% CNennius and the Historia .ritton#+D% (t#dia %etica
,#J,,% ( 0-8$2
Dum.ille% D( N( ,$0380% COn the North /ritish Se&tion of the Historia
.ritton#+D% <esh History -eview% -% ( 512821
Dum.ille% D( N( ,$00a% CSu!8Roman /ritain; History and LegendD% History%
3"% ( ,058$"
Dum.ille% D( N( ,$00!% C9ingshi% Genealogies and Renal ListsD% in P( H(
Sa'yer and I( N( 4ood <edd(= Eary !edieva Kingshi& <Leeds=% ( 0"8,#1
Dum.ille% D( N( ,$-1% CThe +hronology of /e E4cidio .ritanniae /oo) ID% in
D( N( Dum.ille and I( 4right <edd(= Gidas: ,ew A&&roaches <4ood!ridge=%
( 3,8-1
Dum.ille% D( N( ,$-3% CThe Histori&al Salue of the Historia .ritton#+D%
,50
Arth#rian 9iterat#re% 3% ( ,8"3
Dum.ille% D( N( ,$-$% CThe Origins of Northum!riaD% in S( /assett <ed(=
6rigins of Ango'(a4on Kingdo+s <London=% ( ",58""
Dum.ille% D( N( ,$$1% CHistoria .ritton#+; an Insular History from the
+arolingian AgeD% in A( S&harer and G( S&hei!elreiter <edd(= Historiogra&hie i+
frChen !itteater <4ienJ?Zn&hen=% ( 1#3851
Eagles% /( ,$-$% CLindseyD% in S( /assett <ed(= 6rigins of Ango'(a4on Kingdo+s
<London=% ( "#"8,"
Field% P( 7( +( ,$$$% CGildas and the +ity of the LegionsD% The Heroic Age% ,%
ar&hi.ed at htt&:))www.heroicage.org
Field% N( and Hurst% H( ,$-5% CRoman Horn&astleD% 9inconshire History 0
Archaeoogy% ,-% ( 108--
Foot% S( ,$$5% CThe 9ingdom of LindseyD% in A( Sin&e <ed(= Pre';iking
9indsey <Lin&oln=% ( ,"-81#
Gelling% ?( ,$--% CTo'ards a &hronology for English la&e8namesD% in D(
Hoo)e <ed(= Ango'(a4on (ette+ents <O>ford=% ( 2$803
Gelling% ?( ,$-$% CThe Name LindseyD% Ango'(a4on Engand% ,-% ( 5,85"
Green% T( ,$$-% CThe Histori&ity and Histori&isation of ArthurD% ar&hi.ed at
htt&:))www.arth#riana.co.#k)historicity)arth#r.ht+
Green% T( "##0a% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud=
Green% T( "##0!% CA Note on Aad#r% Aator and Arth#rD% (t#dia %etica% 1,%
( "5081,
Green% T( forth&oming% A -e'eva#ation of the Evidence of Angian'.ritish
@nteraction in the East !idands <O>ford D(Phil Thesis=
Hanning% R( 4( ,$33% The ;ision of History in Eary .ritain <Ne' Kor)=
Hayes% P( P( and Lane% T( 4( ,$$"% The Fenand ProPect ,#+ber J: 9inconshire
(#rvey, The (o#th'<est Fens% East Anglian Ar&haeology% Reort No( 22
<Sleaford=

,5-
Higham% N( 7( ,$$"% -o+e, .ritain and the Ango'(a4ons <London=
Higham% N( 7( ,$$1% The Engish %on3#est <?an&hester=
Higham% N( 7( "##"% King Arth#r, !yth'!aking and History <London=
Hines% 7( ,$$#% CPhilology% Ar&haeology and the Advent#s (a4on#+ ve
Angor#+D% in A( /ammes!erger and A( 4ollman <edd(= .ritain HFF'IFF:
9ang#age and History <Heidel!erg=% ( ,0853
Hogan% ?( G( ,$55% The 9egend of /athi: An Anaog#e to the %hronice (tory of
Arth#r <4ashington D(+(=
Ho'lett% D( R( ,$$-% %a+bro'9atin %o+&ositions, Their %o+&etence and
%rafts+anshi& <Du!lin=
Isaa&% G( R( ,$$$% CReadings in the History and Transmission of the
GododdinD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% 50 <Summer=% ( 2280-
7a&)son% 9( H( ,$1283% COn&e Again ArthurDs /attlesD% !odern Phioogy% 15%
( 11820
7a&)son% 9( H( ,$1$% CArthurDs /attle of /reguoinD% Anti3#ity% "5% ( 1-81$
7a&)son% 9( H( ,$25% 9ang#age and History in Eary .ritain <Edin!urgh=
7a&)son% 9( H( ,$2-% CThe Site of ?ount /adonD% The Jo#rna of %etic (t#dies%
"% ( ,2"822
7a&)son% 9( H( ,$2$% CThe Arthur of HistoryD% in R( Loomis <ed(= Arth#rian
9iterat#re in the !idde Ages <O>ford=% ( ,8,,
7a&)son% 9( H( ,$3$% The Gododdin: The 6dest (cottish Poe+ <Edin!urgh=
7arman% A( O( H( ,$--% Aneirin: 2 Gododdin, .ritain?s 6dest Heroic Poe+
<Llandysul=
7arman% A( O( H( ,$-$8$#% CThe Arthurian Allusions in the /oo) of AneirinD%
(t#dia %etica% "1J2% ( ,28"2
7ones% T( ,$31% CThe Early E.olution of the Legend of ArthurD% ,ottingha+
!edieva (t#dies% -% ( 58",
,5$
7ones% ?( ,$$1% CSt Paul in the /ail% Lin&oln; /ritain in EuroeBD% in 9(S(
Painter <Ed(= %h#rches b#it in ancient ti+es <London=% ( 5"2810
9o&h% 7( T( ,$$3% CThe +elti& LandsD% in N( 7( La&y <ed(= !edieva Arth#rian
9iterat#re: A G#ide to -ecent -esearch <Ne' Kor)=% ( "5$85""
9o&h% 7( T( ,$$0% The Gododdin of Aneirin. Te4t and %onte4t fro+ /ark'Age
,orth .ritain <+ardiff=
9o&h% 7( T( "##3% CArthur% the histori&al e.iden&eD% in 7( T( 9o&h <ed(= %etic
%#t#re, A Historica Encyco&edia <O>ford=% ( ,,08""
9o&h% 7( T( and +arey% 7( "##5% The %etic Heroic Age: 9iterary (o#rces for Ancient
%etic E#ro&e 0 Eary @reand 0 <aes <A!eryst'yth; fourth edition=
Laidge% ?( and Dum.ille% D( N( <edd(= ,$-1% Gidas: ,ew A&&roaches
<4ood!ridge=
Leahy% 9( ,$$5% CThe Anglo8Sa>on settlement of LindseyD% in A( Sin&e <ed(=
Pre';iking 9indsey <Lin&oln=% ( "$811
?orris% 7( ,$05% The Age of Arth#r <London=
T hTgUin% D( ,$--% Fionn +ac %#+hai: @+ages of the Gaeic Hero <Du!lin=
Padel% O( 7( ,$$1% CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0%
( ,85,
Padel% O( 7( ,$$-% CA Ne' Study of the GododdinD% %a+brian !edieva %etic
(t#dies% 52% ( 12822
Rea.ill% 7( /( "##5% CLin&olnshire in the Dar) AgesD% 9inconshire Past 0
Present% 25% ( 581
Sa'yer% P( H( ,$$-% Ango'(a4on 9inconshire <Lin&oln=
S&ull% +( ,$$2% CAroa&hes to the material &ulture and so&ial dynami&s of
the migration eriod in eastern EnglandD% in 7( /intliff and H( Hamero'
<edd(= E#ro&e .etween 9ate Anti3#ity and the !idde Ages <O>ford=% ( 0,8-5
Sims84illiams% P( ,$-5% CGildas and the Anglo8Sa>onsD% %a+bridge !edieva
%etic (t#dies% 3% ( ,85#

,1#
S)ene% 4(F( ,-3-% The Fo#r Ancient .ooks of <aes <Edin!urgh= " .ols(
Snyder% +(A( ,$$-% An Age of Tyrants. .ritain and the .ritons A./. HFF'IFF
<Stroud=
Snyder% +( "##2% CArthur and 9ingshi in the Historia .ritton#+D% in N( 7(
La&y <ed(= Fort#nes of King Arth#r <4ood!ridge=% ( ,8,"
Stafford% P( ,$-2% The East !idands in the Eary !idde Ages <London=
Thomson% E( A( ,$0$% CGildas and the History of /ritainD% .ritannia% ,#% (
"#58"3
4ood% ?( ,$$$% @n (earch of Engand: Jo#rneys into the Engish Past <London=
Kor)e% /( A( E( ,$$5a% CLindsey; The Lost 9ingdom FoundBD% in A( Sin&e
<ed(= Pre';iking 9indsey <Lin&oln=% ( ,1,82#
Kor)e% /( A( E( ,$$5!% CFa&t or Fi&tionB The 'ritten e.iden&e for the fifth
and si>th &enturies A(D(D% Ango'(a4on (t#dies in Archaeoogy and History% 3% (
1282#

2
Arthur and 7a&) the Giant8
9iller
,15
7a&) : Arthur; An Introdu&tion to 7a&)
the Giant89iller
The tale of 7a&) the Giant89iller is one that has held &onsidera!le
fas&ination for English readers( The &om!ination of gruesome .iolen&e%
fantasti& heroism and lo' &unning that the disat&h of ea&h giant in.ol.es
gained the tale numerous fans in the eighteenth &entury% in&luding Dr
7ohnson and Henry Fielding(
,
It did% indeed% insire !oth a far&e
"
and a
Cmusi&al entertainmentD
5
in the middle of that &entury( Ho'e.er% desite this
oularity the a&tual genesis of 7a&) and his tale remains some'hat o!s&ure(
The resent &olle&tion of sour&e materials is ro.ided as an a&&omaniment
to my o'n study of the origins of The History of Jack and the Giants and its
la&e 'ithin the 'ider Arthurian legend% u!lished as CTom Thum! and
7a&) the Giant89iller; T'o Arthurian Fairy TalesBD% Fokore% ,,-(" <"##0=%
( ,"581#(
The &urious thing a!out 7a&) is that E in &ontrast to that other fairy8tale
&ontemorary of 9ing ArthurDs% Tom Thum! E there is no tra&e of him to
!e found !efore the early eighteenth &entury( The first referen&e to him
&omes in ,0#- and the earliest )no'n <no' lost= &ha!oo) to ha.e told of
his deeds 'as dated ,0,,(
1
He does not aear in Tha&)erayDs &atalogue of
&ha!oo)s in rodu&tion around ,3-$% nor is he resent in the lists of Cetty
!oo)sD u!lished in the first years of the eighteenth &entury% and he 'as not
one of the fol) heroes ortrayed !y uet sho'man Ro!ert Po'el E as 'e
might ha.e e>e&ted him to ha.e !een E in +o.ent Garden at this time(
2

The susi&ion must !e% in light of this% that 7a&) is not mentioned !efore
,0#- !e&ause he had no e>isten&e !efore this; he 'as a literary &reation of
the early eighteenth &entury% the framing de.i&e for a ne' heroi& tale 'hi&h
'as &reated out of re8e>isting stories and &lassi& ane&dotes(
3
In suort of
, I( Oie and P( Oie% The %assic Fairy Taes <O>ford; O>ford Mni.ersity Press%
,$01=% ( 3,(
" Jack the Gyant'Kier: A %o+i'Tragica Farce of 6ne Act <London; 7( Ro!erts% ,05#=(
5 An Engish !#sica Entertain+ent, caed Gaigant#s <London% ,02-=(
1 7( O( Halli'ell% Po&#ar -hy+es and ,#rsery Taes of Engand <London; 7ohn Russell
Smith% ,-1$=% ( 23 E see !elo' for Halli'ellDs .ersion of this te>t(
2 Oie and Oie% %assic Fairy Taes% ( 3#83,(
3 See T( Green% CTom Thum! and 7a&) the Giant89iller; T'o Arthurian Fairy
TalesBD% Fokore% ,,-(" <"##0=% ( ,"581# at ( ,5,% ,53850G Oie and Oie%

,11
the this is the fa&t that 7a&)% unli)e some of his .i&tims% is Ce>&et in story8
!oo)s% un)no'nD E he has% for e>amle% no genuine la&e in +ornish
fol)lore that Ro!ert Hunt &ould dis&o.er% desite HuntDs e>tensi.e
in.estigations into this material and the &lear lo&alisation of 7a&)Ds tale
there(
,
If 7a&) 'as a literary &reation E rather than a genuine figure of fol)8tale E
'hose tale 'as 'o.en from earlier non87a&) giant8)illings and traditions%
this naturally raises some intriguing Auestions a!out the origins of !oth
these stories of 4elsh and +ornish giants and the a&tual &on&et of 7a&) as
the hero 'ho finally rids /ritain of these &reatures( 4ith regards to this% it is
imortant to note the resen&e of 9ing Arthur throughout 7a&)Ds tale( Thus
the History of Jack and the Giants is e>li&itly set from the start in Cthe reign of
9ing ArthurD% !ut this is not simly a &ase of CIn the days of 9ing Arthur[D
as a .ariant of COn&e uon a time[D So% in the &ourse of the tale% ArthurDs
son !e&omes !oth 7a&)Ds &omanion and his master% and the assistan&e that
7a&)Ds renders him leads to a la&e for 7a&) as a 9night of the Round Ta!le(
Then% after sending a little time as a mem!er of ArthurDs &ourt% 7a&) as)s
ermission to go and rid /ritain of all remaining C!lood8thirsty GiantsD% a
roosal 'hi&h Arthur a&&ets( 7a&) E of &ourse E has great su&&ess in this
endea.our% !ut he does ma)e sure to send the heads of all the giants he )ills
to Arthur% along 'ith an a&&ount of his deeds( Finally% 'hen the last giant
left in /ritain is slaughtered% Arthur re'ards 7a&) 'ith an estate and a 'ife%
'ith 'hom to li.e haily e.er after(
4hat all this means is oen to de!ate( +ertainly Arthur is not
fundamental to the History% !ut his resen&e is felt throughout mu&h of the
narrati.e( In this &onte>t it ought not to !e forgotten that the History must%
after all% ha.e !een deli!erately 'ritten 'ith this role for Arthur lanned
'ithin it% gi.en its aarent literary origins( The solution% I ha.e argued%
"

may in fa&t lie 'ith ArthurDs 'ell8do&umented role as the slaughterer of
/ritish giants% through a &om!ination of e>treme .iolen&e% &unning and
tri&)ery( This is found in the earliest of 4elsh Arthurian tales right through
to the fol)lore of the modern era <see !elo'% ( 51811 for a sele&tion of
te>ts illustrati.e of this=( In fa&t% in 4elsh and +ornish fol)lore of the
si>teenth to nineteenth &enturies it is reeatedly &laimed that Arthur 'as the
greatest of all giant8)illers% resonsi!le for finally ridding the land of giants(
To Auote one old +ornish man <li.ing near LandDs End% li)e 7a&)=% 'hose
reminis&en&es 'ere &olle&ted !y Ro!ert Hunt at some oint in the early8mid
nineteenth &entury% the 'hole land at one time Cs'armed 'ith giants% until
%assic Fairy Taes% ( 3#(
, R( Hunt% Po&#ar -o+ances of the <est of Engand. The /ros, Traditions and
(#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa% t'o .olumes <rerint of ,--, edition% Felinfa&h;
Llaner&h Pu!lishers% ,$$5=% II% ( 5#58#1(
" Green% CTom Thum! and 7a&) the Giant89illerD(
,12
Arthur% the good )ing% .anished them all 'ith his &ross8s'ord(D
,

4e thus ha.e a situation 'herein 7a&) E 'ho is Ce>&et in story8!oo)s%
un)no'nD E ossesses that .ery same role in /ritish mythi&al history <the
e>terminator of all remaining +ornish and 4elsh giants in /ritain= 'hi&h
!elongs to Arthur in +ornish and 4elsh fol)lore( Indeed% not only is this
fol)lori& role for Arthur 'ell8attested !efore 7a&)Ds first aearan&e in the
said Cstory8!oo)sD% !ut the giant8)illings attri!uted to Arthur and his &losest
&omanions are of a .ery similar &hara&ter to those of 7a&)( As &an !e seen
from the materials sele&ted for in&lusion !elo'% 7a&)Ds initial tri&)ery of the
+ornish and 4elsh giants he en&ounters is aralleled !y similar &unning in
some of the Arthurian giant8)illings( For e>amle% Arthur is said <in a ie&e
of fol)lore re&orded in the early se.enteenth &entury= to ha.e )illed the
three sisters of the giant +ri!'r at +efn +ri!'r near Llange'ydd%
Glamorgan% Cthrough &unningD;
For Arthur ni&)named himself Hot Sou to the first sister% and
4arm Porridge to the se&ond sister <so runs the tale=% and to the
third sister Pie&e of /read( And 'hen the first sister &alled for hel
against Hot Sou% +ri!'r ans'ered% PSilly girl% let it &ool(Q And in
the same manner he ans'ered the se&ond sister 'hen she sought
hel against Hot Porridge( And the third sister &ried out that Pie&e
of /read 'as &ho)ing her% and he ans'ered as 'ell% PSilly girl% ta)e a
smaller ie&e(Q And 'hen +ri!'r reroa&hed Arthur for )illing his
sisters% Arthur ans'ered 'ith an Englyn ?il'r in this form;
+ri!'r N+om!erO ta)e your &om!s(
S)ul) not in silent 'rath(
Oonents% if to me they &ome%
4hat they ha.e had you too shall ha.e(
No one &ould )ill the three sisters together% !y reason of the
greatness of their strength% !ut searately and through &unning
Arthur )illed them(
"
In the same 'ay% the last 4elsh giants that 7a&) )ills are slaughtered through
e>treme .iolen&e% and this too is a feature of ArthurDs giant8)illing( Thus% for
, Green% CTom Thum! and 7a&) the Giant89illerD% ( ,5"852G T( Green% %once&ts
of Arth#r <Stroud; Temus% "##0=% ( ,,"8,-G +( Grooms% The Giants of <aes.
%ewri %y+r#% 4elsh Studies .olume ,# <Lameter; Ed'in ?eller% ,$$5=G %#hwch
and 6wen. An Edition and (t#dy of the 6dest Arth#rian Tae edited !y R( /rom'i&h
and D( Simon E.ans <+ardiff; Mni.ersity of 4ales Press% ,$$"=% ( li.8li>G
Hunt% /ros, Traditions and (#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa% II% ( 5#0(
" Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( 5,,(

,13
e>amle% his )illing of the Giant of ?ont St ?i&hel !ears &lose &omarison
'ith 7a&)Ds deeds( So% 7a&) stri)es at the head of the se&ond giant he meets
after setting off from ArthurDs &ourt% !ut misses his aim and so &uts into the
giantDs fa&e% remo.ing his nose( He then a.oids the giantDs 'ild atta&)%
inserts his s'ord u to the hilt in the giantDs CarseD% and laughs out loud as
the &reature suffers and dies% the giant C&rying outD and Cra.ingD !efore finally
toling to the ground in a Cdreadful fallD( 7a&) then &uts off the giantDs head
as a trohy for 9ing Arthur( +orresondingly% 'e are told that Arthur%
fired 'ith rage((( lifted u his s'ord% and ga.e him a 'ound in the
forehead% 'hi&h 'as not indeed mortal% !ut yet su&h as made the
!lood gush out o.er his fa&e and eyes% and so !linded himG for he
had artly 'arded off the stro)e from his forehead 'ith his &lu!%
and re.ented its !eing fatal( Ho'e.er% his loss of sight% !y reason
of the !lood flo'ing o.er his eyes% made him e>ert himself 'ith
greater fury% and li)e an enraged !oar against a hunting8sear% so
did he rush in against ArthurDs s'ord% and grasing him a!out the
'aist% for&ed him do'n uon his )nees( /ut Arthur% nothing
daunted% slied out of his hands% and so !estirred himself 'ith his
s'ord% that he ga.e the giant no resite till he had stru&) it u to
the .ery !a&) through his s)ull( At this the hideous monster raised a
dreadful roar% and li)e an oa) torn u from the roots !y the 'inds%
so did he ma)e the ground resound 'ith his fall( Arthur% !ursting
out into a fit of laughter at the sight% &ommanded /ed.er to &ut off
his head% and gi.e it to one of the armour8!earers% 'ho 'as to &arry
it to the &am% and there e>ose it to u!li& .ie'[
,

It may !e rele.ant in this &onte>t that some tellings of this same e.ent
in&lude a s&ene in 'hi&h Arthur sta!s the giant in the genitals(
"
E.en if there
is no dire&t deri.ation of 7a&)Ds )illing des&ri!ed a!o.e from this se&ifi&
one of ArthurDs% the t'o slaughters <and slaughterers= are &learly highly
similar in nature( +onseAuently I thin) it fair to say that Grooms dislayed
sound Iudgement 'hen he remar)ed that the tales of Arthur the giant8)iller
&onstitute Ca tradition that re&edes and informs the oular &ha8!oo)
tales of 7a&) the Giant8)iller(D
5
In Arthur 'e ha.e a figure of genuine
, See ( ,-08--( In the same 'ay% &omare 7a&) &utting off another giantDs legs
so that he !e&omes a more managea!le foe% later remo.ing his head to send to
Arthur% to Arthur slaying Ca great giant named Galaas% 'hi&h 'as a man of an
huge Auantity and height% he shorted him and smote off !oth his legs !y the
)nees% saying% No' art thou !etter of a si6e to deal 'ith than thou 'ere% and
after smote off his headD E see ( ,-$(
" See ( ,--8-$(
5 Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( l(
,10
fol)lore and early /ritish story 'ho arallels and re8dates 7a&) in !oth his
role and the tye of deeds that are as&ri!ed to him( In this light the
referen&es to Arthur throughout The History of Jack and the Giants E in
arti&ular the ritualisti& &olle&ting of the giantsD heads for return to Arthur E
!e&ome e>li&a!le( I 'ould &ontend
,
that they ought to !e &onsidered as an
a&)no'ledgement !y the &reator of the History that 7a&)Ds a&tions 'ere% in
fa&t% ultimately modelled uon those of the Arthur of /ritish mythi&al
history and fol)lore; 7a&) 'as a ne' final .anAuisher of the giants of /ritain%
designed for an England that 'as interested su&h fol)lori& tales !ut 'hi&h
'ould aear to ha.e !e&ome !ored of Arthur himself !y the early
eighteenth &entury <to gi.e one illustrati.e e>amle% ?aloryDs 9e !orte
/arth#r remained out of rint from ,351 until the early nineteenth &entury=(
This is not% of &ourse% to say that a )no'ledge of the Arthurian tradition
fully e>lains 7a&)Ds History E there are numerous non8Arthurian sour&es for
its in&idents and &on&et of 7a&)% some of 'hi&h are referen&ed in the notes
to my trans&rition of the ,0-0 te>t E !ut rather to suggest that The History
of Jack and the Giants deser.es to !e &onsidered as a genuine art of the
de.eloment of the Arthurian legend% not simly an unrelated fairy tale that
haens to !e set in Cthe reign of 9ing ArthurD as a .ariant of COn&e uon a
timeD(
, As in Green% CTom Thum! and 7a&) the Giant89illerD% ( ,52850(

,1-
The History of Jack and the Giants <,0-0=
Introduction
7a&) the Giant 9illerDs tale% The History of Jack and the Giants% 'ould seem to
ha.e !een first u!lished !y ,0#-% although the earliest )no'n &ha!oo) to
&ontain it dates from ,0,,( This 'as trans&ri!ed !y 7ames Or&hard Halli'ell
<later Halli'ell8Phillis= and his .ersion is gi.en in full after the resent
te>t( Mnfortunately% Halli'ell trans&ri!ed this no'8lost &ha!oo) C'ith a
fe' ne&essary alterationsD% 'hi&h is to say that he thoroughly modernised
the te>t and remo.ed elements 'hi&h he found distasteful(
,
As a result% later
eighteenth8&entury deri.ati.es of the original &ha!oo) E su&h as the
c. ,03#832 Shre's!ury &ha!oo) used !y the Oies in their edition
"
E are
usually relied uon during detailed analysis of the tale(
The follo'ing trans&rit 'as made !y the resent 'riter from a ,0-0 un8
!o'dlerised .ersion of the History% rinted in Fal)ir) and housed in the
/odleian Li!rary% O>ford% 'hi&h is .ery similar in most regards to the
OiesD Shre's!ury .ersion(
5
The layout adoted !elo' aro>imates that of
the original &ha!oo)% hen&e its e&&entri&itiesG 'here letters 'ere diffi&ult to
de&iher% the ro!a!le reading has !een added in sAuare !ra&)ets(
Te,t
The History of 7a&) and the Giants(
6f his birth and Parentage, and what &ast between hi+ and the %o#ntry ;icar, :&(
IN the reign of 9ing Arthur% near the Lands8end of England% namely the
&ountry if +orn'all there li.ed a 'ealthy Farmer% 'ho had one only Son%
, 7( O( Halli'ell% Po&#ar -hy+es and ,#rsery Taes of Engand <London; 7ohn Russell
Smith% ,-1$=% ( 2383$ at (23(
" I( Oie and P( Oie% The %assic Fairy Taes <O>ford; O>ford Mni.ersity Press%
,$01=% ( 318-"(
5 It is the earliest .ersion readily a.aila!le in fa&simile% from Eighteenth %ent#ry
%oections 6nine% a&&essi!le .ia infotrac.ondon.gaegro#&.co+(
,1$
&ommonly )no'n !y the name of 7a&) the Giant 9iller(
,
He 'as !ris) and
of a ready 'itG so that 'hate.er he &ould not erform !y strength he
&omleated !y ingenious 'it and oli&y; Ne.er 'as any erson heard of that
&ould 'orst himG Nay the .ery learned many times he !affled the learned !y
his &unning shar and ready in.entions(
"
For instan&e 'hen he 'as no more than se.en years of age his Father%
the Farmer% sent him into the field to loo) after his O>en% 'hi&h 'ere then
feeding in a leasant asture; A &ountry Si&ar !y &han&e &oming a&ross the
field% &allDd to 7a&)% and as)ed him se.eral AuestionsG in arti&ular% Ho'
many &ommandments 'ere thereB 7a&) told him there 'ere nine( The
arson relyDd There are ten( Nay <@uoth 7a&)(= ?aster arson% you are out
of that% it is true there 'as ten% !ut you !ro)e one of them 'ith your o'n
maid ?argery( The arson relyDd thou art an ar&h 4ag% 7a&)( 4ell ?aster
arson Auoth 7a&)% you ha.e as)ed me one Auestion% and I ha.e ans'ered itG
I !esee&h you let me as) you another( 4ho made these O>enB The arson
relyDd% God made them +hild( Kou are out again <Auoth 7a&)= for God
made them !ulls% !ut my Father% and his man Ho!son% made O>en of them(
These 'ere the 'itty ans'ers of 7a&)( The arson finding himself foolDd%
truged a'ay lea.ing 7a&) in a fit of laughter(
How a Giant inhabited the !o#nt of +orn'all% s&oied the %o#ntry thereabo#ts, :&(
IN those days the mount of +orn'all
5
'as )et !y a Huge and ?onstrous
, The Oies &onsider Cthe LandDs endD to !e a +ornish turn of hrase% 'hi&h may
!e signifi&ant in determining 'here 7a&)Ds History 'as &reated; Oie and Oie%
%assic Fairy Taes% ( 31( A +ornish origin might also !e suorted !y the fa&t
that the t'o +ornish giants he )ills !ear names that 'ere also aarently found
in the same or similar forms in +ornish fol)lore; R( Hunt% Po&#ar -o+ances of the
<est of Engand. The /ros, Traditions and (#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa% t'o .olumes
<rerint of ,--, edition% Felinfa&h; Llaner&h Pu!lishers% ,$$5=% I% ( 13810% 228
3#( The name 7a&) is a &ommon one for English fol)lori& heroes% see 7( Simson
and S( Roud% The 64ford /ictionary of Engish Fokore <O>ford; O>ford Mni.ersity
Press% "##,=% ( ,$38$$(
" /( +( Sooner% C7a&) and Tom in PDrollsQ and +ha!oo)sD% Fokore% -0(, <,$03=%
( ,#28," at ( ,,2 suggests that this se&tion deri.es from the ?erry Tales and
@ui&) Ans'ers genre that 'as oular in the si>teenth and se.enteenth
&enturies( Halli'ell% Po&#ar -hy+es% ( 1081- in&ludes another similar seAuen&e%
atta&hed to the name of C7a&) Horn!yD(
5 Hunt% /ros, Traditions and (#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa% <I% ( 13810G II% ( 5#58
#1= &ould find no tale of 7a&) )illing a giant at St ?i&haelDs ?ount in +ornish
fol)lore% and the giant 'ho did li.e there in this material 'as not )illed( Gi.en
the relationshi of 7a&) and Arthur suggested on ( ,15810% one must 'onder
'hether the &reator of the History 'as insired to la&e an initial fatal !attle here
!e&ause the most famous Arthurian giant8)illing too) la&e at ?ont St ?i&hel in
/rittany <see ( ,13 for another ossi!le instan&e of this story influen&ing that

,2#
Giant% of "0 feet
,
in height% and a!out three yards in &omass% of a fier&e
and grim &ountenan&e% the Terror of all the neigh!ouring To'ns and
Sillages( His ha!itation 'as in a &a.e% in the midst of the ?ount% neither
'ould suffer any lea.ing &reature to inha!it near himG His feeding 'as uon
other mens &attle% 'hi&h often !e&ame his rey; for 'hensoe.er he had
o&&asion for food% he 'ould 'ade o.er to the main Land% 'here he 'ould
furnish himself 'ith 'hate.er he &ould find( For the eole at his aroa&h
'ould forsa)e their ha!itationsG then 'ould sei6e uon their &o's and o>en%
of 'hi&h he 'ould ma)e nothing to &arry o.er on his !a&) half a do6en at a
time; and as for the shee and hogs% he 'ould tye them round his 'aist li)e
a !un&h of !andeliers(
"
This he had for many years had ra&tised in
+orn'all% 'hi&h 'as mu&h imo.erished !y him(
/ut one day 7a&) &oming to the To'n8Hall% 'hen the ?agistrates 'ere
sitting in &onsternation a!out the GiantG he as)ed them 'hat re'ard they
'ould gi.e to any erson that 'ould destroy himB They ans'ered He shall
ha.e all the treasure in re&omen&e( @uoth 7a&)% then I myself 'ill
underta)e the 'or)(
How 7a&) sew this Giant% and got the na+e of 7a&) the Giant Kier.
7A&) ha.ing underta)en this tas)% he furnished himself 'ith a horn% a
sho.el% and i&)8a>% and o.er to the ?ount he goes% in the !eginning of a
dar) 'inter e.ening% 'here he fell to 'or)% and !efore morning had digged
a it t'o and t'enty foot dee% and almost as !road% and &o.erDd the same
o.er 'ith long sti&)s and stra's; then stro'ing a little of the mould uon it%
so it aeared li)e lain ground(
This done% 7a&) la&es himself on the &ontrary side of the it% Iust a!out
the da'ning of the day% 'hen utting his horn to his mouth% he then !le'%
Tan Twivie% Tan Twivie( 4hi&h une>e&ted noise rou6Dd the Giant% 'ho &ame
roaring to'ards 7a&)% &rying% thou in&origi!le .illainV are you &ome here to
distur! my restB Kou shall dearly ay for it; Satisfa&tion I 'ill ha.e% and it
shall !e thisG I 'ill ta)e thee 'holely and !roil you for my !rea)fast( 4hi&h
'ord 'ere no sooner out of his mouth% !ut he tum!led head8long into the
dee it% 'hose hea.y fall made the .ery foundation of the mount to sha)e(
5
of 7a&)=(
, In the OieDs and Halli'ellDs earlier .ersions of the &ha!oo)% the giant is
eighteen feet high(
" .andoiers are% in this &ase% the t'el.e small !o>es or &ases atta&hed to a soldierDs
!elt <also )no'n as a /andoleerJ/andolier= 'hi&h &ontained &harges for a
mus)et; 64ford Engish /ictionary% s(.( /andoleer(
5 The use of a it aears to ha.e !een a traditional method of disosing of
giants( Hunt% /ros, Traditions and (#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa <I% ( 0,80"=% in the
nineteenth &entury% tells of a giant )illed at ?or.a in +orn'all !y a similarly
,2,
OhV Giant 'here are you no'B Faith you are gotten in Lo!Ds ond%
,

'here I 'ill lague you for your threatening 'ords( 4hat do you thin) no'
of !roiling me for your !rea)fastB 4ill no other diet ser.e you !ut oor
7a&)B Thus ha.ing tantali6Dd the Giant for a 'hile he ga.e him a most
'eighty )no&) uon the &ro'n of his head% 'ith his i&)8a>% that he
immediately tum!led do'n and ga.e a most dreadful moan and died( This
done% 7a&) thre' the earth in uon him% and so !uried himG the going and
sear&hing the &a.e% he found a great Auaintity of treasure(
No' 'hen the ?agistrates% 'ho emloyed him% heard the 'or) 'as
o.er% they sent for him% de&laring% that he should hen&eforth !e &allDd% 7a&)
the Giant 9iller( And in honour thereof they resented him 'ith a S'ord%
together 'ith a fine ri&h em!roiderDd /elt% on 'hi&h these 'ords 'ere
'rought in letters of gold(
HereDs the right .aliant +ornish ?an%
4ho sle' the Giant +ormilion(
"
How Jack was taken by a Giant whie asee&, and how he got his iberty again.
THE ne's of 7a&)Ds .i&tory 'as soon sread o.er all the 'estern artsG so
that another huge Giant Named /lunder!oar%
5
hearing of it% .o'Dd to !e
&on&ealed hole( This 'as done !y a man named 7a&) the Tin)eard E not another
name for our 7a&)% !ut a different &hara&ter% at least in the tales 'e ha.e of him
E 'ho 'as reAuired to )ill this giant !y his rose&ti.e father8in8la'( If this
story goes !a&) to !efore the !eginning of the eighteenth &entury then this story
and &hara&ter% desite their later la&) of relation% might 'ell !e seen as a sour&e
for 7a&) the Giant89iller and this se&ifi& giant8)illing( Ho'e.er% 'e
unfortunately ha.e no 'ay of ro.ing this at resent% and the oosite E that
the ?or.a method of disat&h deri.es from the History% attra&ted to a similarly
named &hara&ter E may !e true instead <as noted !y /(+( Sooner% CThe Giants
of +orn'allD% Fokore% 03(, <,$32=% ( ,385" at ( "0=( The use of a hole to )ill a
giant is not% of &ourse% a method &onfined to Iust +orn'all% and it is indeed
)no'n from the Arthurian legend tooG ArthurDs men used a similar method to
defeat the giant Dillus in %#hwch ac 6wen <see ( ,-3=% and this tale aears to
ha.e it origins in 4elsh fol)lore; T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud; Temus%
"##0=% ( ,,28,3G +( Grooms% The Giants of <aes. %ewri %y+r#( 4elsh Studies
.olume ,# <Lameter; Ed'in ?eller% ,$$5=% ( ,3083-G %#hwch and 6wen. An
Edition and (t#dy of the 6dest Arth#rian Tae% edited !y R( /rom'i&h and D(
Simon E.ans <+ardiff; Mni.ersity of 4ales Press% ,$$"=% ( l.ii8l.iii% ,1-(
, Lo!Ds Pond Y Lo!Ds Pound% Crison% IailD( Lo! means in this &onte>t a CloutD;
6E/% s(.( Lo!Ds PoundG Lo!% nL(
" %or+ian in the OieDs Shre's!ury &ha!oo)G %or+eian in Halli'ellDs trans&rit
of the ,0,, &ha!oo)(
5 .#nderboar in the Shre's!ury &ha!oo)G Th#nderbore in Halli'ellDs trans&rit of
the ,0,, &ha!oo)( This &reature is resuma!ly related to the /lunder!uss of

,2"
re.enged on 7a&)% if e.er it 'as in his fortune to light uon him( This Giant
)et an in&hanted +astle% situated in the midst of a lonesome 'ood; No'
7a&) a!out four months after 'al)ing neat the !orders of the said 'ood% on
his Iourney to'ards 4ales% he gre' .ery 'eary and therefore sat himself
do'n !y the side of a leasant fountain%
,
'here a dee slee suddenly sei6Dd
on himG at 'hi&h time the Giant &oming there for 'ater% found him% and !y
the Lines 'ritten uon his !elt% )ne' him to !e 7a&) that )illDd his !rother
Giant% and therefore 'ithout ma)ing any 'ords% he thro's him uon his
shoulder% for to &arry him to his in&hanted &astle(
No' as they assed through a thi&)et the rustling of the !oughs a'a)Dd
oor 7a&)% 'ho finding himself strangely surrised% yet it 'as !ut the
!eginning of his terrorsG for he !eheld the ground all &o.erDd 'ith !ones
and s)ulls of dead men( The Giant telling 7a&) that his !ones 'ould enlarge
the num!er that he sa'( This said% he !rought him into a large arlour
'here he !eheld the !loody Auarters of some that 'ere lately slain% and in
the ne>t room 'ere many hearts and li.ers; 'hi&h the Giant to terrify 7a&)%
told him% Pthat mens hearts and li.ers 'ere the &hoi&est of his diet% for he
&ommonly <as he said= eat them 'ith eer and .inegar; adding% that he did
not Auestion !ut his heart 'ould ma)e him a dainty !it(Q This said% he lo&)s
u oor 7a&) in an uer room lea.ing him there% 'hile he 'ent to fet&h
another Giant% li.ing in the same 'ood% that he might !e arta)er in the
leasure 'hi&h they 'ould ha.e in the destru&tion of oor 7a&)(
No'% 'hile he 'as gone% dreadful shrie)s and &ries affrighted 7a&)%
ese&ially a .oi&e 'hi&h &ontinually &ried(
Do 'hat you &an to get a'ay%
Or youDll !e&ome the GiantDs reyG
HeDs gone to fet&h his !rother% 'ho
4ill )ill% and li)e'ise torter you(
This dreadful noise so affrighted oor 7a&)% that he 'as ready to run
distra&ted% then seeing from a 'indo' afar off% the t'o Giants &oming
togetherG no' <Auoth 7a&) to himself%= my death or deli.eran&e is at hand(
There 'as strong &ords in the room !y him% of 'hi&h he ta)es t'o% at
the end of 'hi&h he made a nooseG and 'hile the Giant 'as unlo&)ing the
iron gate% he thre' the roes o.er ea&h of their heads% and then dra'ing the
+ornish fol)lore% 'hom a &ertain Tom )ills in a +ornish fol)tale re&orded !y
Hunt; /ros, Traditions and (#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa% I% ( 228$(
, At this oint Halli'ell Auotes the follo'ing des&rition dire&tly from the ,0,,
te>t; CoDer&anoied 'ith lus&ious 'ood!ineD <see ( ,3-=( This des&rition is
missing from !oth the Shre's!ury and Fal)ir) .ersions% 'hi&h indi&ates that
!oth their te>ts% 'hilst &ertainly &losely related to that of the lost ,0,,
&ha!oo)% are at least one ste remo.ed from that of the original History(
,25
other end a&ross the !eam% 'here he ulled 'ith all his main strength until
he had throatled themG and then fastening the roe to the !eam% turnDd
to'ards the 'indo'% 'here he !eheld the t'o GiantDs to !e !la&) in their
fa&esG Then sliding do'n !y the roe he &ame &lose to their heads% 'here
the helless Giants &ould not defend themsel.es% and dra'ing out his
s'ord% sle' them !oth and deli.ered himself from their intended &ruelty;
He then ta)ing the !un&h of )eys% he unlo&)Dd the rooms% 'here uon a
stri&t sear&h% he found three fair LadieDs tyDd !y the hair of their heads%
almost star.ed to death% 'ho told 7a&)% That their hus!ands 'as slain !y the
Giant% and that they 'ere )et many days 'ithout food; in order to for&e
them to feed uon the flesh of their hus!andsG 'hi&h they &ould not% if they
'ere star.ed to death( S'eet Ladies% <Auoth 7a&)= I ha.e destroyed this
?onster% and his !rutish !rother% !y 'hi&h I ha.e o!tained your li!erties(
This said%% he resented them 'ith the )eys of the &asile% and so ro&eeded
on his Iourney into 4ales(
How Jack traveed into Fintshire, and what ha&&ened
7A+9 ha.ing !ut .ery little money% though it rudent to ma)e the !est of
his 'ay !y tra.elling as fast as he &ould% !ut losing his road 'as !enighted
and &ould not get a la&e of entertainmentG until he &ame to a .alley% la&ed
!et'een t'o hills 'here stood a large house in a lonNeOsome la&e% and !y
reason of his resent &ondition% he too) &ourage to )no&) at the gateG and to
his surrise there &ame forth a monstrous Giant% ha.ing t'o headsG yet he
did not seem so fiery as the others had !een% for he 'as a 4elsh Giant% and
'hat he did 'as !y ri.ate and se&ret mali&e under the false she' of
friendshiG for 7a&) telling his &ondition he !id him 'el&ome she'ing him a
room 'ith a !ed in it% 'hereuon he might ta)e his nightDs reose;
Therefore Ia&) undresses himself% and as the Giant 'as 'al)ing a'ay to
another aartment% 7a&) heard him mutter these 'ords to himself(
ThoD here you lodge 'ith me this night%
Kou shall not see the morning light%
?y &lu! shall dash your !rains out right(
SayDst though so% Auoth 7a&)% that is li)e one of your 4elsh tri&)s% yet I hoe
to !e &unning enough for you( Then getting out of !ed% he ut a !illet in his
stead and hid himself in a &orner of the room% and in the dead time of the
night% the 4elsh Giant &ame 'ith his great )notty &lu!% and stru&) se.eral
!lo's uon the !ed 'here 7a&) had laid his !illet% and then returned to his
o'n &ham!er suosing he had !ro)en all the !ones in his !ody(
,
, It is often suggested that this seAuen&e deri.ed ultimately from Norse and
Germani& mythologyJfol)lore; Oie and Oie% %assic Fairy Taes% ( 2-G

,21
In the morning 7a&) ga.e him a hearty than)s for his lodging( The Giant
said to him% ho' ha.e you restedB Did you not feel something in the nightB
Nothing <Auoth 7a&)= !ut a rat 'hi&h ga.e me three or four slas 'ith her
tail( Soon after the Giant arose% and 'ent to !rea)fast 'ith a !o'l of hasty
udding% &ontaining near four gallons% gi.ing 7a&) the li)e AuantityG 'ho%
!eing loath to let the Giant )no' he &ould not eat 'ith him% got a large
leather8!ag utting it artfully under his loose &oat% into 'hi&h he se&retly
&on.eyed his udding% telling the Giant% he &ould sho' him a tri&)G Then
ta)ing a large )nife% he ried oen the !ag% 'hi&h the Giant suosed to
!e his !elly% 'hen out &ame the hasty uddingG At 'hi&h the 4elsh Giant%
&ried out% +uts lut% hur &an do dat tri&) hurself(
,
Then ta)ing his shar
)nife% he ried u his o'n !elly% from the !ottom to the to% and out
droed his tries and troly !ags%
"
so that hur fell do'n for dead; thus 7a&)
out'itted the Giant% and ro&eeded on his Iourney(
5
How King Arth#r?s (on +et with Jack, 0c(
9ING ArthurDs Son%
1
only desired of his Father to furnish him 'ith a
&ertain sum of money% that he might go and see) his fortune in the
rin&iality of 4ales% 'here a !eautiful Lady li.ed% 'hom he heard 'as
ossessed 'ith se.en e.il siritsG /ut the 9ing his Father ad.ised him
utterly against it% yet he 'ould not !e ersuaded from itG so that he granted
'hat he reAuested% 'hi&h 'as one horse loaded 'ith money% and another
for himself to ride onG thus he 'ent forth 'ithout any attendan&e(
No' after se.eral days tra.el% he &ame to a mar)et to'n in 4ales% 'here
he !eheld a large &on&ourse of eole gathered togetherG the 9ingDs Son
demanded the reason of it% and 'as told% that they had arrested a &orse for
many large sums of money% 'hi&h the de&eased o'ed 'hen he dyDd( The
9ingDs Son relyDd it is a ity that &reditors should !e so &ruel% so !ury the
dead <said he= and let his &reditors &ome to my Lodging% and their de!ts
Halli'ell% Po&#ar -hy+es% ( 23820G H( 4eiss% CThe Auto&hthonal Tale of 7a&)
the Giant 9illerD% The (cientific !onthy% "-(" <,$"$=% ( ,"3855 at ( ,"$85"(
Ho'e.er% 4eiss notes that su&h su!stitution is a &ommon motif found in
Fren&h% Italian% and Persian tales <( ,5"=(
, ?( S( 9ir&h% CNote on the History of 7a&) and the GiantsD% !odern 9ang#age
,otes% 3$(, <,$21=% ( 11% suggests this is a &orrution of CGodDs /loodD% 'ith the
ChurD !eing used to suggest an imerfe&t &ommand of the English language(
" 6E/% s(.( Trolli!ags% Centrails% intestinesD( Note that the 6E/ re&ords the first
rint usage as ,-"1% 'hi&h this instan&e o!.iously signifi&antly redates(
5 This method of tri&)ery and disat&h is aralleled again in S&andina.ian fol)8
tale; Oie and Oie% %assic Fairy Taes% ( 2-82$(
1 Numerous sons of Arthur are )no'n from the medie.al Arthurian legend E
in&luding Amr% Lla&heu% Loholt and G'ydre E !ut there is no reason to thin)
that any se&ifi& son is intended here(
,22
shall !e dis&harged( A&&ordingly they &ame% and is su&h great num!er% that
!efore night he had almost left himself moneyless(
No' 7a&) the Giant 9iller !eing there% and seeing the generosity of the
9ingDs Son% he 'as ta)en 'ith him% and desired to !e his ser.antG it 'as
agreed uon the ne>t morning they set for'ard% 'hen at the to'n end% an
old 'oman &alled after them% &rying out% he 'as o'Dn me t'o en&e these
fi.e years; ray Sir% ay me as 'ell as the restB He uts his hand into his
o&)et% and ga.e it her% it !eing the last he had left% then the 9ingDs Son
turning to 7a&)% said% I &annot tell ho' I shall su!sist in my intended
Iourney( For that <Auoth 7a&)= ta)e you no thought nor &are let me alone% I
'arrant you 'e 'ill not 'ant(
,
No' 7a&) ha.ing a small sell in his o&)et% 'hi&h ser.ed at noon to
gi.e them a refreshment% 'hen done% they had not one enny left !et'i>t
themG the afternoon the sent in tra.el and familiar friendly dis&ourse% Ctill
the sun !egan to gro' lo'% at 'hi&h time% the 9ingDs Son said% 7a&)% sin&e
'e ha.e no money% 'here &an 'e thin) to lodge this nightB 7a&) relyDd%
?aster% 'eDll do 'ell enough( For I ha.e an un&le li.es 'ithin t'o little
miles of this la&e% heDs a hudge and monstrous Giant
"
'ith three headsG
HeDll fight fi.e hundred men in armour% and ma)e them to fly !efore him(
AlasV <Auoth the 9ingDs Son= 'hat shall 'e do there% heDll &ertainly &ho us
!oth u at one mouthfulV Nay% 'e are s&ar&e enough to fill one of his
hollo' teeth( It is no matter for that <Auoth 7a&)%= I myself 'ill go !efore%
and reare the 'ay for youG therefore tarry here% and 'ait my return(
He 'aits% and 7a&) rides full seed% 'hen &oming to the Gates of the
&astle% he )no&)Dd 'ith su&h for&e% that he made all the neigh!ouring hills
resound( The Giant 'ith a .oi&e li)e thunder% roared outG 'hoDs thereB He
, This is generally thought to reresent a .ersion of The Grateful Dead theme(
The earliest .ersion of this aears in the /i!li&al C/oo) of To!itD% !ut it is
freAuently to !e found in the fol)lore of many &ountries( At its &ore it in.ol.es a
dead manDs &orse !eing denied !urial !y his &reditors( These are e.entually
aid8off !y someone E the son of Arthur in this instan&e E 'ith the &orse then
!e&oming the ser.ant of this ersonG in this telling% 7a&) ta)es the dead manDs
la&e as the ser.ant( 4e also find this theme e>ressed in PeeleDs si>teenth8
&entury lay The 6d <ives Tae% !ut here the &orse retains his original role as
the ser.ant after the &reditors are aid off% 'ith the &orseDs name !eing
re.ealed to !e E most intriguingly E 7a&)( See 9( ?( /riggs% CPossi!le
?ythologi&al ?otifs in English Fol)talesD% Fokore% -5(1 <,$0"=% ( "3280, at (
"0#G F( H( Groome% CTo!it and 7a&) the Giant89illerD% Fokore% $(5 <,-$3=% (
""3811( For further ossi!le e.iden&e of some influen&e from PeeleDs 6d <ives
Tae on 7a&)Ds History% see the notes !elo'(
" Another e>amle of a giant8)iller 'ith giganti& relati.es is Arthur% 'hose 'ife%
son% nehe' and &losest &omanion all seem to ha.e !een &onsidered giants at
some oint% see Green% %once&ts of Arth#r% ( ,15% ,21822% ,0#( Indeed% ArthurDs
father too aears in some +ornish lore as a giant; 7( H( Harris% %ornish (aints
and (inners <London; /odley Head% ,$#3=(

,23
ans'ered% none !ut your oor &ousin 7a&)
,
Auoth he% 'hat ne's 'ith my
oor &ousin 7a&)B He relied% dear un&le% hea.y ne'sG God 'ot rithee 'hat
hea.y ne's &an &ome to meB I am a Giant% 'ith three headsG and !esides
thou )no's I &an fight fi.e hundred men in Armour and ma)e them fly li)e
&haff !efore the 'ind( OhV !ut <Auoth 7a&)= hereDs the 9ingDs Son &oming
'ith a thousand men in Armour to )ill you% and so to destroy all that you
ha.e( OhV +ousin 7a&)% this is hea.y ne's indeedG I ha.e a large .ault under
the ground% 'here I 'ill immediately hide myself% and thou shalt lo&)% !olt
and !ar me in% and )ee the )eys till the 9ingDs Son is gone(
No' 7a&) ha.ing se&ured the Giant% he soon returned and fet&hed his
master% and 'ere !oth heartily merry 'ith the 'ine% and other dainties
'hi&h 'ere in the house; So that night they rested in .ery leasant lodgings%
'hilst oor Mn&le the Giant% lay trem!ling in the .ault under ground(
Early in the morning 7a&) furnished his master 'ith a fresh suly of
gold and sil.er% and then set him three miles for'ard on his IourneyG
&on&luding he then 'as retty 'ell out of the smell of the Giant% and then
returned to let his Mn&le out of the hole; 4ho as)ed 7a&) 'hat he should
gi.e him in re'ard his &astle 'as not demolished( 4hy <Auoth 7a&)= I desire
nothing !ut the old &oat and &a together 'ith the old &oat and sliers%
'hi&h are at your !ed8head( @uoth the Giant% thou shalt ha.e them% and
ray )ee them for my sa)e% for they are things of e>&ellent use( The &oat
'ill )ee you in.isi!leG the &a 'ill furnish you 'ith )no'ledgeG the s'ord
&uts in sunder 'hate.er you stri)eG and the shoes are of e>traordinary
s'iftness; These may !e ser.i&ea!le to you% and therefore ray ta)e them
'ith all my heart( 7a&) ta)es them% than)ing his Mn&le and follo's his
master(
"
How Jack saved his !aster?s 9ife and /rove the evi (&irit o#t of a 9ady, 0c.
7A+9 ha.ing o.erta)en his master% they soon after arri.ed at the LadyDs
house; 'ho finding the 9ingDs Son to !e a suitor% she reared a !anAuit for
himG 'hi&h !eing ended% she 'ied his mouth 'ith her hand)er&hief saying%
you must she' me this on&e to morro' morning% or else lose your head;
And 'ith that she ut it into her o'n !osom(
The 9ingDs Sone 'ent to !ed .ery sorro'ful% !ut 7a&)Ds &a of
9no'ledge instru&ted him ho' to o!tain it( In the middle of the night she
&alled uon her familiar sirit to &arry her to her friend Lu&ifer% 7a&) soon
ut on his &oat of dar)ness% 'ith his shoes of s'iftness% and 'as there as
, Presuma!ly an early usage of C+ousin 7a&)D% a Cfamiliar name for a +ornishmanD
<6E/% s(.( 7a&)% n(]=(
" These items are often &ited as further e.iden&e for the influen&e of
S&andina.ian or Germani& mythology on the tale of 7a&); Oie and Oie% %assic
Fairy Taes% ( 2$G 4eiss% C7a&) the Giant 9illerD% ( ,5#(
,20
soon as her% !y reason of his &oat they &ould not see him( 4hen she entered
the la&e she ga.e the hand)er&hief to old Lu&ifer% 'ho laid it uon the
shelfG from 'hen&e 7a&) too) it% and !rought it to his master% 'ho she'ed it
to the Lady the ne>t day% and so sa.ed his Life(
The ne>t night she saluted the 9ingDs Son% telling him% he must she' her
to morro' morning% the lis that she )issed last% this night% or lose his head(
AhV <relyDd he= if you )iss non !ut mine% I 'ill% Ctis neither here nor there
<said she= if you do not% deathDs your ortion( At midnight she 'ent as
!efore% and 'as angry 'ith Lu&ifer for letting the hand)er&hief goG /ut no'
<said he= I 'ill !e too hard for the 9ingDs Son% for I 'ill )iss thee% and heDs
to she' thy LisG 'hi&h she did% 7a&) standing near him 'ith his s'ord of
sharness% &ut off the de.ilDs head% !rought it under his in.isi!le &oat to his
master% 'ho 'as in !ed% and laid it at the end of his !olster( In the morning%
'hen the Lady &ame u% he ulled it out !y the horns% and she'ed her the
de.ilDs lis 'hi&h she )issed last(
Thus ha.NiOng ans'ered her t'i&e% the en&hantment !ro)e% and the e.il
sirit left herG at 'hi&h time she aeared in all her !eauty% a !eautiful and
.irtuous &reature( They 'ere married the ne>t morning% in great om and
solemnity% and soon after they returned 'ith a numerous &omany to the
&ourt of 9ing Arthur% 'here they 'ere re&ei.ed 'ith the greatest 7oy% and
loud a&&lamation !y the 'hole &ourt( 7a&) for his many and great e>loits he
had done for the good of his &ountry% 'as made one of the )nights of the
round Ta!le(
Thus 'e ha.e finished the first art of this History 'hi&h no' leads us
to the se&ond art% 'herein you ha.e a more full a&&ount of the many
.aliant and 'onderful e>loits 'hi&h 'as done !y the !old ad.entures of
this great and .aliant HERO% 7a&) the Giant 9iller(
,
The SE+OND Part(
How Jack by King Arth#r?s eave went in &#rs#it of Giants yet aive, 0c.
7A+9 ha.ing !een su&&essful in all his underta)ings% and resol.ed not to !e
idle for the futureG !ut to erform 'hat ser.i&e he &ould for the honour of
his 9ing and &ountryG he hum!ly reAuested of the 9ing his royal master% to
fit him 'ith a horse and money% to tra.el in sear&h of strange and ne'
ad.entures; For% said he% there are many Giants yet ali.e in the remote arts
of the )ingdom% and the dominions of 4ales% to the unsea)a!le damage of
your ?aIestyDs liege su!Ie&tsG 'herefore may it lease your ?aIesty to gi.e
me en&ouragement% and I dou!t not !ut in a short time to &ut them of root
and !ran&h% and to rid the realm of those &ruel Giants% and de.ouring
, This aragrah is missing in !oth the ,03#s &ha!oo) used !y the Oies and
Halli'ellDs trans&rit of the ,0,, te>t(

,2-
monsters of nature(
,
No' 'hen the 9ing had heard these no!le roositions and had duly
&onsidered the mis&he.ious ra&ti&es of those !lood8thirsty Giants; He
immediately% granted 'hat honest 7a&) reAuested% and on the first day of
?ar&h% !eing thoroughly furnished 'ith all the ne&essaries for his rogress%
he too) lea.e% not only of 9ing Arthur% !ut li)e'ise of all the trusty and
hardy 9nights !elonging to the round Ta!le%
"
'ho after mu&h salutation
and friendly greeting they arted% the 9ing and his no!les to their &ourtly
ala&es% and 7a&) the Giant 9iller to the eager ursuit of fortuneDs fa.ours%
ta)ing 'ith him the &a of )no'ledge% s'ord of sharness% shoes of
s'iftness% and li)e'ise the in.isi!le &oat% the !etter to erfe&t and &omlete
the dangerous enterri6es that lay !efore him(
How Jack sew a Giant, and deivered a Knight and his 9ady fro+ death
7A+9 tra.elling o.er .ast hills and 'onderful mountains% 'hen at the end
of three days% he &ame to a large and sa&ious 'ood through 'hi&h he must
needs ass% 'here on a sudden to his great ama6ement he heard dreadful
shrie)s and &ries; 4hereuon &asting his eyes around to o!ser.e 'hat it
might !e% !eheld 'ith 'onder% a Giant rushing along 'ith a 'orthy )night
and his fair lady% 'hi&h he held !y the hair of their heads in his hands% 'ith
as mu&h ease% as if they had !een !ut a air of glo.esG the sight of 'hi&h
melted oor 7a&) into tears of ity and &omassion; 'herefore% alighted off
from his horseG 'hi&h he left tied to an oa) tree% and then utting on his
in.isi!le &oat% under 'hi&h he &arried his s'ord of sharness% he &ame u to
the Giant and though he made se.eral asses at him; yet ne.ertheless% it
&ould not rea&h the trun) of his !ody% !y reason of his height% thoD it
'ounded his thighs in se.eral la&es; !ut at length gi.ing him a s'inging
stro)e% he &ut off !oth his legs% Iust !elo' the )nees%
5
so that the trun) of
his !ody% made not only the ground sha)e% !ut li)e'ise the trees to trem!le
'ith the for&e of his fall% at 'hi&h !y mere fortune% the )night and his lady
es&aed his rage% then had 7a&) time to tal) 'ith him% setting his foot uon
his ne&) said% thou sa.age and !ar!arous 'ret&h% I am &ome to e>e&ute
uon you the Iust re'ard of your .illany( And 'ith that running him
through and through% the monster sent forth a hideous groan% and yielded
, As dis&ussed on ( ,12813% although 7a&) ta)es this role here% it a&tually
!elongs to Arthur in 4elsh and +ornish fol)lore(
" Interestingly% these t'o mentions of the CRound Ta!leD are the only elements of
the international CliteraryD Arthurian legend found in 7a&)Ds History( +omare
this situation 'ith that of To+ Th#+be, His 9ife and /eath% 'hi&h in&ludes ?erlin%
Lan&elot% Tristram and a Iousting tournament; see Green% CTom Thum! and
7a&) the Giant 9illerD for some further &omment(
5 +omare here ArthurDs treatment of GoloasJGalaas% see ( ,-$(
,2$
u his life% into the hands of the .aliant &onAuerorG 7a&) the Giant )iller%
'hile the no!le 9night and .irtuous lady 'ere !oth Ioyful se&tators of his
sudden do'nfall% and their deli.eran&e(
This !eing done% the &ourteous 9night and his fair lady% not only
returned him hearty than)s fro their deli.eran&e% !ut also in.ited him home%
there to refresh himself after the dreadful en&ounterG as li)e'ise to re&ei.e
some amle re'ard !y 'ay of gratitude for his good ser.i&e( No Auoth 7a&)%
I &annot !e at ease till I find out the den 'hi&h 'as this monsters
ha!itation( The 9night hearing this% 'a>ed right sorro'ful and relyDd%
no!le stranger% it is too mu&h to run a se&ond ris)% for this noted monster
li.ed in a den under yon mountain% 'ith a !rother of his% more fier&e and
fiery than himselfG and therefore if you should go hither and erish in the
attemt% it 'ould !e the heart !rea)ing of !oth me and my lady% here let me
ersuade you to go 'ith us and desist from any farther ursuit; Nay% Auoth
7a&)% if there !e anotherG nay% if there 'ere t'enty I 'ould shed the last
dro of my !lood in my !ody% !efore one of them shall es&ae my fury% and
'hen I ha.e finished this tas)% I 'ill &ome and ay my rese&ts to you( So
ta)ing dire&tions to their ha!itation% he mounted his horse% lea.ing them to
return home% 'hile he 'ent in ursuit of the de&eased Giants !rother(
How Jack sew the other Giant, and sent both their heads to King Arth#r
7A+9 had not rode ast a mile and a half !efore he &ame in sight of the
&a.eDs mouth% near to the entran&e of 'hi&h he !eheld the other Giant%
sitting uon a huge !lo&) of tim!er% 'ith a )notted iron &lu! lying !y his
side% 'aiting as% he suosed% for his !rotherDs return 'ith his &ruel reyG his
gogle eyes aeared li)e terri!le flames of fire% his &ountenan&e grim and
ugly% and his &hee&)s aeared li)e a &oule of large fat flit&hes of !a&on;
moreo.er the !ristles of his head seemDd to resem!le rods of iron 'ireG his
lo&)s hung do'n uon his !road shoulders% li)e &urled sna)es or hissing
adders(
7a&) alighted from his horse% and ut him into a thi&)et% then 'ith his
&oat of dar)ness he &ome some'hat near to !ehold his figure% and said
softly% OhV are you thereB It 'ill not !e long eDer I ta)e you !y the !eard(
The Giant all this time &ould not see him !y reason of his in.isi!le &oat% so
&oming u &lose to him% .aliant 7a&) fet&hing a !lo' at his head 'ith his
s'ord of sharness% and missing some'hat his aim% &ut off the GiantDs
nose% 'hose nostrils 'ere 'ider than a air of Ia&)8!ootsG the ain 'as
terri!le and so he ut u his hand to his nose% and 'hen he &ould not find
it% he ra.Dd and roarDd louder than &las of thunder; and thoD he turnDd u
his large eyes% he &ould not see from 'hen&e the !lo' &ame% 'hi&h had
done him that great disasterG ne.ertheless he too) u his iron )notted &lu!%
and !egan to lay a!out him li)e one star) mad; Nay% Auoth 7a&)% if you !e

,3#
for that sort% then I 'ill disat&h you Aui&)ly% for fear of an a&&idental !lo'
falling out( Then as the Giant rose from his !lo&)% 7a&) ma)es no more to
do% !ut runs his s'ord u to the hilt in the GantDs fundament% 'here he left
it sti&)ing for a 'hile and stood laughing 'ith his hands a )im !o' to see
the Giant &aer and dan&e the &anaries 'ith his s'ord in his arse% &rying
out% he should die% he should die% 'ith the griing of his guts( Thus did the
Giant &ontinue ra.ing for an hour or more% and at length fell do'n dead
'hose dreadful fall had li)e to ha.e &rushed oor Ia&)% had he not !een
nim!le to a.oid the same(
This !eing done% 7a&) &ut off !oth the GiantDs heads and sent them !oth
to 9ing Arthur !y a 'aggoner% 'hom he hired for the same urose%
together 'ith an a&&ount of his roserous su&&ess in all his underta)ings(
,
How Jack searched their cave, and deivered +any +en o#t of ca&tivity.
7A+9 ha.ing thus disat&hDd these t'o monsters% resol.ed 'ith himself to
enter the &a.e in sear&h of these Giants treasureG he assed along through
many turnings and 'indings 'hi&h led him at length to a room a.ed 'ith
free stone% at the uer end of 'hi&h 'as a !oiling &auldron% then on the
right hand stood a large ta!leG 'here <as he suosed= the Giants used to
dine% then he &ame to an iron gate% 'here 'as a 'indo' se&ured 'ith !ars
of iron% through 'hi&h he loo)ed% and there !eheld a .ast many misera!le
&ati.esG 'ho seeing 7a&) at a distan&e% &ried out 'ith a loud .oi&e% AlasV
young man% art thou &ome to !e one amongst us in this misera!le denB Ay%
Auoth 7a&)% I hoe I shall not tarry long here; !ut ray tell me 'hat is the
meaning of your &ati.ityB 'hy% said one% young man% IDll tell you% 'e are
ersons that ha.e !een ta)en !y the Giants that )ee this &a.e% and here 'e
are )et until su&h time as they ha.e o&&asion for a arti&ular feast% and then
the fattest amongst us is slaughtered% and reared for their de.ouring Ia's;
it is not long sin&e they too) three of us for the same urose; nay% many
are the times they ha.e dined on murdered men( Say you so Auoth 7a&)%
'ell% I ha.e gi.en them !oth su&h a dinner% that it 'ill !e long enough eDer
theyDll ha.e o&&asion for any( The misera!le &ati.es 'ere ama6ed at his
'ords; Kou may !elie.e me% Auoth 7a&)% for I ha.e slain them !oth 'ith the
oint of my s'ord% and as for their monstrous heads I sent them in a 'agon
to the &ourt of 9ing Arthur% as Trohies of my unarallelDd .i&tory( And for
testimony of the truth he had said% he unlo&)Dd the iron gate setting the
misera!le &ati.ity at li!erty% 'ho all reIoi&ed li)e &ondemned malefa&tors at
the sight of a rerie.e; then leading them all together to the aforesaid room%
he la&ed them round the ta!le% and set !efore them t'o Auarters of !eef%
as also !read and 'ine% so that he feasted them .ery lentifully% suer
, As noted on ( ,13% this in&ident has a num!er of oints of similarity 'ith
ArthurDs )illing of the giant of ?ont St ?i&hel(
,3,
!eing ended% they sear&hed the GiantDs &offers% 'here finding a .ast store of
gold and sil.er% 7a&) eAually di.ided it amongst them; they all returned him
hearty than)s% for their treasure and mira&ulous deli.eran&e( That night they
'ent to their rest% and in the morning they arose and dearted% the &ati.es
to their rese&ti.e to'ns and la&es of a!odeG and 7a&) to the )nightDs
house% 'hom he had formerly deli.ered from the hand of the Giant(
How Jack ca+e to the Knight?s ho#se, and his nobe Entertain+ent there, 0c.
IT 'as a!out sun rising 'hen 7a&) mounted his horse to ro&eed on his
Iourney% and !y the hel of his dire&tions he &ame to the 9nightDs house
some time !efore noon; 'here he 'as re&ei.ed 'ith all demonstrations of
Ioy imagina!le !y the 9night and his lady% 'ho in honoura!le rese&t to
7a&) reared a feast% 'hi&h lasted for many days% in.iting all the gentry in
the adIa&ent arts% to 'hom the 'orthy 9night 'as leased to relate the
manner of his former danger% and the hay deli.eran&e% !y the undaunted
&ourage of 7a&) the Giant 9iller; And !y 'ay of gratitude% he resented him
'ith a Ring of gold on 'hi&h 'as engra.en !y &urious art% the i&ture of the
Giant dragging a distressed 9night and his fair Lady !y the hair of the head%
'ith this ?otto(
4e are in sad distress you see%
Mnder a GiantDs fier&e &ommandG
/ut gainDd our Li.es and Li!erty%
/y .aliant 7a&)Ds .i&torious hand(
No' amongst the .ast assem!ly there resent% 'ere fi.e aged Gentleman
'ho 'ere fathers to some of those misera!le &ati.es% 'hi&h 7a&) had lately
set at li!ertyG 'ho understanding that he 'as the erson that erformed
those great 'onders% they immediately aid their .enera!le rese&ts; After
'hi&h their mirth en&reasedG and the smiling !o'ls 'ent freely round to the
roserous su&&ess to the .i&torious &onAueror( /ut in the midst of all
mirth% a dar) &loud aeared% 'hi&h daunted all the hearts of the assem!ly(
Thus it 'as% a messenger !rought the dismal tidings of the aroa&h of one
Thunderdel%
,
a huge Giant 'ith t'o headsG 'ho ha.ing heard of the death
of his )insmen% the a!o.e named GiantsG 'as &ome from the Northeren
oles in sear&h after 7a&) to !e re.enged of him for their most misera!le
do'nfal% and 'as 'ithin a mile of the 9nightDs seat% the &ountry eole
flying !efore him% from their houses and ha!itations li)e &haff !efore the
'ind( 4hen they had related this% 7a&) not a 'hit daunted% said% let him
&ome% I am reared 'ith a tool to i&) his tooth% and you gentlemen and
, This name is Th#nderde in the Shre's!ury &ha!oo) and Th#nderde in
Halli'ellDs trans&rition of the ,0,, Ne'&astle &ha!oo)(

,3"
ladies% 'al) !ut forth into the garden% and you shall !e the Ioyful se&tators
of this monstrous GiantDs death and destru&tion( To 'hi&h they all
&onsented% e.ery one 'ishing him good fortune in that great and dangerous
enterri6e(
How Jack overthrew the Giant in the !oat.
THE situation of the 9nightDs house ta)e as follo's; It 'as la&ed in the
midst of a small island% en&omassed round 'ith a .ast moat% thirty feet
dee% and t'enty feet 'ide% o.er 'hi&h lay a dra' !ridge( 4herefore 7a&)
emloyed t'o men to &ut it on !oth sides% almost to the middleG and then
dressing himself in his &oat of dar)ness% li)e'ise utting on his Shoes of
s'iftness% he mar&hes forth against the Giant% 'ith his s'ord of sharness
ready dra'nG yet 'hen he &ame &lose to him% the Giant &ould not see 7a&)
!y reason of his in.isi!le &oat 'hi&h he had on% yet ne.ertheless he 'as
sensi!le of some aroa&hing danger% 'hi&h made him &ry out in these
'ords(
Fe% Fi% Fo% Fum%
I smell the !lood of an EnglishmanG
/e he li.ing or !e he dead%
IDll grind his !ones to mi> my !read(
,
Says thou so Auoth 7a&)% then thou art a monstrous ?iller indeed; /ut ho'
if I should ser.e thee as I did the t'o Giants of late% in my &ons&ien&e I
should soil your ra&ti&e for the future( At 'hi&h the Giant so)e 'ith a
.oi&e as loud as thunder; Art thou that .illian 'hi&h destroyed my t'o
)insmenB Then 'ill I tear thee 'ith my teeth% su&h thy !lood and 'hat is
more% I 'ill grind thy !ones to o'der( Kou must &at&h me first Auoth 7a&)G
and 'ith that he thre' off his &oat of dar)ness that the Giant might see him
&learly% and then run from him as through fear( The Giant 'ith a foaming
mouth% and glaring eyes% follo'ing after li)e a 'al)ing &astle% ma)ing the
foundations of the Earth% as it 'ere% to sha)e at e.ery ste% 7a&) led him a
dan&e three or four times around the moat that !elonged to the 9nightDs
house% that the gentlemen and ladies might ta)e a full .ie' of this huge
monster of nature% 'ho follo'ed 7a&) 'ith all his might !ut &ould not
o.erta)e him !y reason of his shoes of s'iftness; N'hi&hO &arried him faster
than the Giant &ould Nfollo'GO at length 7a&) to finish the 'or) too) No.er
theO !ridge% 'hNatO 'ith the 'eight of his !oNdOy NanOd the most dreadful
stes that he too)% it !ro)e do'n% and he tum!led into the 'ater% 'here he
, As the Oies note% this is a formula &ommon to most /ritish !lood8thirsty
giants% !a&) to Red Etin in ,2"-; CSnou) !ut and snou) !en% J I find the smell
of an earthly manG J /e he li.ing or !e he dead% J His heart this night shall
)it&hen my !readD <Oie and Oie% The %assic Fairy Taes% ( 0-=( Interestingly%
PeeleDs 6d <ives Taes% referred to a!o.e% in&ludes a .ersion of this hrase(
,35
rollDd and 'allo'Dd li)e a 'hale( 7a&) standing at the side of the moat%
laughDd at the Giant and said you told me you 'ould grind my !ones to
o'der% here you ha.e 'ater enough% ray 'here is your millB The Giant
fretted and foamed to hear him s&off at that rateG and thoD he lunged from
la&e to la&e in the ?oat% yet he &ould not get out to !e re.enged on his
ad.ersary( 7a&) at length got a &art roe% and &ast it o.er the Giants t'o
heads 'ith a sli8)not% and !y the hel of a team of horses% dragged him out
again% 'ith 'hi&h he 'as near strangledG and !efore he 'ould let him loose%
he &ut off !oth his heads 'ith his s'ord of sharness% in the full .ie' of all
the 'orthy assem!ly of )nights% gentlemen and ladies% 'ho ga.e a Ioyful
shout 'hen they sa' the Giant fairly disat&hed( Then !efore he 'ould
either eat or drin)% he sent these heads also after the other to the &ourt of
9ing Arthur; 4hi&h !eing done% then 7a&) 'ith the )nights and ladies%
returned to their mirth and astime% 'hi&h lasted for many days(
How Jack ca+e to the ho#se of an od Her+it, and what /isco#rse ha&&ened between
the+.
AFTER some time sent in triumhant mirth and astime% 7a&) gre' 'eary
of riotous li.ing% 'herefore% ta)ing lea.e of the no!le )nights and ladies% he
set for'ard in sear&h of ne' ad.entures( ThroD many 'oods and gro.es he
assed% meeting 'ith nothing remar)a!le till at length &oming to the foot of
an high mountain late at night he )no&)ed at the door of a lonesome house%
at 'hi&h time an an&ient man% 'ith a head as 'hite as sno' arose and let
him in( Father% said 7a&)% ha.e you any entertainment for a !enighted
tra.eller% that has lost his 'ayB Kes% said the man% if thou 'ill a&&et of su&h
a&&ommodation as my oor &ottage 'ill afford% thou shalt !e right 'el&ome(
7a&) returned him many than)s% for his great &i.ility% 'herefore do'n they
sat together% and the old man !egan to dis&ourse him as follo's; Son% said
he% I am sensi!le thou art the great &onAueror of Giants% and it is in thy
o'er to free this la&e of the &ountry from an intolera!le !urden 'hi&h 'e
groan under( For !ehold my son% on the to of this high mountain% there is
an in&hanted &astle )et !y a huge monstrous Giant% named Galigantus%
,

'ho !y the hel of an old &onIuror !etrays many )nights and ladies into this
strong &astleG 'here !y ?agi&) Art they are transformed into sundry shaes
and forms; /ut a!o.e all% I lament the sad misfortune of a Du)eDs Daughter
'hom they fet&hDd from her fatherDs garden !y Art% &arrying her through the
air in a mourning &hariot% dra'n as it 'ere !y t'o fiery dragons% and !eing
se&ured 'ithin the 'alls of the &astle% she 'as immediately transformed into
, This name is Gaigant#s in the Shre's!ury &ha!oo) and Gaigant#s in
Halli'ellDs trans&rition of the ,0,, Ne'&astle &ha!oo)( Is there any
relationshi !et'een this name and that of Galaas from ?aloryDs !orte
/arth#r% 'ho Arthur )ills and 'hose method of disat&h may ha.e !een
!orro'ed earlier in the taleB

,31
the real shae of a 'hite Hind; thoD many 'orthy )nights ha.e endea.oured
to !rea) the in&hantment% and 'or) her deli.eran&e% yet none of them &ould
a&&omlish this great 'or)% !y reason of t'o dreadful Griffins 'ho 'ere
fi>Dd !y magi&) art at the entran&e of the &astle gateG 'hi&h destroys any as
soon as they see them(
,
/ut you my son% !eing furnished 'ith an in.isi!le
&oat% may ass !y them undis&o.ered( 4hereuon the !ra6en gates of the
&astle you find engra.en in large &hara&ters% !y 'hat means the in&hantment
may !e !ro)en(
This old man ha.ing ended his dis&ourse% 7a&) ga.e him his hand% 'ith a
faithful romise% that in the morning he 'ould .enture his life to !rea) the
in&hantment% and free the lady% together 'ith the rest that 'ere misera!le
artners in her &alamity(
How Jack got into the inchanted %aste, broke the inchant+ent, kied the Giant, &#t the
conP#ror to fight, set free the Knights, and 9adies, 0c.
HASING refreshed themsel.es 'ith a small morsal of meat they laid them
do'n to rest% and in the morning 7a&) arose and ut on his in.isi!le &oat%
his &a of )no'ledge% and shoes of s'iftness% and so reares himself for
the dangerous enterrise(
No' 'hen he had as&ended to the to of the mountain% he soon
dis&o.ered the t'o fiery GriffinsG he assed on !et'een them 'ithout fear%
for they &ould not see him !y reason of his in.isi!le &oat; no' 'hen he 'as
yet !eyond them% he &ast his eyes around him% 'here he found uon the
gate a golden trumet% hang in a &hain of fine sil.er% under 'hi&h these lines
'ere engra.en(
4hosoe.er shall this trumet !lo'(
Shall soon the Giant o.erthro'%
And !rea) the !la&) in&hantment straight%
So all shall !e in hay state(
7a&) had no sooner read this ins&rition !ut he !le' the trumet% at
'hi&h time the .ast foundation of the &astle trem!led% and the Giant%
together 'ith the &onIuror% 'as in horrid &onfusion% !iting their thum!s and
tearing their hair% )no'ing that their 'i&)ed reign 'as at an end( At 'hi&h
time 7a&) standing at the GiantDs el!o' as he 'as stooing to ta)e u his
&lu!% he at one !lo' 'ith his s'ord of sharness% &ut ofNfO his head( The
&onIuror% seeing this% immediately mounted into the air% and 'as &arried
a'ay in a 'hirl'ind( Thus 'as the 'hole in&hantment !ro)e and e.ery
)night and lady 'ho had !een for a long time transformed into !irds% and
!easts% returned to their roer shaes againG and as for the &astle thoD it
, Sooner% C7a&) and TomD% ( ,#0 notes that a C&onIurorD 'ho a!du&ts a rin&ess
to his &astle aears in PeeleDs 6d <ives Tae% again suggesting the ossi!ility of
some influen&e from this lay on 7a&)Ds History(
,32
seemed at first to !e of a .ast strength and !igness it .anished a'ay li)e a
&loud of smo)eG 'hereuon an uni.ersal Ioy aeared among the released
)nights and ladies( This !eing done% the head of Galligantus 'as li)e'ise
<a&&ording to his a&&ustomed mannerN=O &on.eyed to the &ourt of 9ing
Arthur as a resent made to his ?aIesty( The .ery ne>t day after ha.ing
refreshed the )nights and ladies at the old manDs ha!itation% 'ho li.ed at the
foot of the mountain% he set for'ard for the &ourt of 9ing Arthur% 'ith
those )nights and ladies 'hi&h he had so honoura!ly deli.ered(
4hen &oming to his ?aIesty% and ha.ing related all the assages of his
fier&e en&ounters% and his fame run throD the 'hole &ourtG and as a re'ard
of his good ser.i&e% the 9ing re.ailed 'ith the aforesaid Du)e to he
!esto' his daughter in marriage to honest 7a&) rotesting that there 'as no
man so 'orthy of her as heG to all 'hi&h the Du)e .ery honoura!ly
&onsented; So married they 'ere% and not only the &ourt% !ut li)e'ise the
)ingdom 'as filled 'ith Ioy and triumh at the 'edding( After 'hi&h the
)ing as a re'ard for his good ser.i&es done to the nation% !esto'ed uon
him a no!le ha!itation% 'ith a .ery lentiful estate !elonging thereunto%
'here he and his lady li.ed the remainder of their days in ea&e(
,
F I N I S(
, Later .ersions add here that CHis 'ife and his &hildren 'ere )ind% J Friends
la&e him in great relian&eG J His !oys 'ere at &ollege refined% J His girls told
the tale of the giantsD E see ( ,-"(

,33
The ,0,, Te>t of The History of Jack and
the Giants
Introduction
7ames Or&hard Halli'ell <later Halli'ell8Phillis= trans&ri!ed% C'ith a fe'
ne&essary alterationsD% the earliest sur.i.ing .ersion of The History of Jack and
the Giants(
,
The original of this 'as rinted at Ne'&astle8on8Tyne in ,0,,%
three years after the .ery first re&orded referen&e to 7a&)G as su&h it
&onstitutes our earliest 'itness to 7a&)( Mnfortunately% the ,0,, &ha!oo)
has long8sin&e !een lost and Halli'ellDs trans&rit is modernised throughout%
a!!re.iated in la&es% and !o'dlerised 'here the a&tion !e&omes gruesome(
As a result% later deri.ati.es of the original &ha!oo) are usually relied uon
for detailed analysis( Nonetheless% Halli'ellDs te>t is .alua!le in and of itself(
It is thus resented &omlete% to allo' &omarison 'ith the unaltered
&ha!oo) te>t ro.ided a!o.e(
Te,t
In the reign of 9ing Arthur% and in the &ounty of +orn'all% near to the
LandDs End of England% there li.ed a 'ealthy farmer% 'ho had an only son
named 7a&)( He 'as !ris)% and of a li.ely ready 'it% so that 'hate.er he
&ould not erform !y for&e and strength% he a&&omlished !y ingenious 'it
and oli&y( Ne.er 'as any erson heard of that &ould 'orst him% and he
.ery often e.en !affled the learned !y his shar and ready in.entions(
In those days the ?ount of +orn'all 'as )et !y a huge and monstrous
giant of eighteen feet in height% and a!out three yards in &omass% of a fier&e
and grim &ountenan&e% the terror of all the neigh!ouring to'ns and .illages(
He inha!ited a &a.e in the middle of the mount% and he 'as su&h a selfish
monster that he 'ould not suffer any one to li.e near him( He fed on other
menDs &attle% 'hi&h often !e&ame his rey% for 'hensoe.er he 'anted food%
he 'ould 'ade o.er to the main land% 'here he 'ould furnish himself 'ith
'hate.er &ame in his 'ay( The inha!itants% at his aroa&h% forsoo) their
, 7( O( Halli'ell% Po&#ar -hy+es and ,#rsery Taes of Engand <London; 7ohn Russell
Smith% ,-1$=% ( 2083$(
,30
ha!itations% 'hile he sei6ed on their &attle% ma)ing nothing of &arrying half8
a8do6en o>en on his !a&) at a timeG and as for their shee and hogs% he
'ould tie them round his 'aist li)e a !un&h of !andoleers( This &ourse he
had follo'ed for many years% so that a great art of the &ounty 'as
imo.erished !y his deredations(
This 'as the state of affairs% 'hen 7a&)% haening one day to !e resent
at the to'n8hall 'hen the authorities 'ere &onsulting a!out the giant% had
the &uriosity to as) 'hat re'ard 'ould !e gi.en to the erson 'ho
destroyed him( The giantDs treasure 'as de&lared as the re&omense% and
7a&) at on&e undertoo) the tas)(
In order to a&&omlish his urose% he furnished himself 'ith a horn%
sho.el% and i&)a>e% and 'ent o.er to the ?ount in the !eginning of a dar)
'interDs e.ening% 'hen he fell to 'or)% and !efore morning had dug a it
t'enty8t'o feet dee% and nearly as !road% &o.ering it o.er 'ith long sti&)s
and stra'( Then stre'ing a little mould uon it% it aeared li)e lain
ground( This a&&omlished% 7a&) la&ed himself on the side of the it 'hi&h
'as furthest from the giantDs lodging% and% Iust at the !rea) of day% he ut
the horn to his mouth% and !le' 'ith all his might( Although 7a&) 'as a
little fello'% and the o'ers of his .oi&e are not des&ri!ed as !eing .ery
great% he managed to ma)e noise enough to arouse the giant% and e>&ite his
indignation( The monster a&&ordingly rushed from his &a.e% e>&laiming%
PKou in&orrigi!le .illain% are you &ome here to distur! my restB Kou shall
ay dearly for this( Satisfa&tion I 'ill ha.e% for I 'ill ta)e you 'hole and
!roil you for !rea)fast(Q He had no sooner uttered this &ruel threat% than
tum!ling into the it% he made the .ery foundations of the ?ount ring
again( POh% giant%Q said 7a&)% P'here are you no'B Oh faith% you are gotten
no' into Lo!Ds Pound% 'here I 'ill surely lague you for your threatening
'ords; 'hat do you thin) no' of !roiling me for your !rea)fastB 'ill no
other diet ser.e you !ut oor 7a&)BQ Thus did little 7a&) tantali6e the !ig
giant% as a &at does a mouse 'hen she )no's it &annot es&ae% and 'hen he
had tired of that amusement% he ga.e him a hea.y !lo' 'ith his i&)a>e on
the .ery &ro'n of his head% 'hi&h Ptum!led him do'n%Q and )illed him on
the sot( 4hen 7a&) sa' he 'as dead% he filled u the it 'ith earth% and
'ent to sear&h the &a.e% 'hi&h he found &ontained mu&h treasure( The
magistrates% in the e>u!eran&e of their Ioy% did not add to 7a&)Ds gains from
their o'n% !ut after the !est and &heaest mode of ayment% made a
de&laration he should hen&eforth !e termed Jack the Giant'kier% and
resented him 'ith a s'ord and em!roidered !elt% on the latter of 'hi&h
'ere ins&ri!ed these 'ords in letters of gold;
HereDs the right .aliant +ornish man%
4ho sle' the giant +ormelian(

,3-
The ne's of 7a&)Ds .i&tory% as might !e e>e&ted% soon sread o.er all
the 4est of England% so that another giant% named Thunder!ore% hearing of
it% and entertaining a artiality for his ra&e% .o'ed to !e re.enged on the
little hero% if e.er it 'as his fortune to light on him( This giant 'as the lord
of an en&hanted &astle% situated in the midst of a lonely 'ood( No' 7a&)%
a!out four months after his last e>loit% 'al)ing near this &astle in his
Iourney to'ards 4ales% !eing 'eary% seated himself near a leasant fountain
in the 'ood% PoDer&anoied 'ith lus&ious 'ood!ine%Q and resently fell
aslee( 4hile he 'as enIoying his reose% the giant% &oming to the fountain
for 'ater% of &ourse dis&o.ered him% and re&ognised the hated indi.idual !y
the lines 'ritten on the !elt( He immediately too) 7a&) on his shoulders%
and &arried him to'ards his en&hanted &astle( No'% as they assed through
a thi&)et% the rustling of the !oughs a'a)ened 7a&)% 'ho 'as un&omforta!ly
surrised to find himself in the &lut&hes of the giant( His terror 'as not
diminished 'hen% on entering the &astle% he sa' the &ourt8yard stre'ed 'ith
human !ones% the giant mali&iously telling him his o'n 'ould ere long
in&rease the hateful ile( After this assuran&e% the &anni!al lo&)ed oor 7a&)
in an uer &ham!er% lea.ing him there 'hile he 'ent to fet&h another giant
li.ing in the same 'ood to )ee him &omany in the anti&iated destru&tion
of their enemy( 4hile he 'as gone% dreadful shrie)s and lamentations
affrighted 7a&)% ese&ially a .oi&e 'hi&h &ontinually &ried%c
Do 'hat you &an to get a'ay%
Or youDll !e&ome the giantDs reyG
HeDs gone to fet&h his !rother% 'ho
4ill )ill% and li)e'ise torture you(
This 'arning% and the hideous tone in 'hi&h it 'as deli.ered% almost
distra&ted oor 7a&)% 'ho going to the 'indo'% and oening a &asement%
!eheld afar off the t'o giants aroa&hing to'ards the &astle( PNo'%Q
Auoth 7a&) to himself% Pmy death or my deli.eran&e is at hand(Q The e.ent
ro.ed that his anti&iations 'ere 'ell founded% for the giants of those days%
ho'e.er o'erful% 'ere at !est .ery stuid fello's% and readily &onAuered
!y stratagem% 'ere it of the hum!lest )ind( There haened to !e strong
&ords in the room in 'hi&h 7a&) 'as &onfined% t'o of 'hi&h he too)% and
made a strong noose at the end of ea&hG and 'hile the giant 'as unlo&)ing
the iron gate of the &astle% he thre' the roes o.er ea&h of their heads% and
then% !efore the giants )ne' 'hat he 'as a!out% he dre' the other ends
a&ross a !eam% and% ulling 'ith all his might% throttled them till they 'ere
!la&) in the fa&e( Then% sliding do'n the roe% he &ame to their heads% and
as they &ould not defend themsel.es% easily desat&hed them 'ith his s'ord(
This !usiness so adroitly a&&omlished% 7a&) released the fair risoners in
the &astle% deli.ered the )eys to them% and% li)e a true )night8errant%
,3$
&ontinued his Iourney 'ithout &ondes&ending to imro.e the &ondition of
his urse(
This lan% ho'e.er honoura!le% 'as not 'ithout its disad.antages% and
o'ing to his slender sto&) of money% he 'as o!liged to ma)e the !est of his
'ay !y tra.elling as hard as he &ould( At length% losing his road% he 'as
!elated% and &ould not get to any la&e of entertainment until% &oming to a
lonesome .alley% he found a large house% and !y reason of his resent
ne&essity% too) &ourage to )no&) at the gate( /ut 'hat 'as his astonishment%
'hen there &ame forth a monstrous giant 'ith t'o headsG yet he did not
aear so fiery as the others 'ere% for he 'as a 4elsh giant% and 'hat he did
'as !y ri.ate and se&ret mali&e under the false sho' of friendshi( 7a&)
ha.ing unfolded his &ondition to the giant% 'as sho'n into a !edroom%
'here% in the dead of night% he heard his host in another aartment uttering
these formida!le 'ords;
Though here you lodge 'ith me this night%
Kou shall not see the morning light;
?y &lu! shall dash your !rains out AuiteV
PSayDst thou so%Q Auoth 7a&)G Pthat is li)e one of your 4elsh tri&)s% yet I
hoe to !e &unning enough for you(Q He immediately got out of !ed% and%
feeling a!out in the dar)% found a thi&) !illet of 'ood% 'hi&h he laid in the
!ed in his stead% and hid himself in a dar) &orner of the room( Shortly after
he had done so% in &ame the 4elsh giant% 'ho thoroughly ummelled the
!illet 'ith his &lu!% thin)ing% naturally enough% he had !ro)en e.ery !one in
7a&)Ds s)in( The ne>t morning% ho'e.er% to the ine>ressi!le surrise of the
giant% 7a&) &ame do'n stairs as if nothing had haened% and ga.e him
than)s for his nightDs lodging( PHo' ha.e you rested%Q Auoth the giantG Pdid
you not feel anything in the nightBQ 7a&) ro.o)ingly relied% PNo% nothing
!ut a rat 'hi&h ga.e me t'o or three flas 'ith her tail(Q This rely 'as
totally in&omrehensi!le to the giant% 'ho of &ourse sa' anything !ut a Io)e
in it( Ho'e.er% &on&ealing his ama6ement as 'ell as he &ould% he too) 7a&)
in to !rea)fast% assigning to ea&h a !o'l &ontaining four gallons of hasty
udding( One 'ould ha.e thought that the greater ortion of so e>tra.agant
an allo'an&e 'ould ha.e !een de&lined !y our hero% !ut he 'as un'illing
the giant should imagine his in&aa!ility to eat it% and a&&ordingly la&ed a
large leather !ag under his loose &oat% in su&h a osition that he &ould
&on.ey the udding into it 'ithout the de&etion !eing er&ei.ed( /rea)fast
at length !eing finished% 7a&) e>&ited the giantDs &uriosity !y offering to
sho' him an e>traordinary sleight of handG so ta)ing a )nife% he ried the
leather !ag% and out of &ourse des&ended on the ground all the hasty
udding( The giant had not the slightest susi&ion of the tri&)% .erita!ly
!elie.ing the udding &ame from its natural re&eta&leG and ha.ing the same

,0#
antiathy to !eing !eaten% e>&laimed in true 4elsh% POdds slutter% hur &an
do that tri&) hurself(Q The seAuel may !e readily guessed( The monster too)
the )nife% and thin)ing to follo' 7a&)Ds e>amle 'ith imunity% )illed
himself on the sot(
9ing ArthurDs only son reAuested his father to furnish him 'ith a large
sum of money% in order that he might go and see) his fortune in the
rin&iality of 4ales% 'here li.ed a !eautiful lady ossessed 'ith se.en e.il
sirits( The )ing tried all he &ould do to ersuade him to alter his
determination% !ut it 'as all in .ain% so at last he granted his reAuest% and the
rin&e set out 'ith t'o horses% one loaded 'ith money% the other for
himself to ride uon( No'% after se.eral daysD tra.el% he &ame to a mar)et8
to'n in 4ales% 'here he !eheld a .ast &on&ourse of eole gathered
together( The rin&e demanded the reason of it% and 'as told that they had
arrested a &orse for se.eral large sums of money 'hi&h the de&eased o'ed
'hen he died( The rin&e relied that it 'as a ity &reditors should !e so
&ruel% and said% PGo !ury the dead% and let his &reditors &ome to my lodging%
and there their de!ts shall !e dis&harged(Q They a&&ordingly &ame% !ut in
su&h great num!ers% that !efore night he had almost left himself enniless(
No' 7a&) the Giant8)iller haened to !e in the to'n 'hile these
transa&tions too) la&e% and he 'as so leased 'ith the generosity e>hi!ited
!y the rin&e% that he offered to !e&ome his ser.ant% an offer 'hi&h 'as
immediately a&&eted( The ne>t morning they set for'ard on their Iourney%
'hen% as they 'ere Iust lea.ing the to'n% an old 'oman &alled after the
rin&e% saying% PHe has o'ed me t'oen&e these se.en yearsG ray ay me
as 'ell as the rest(Q So reasona!le and urgent a demand &ould not !e
resisted% and the rin&e immediately dis&harged the de!t% !ut it too) the last
enny he had to a&&omlish it( This e.ent% though generally ridi&uled !y
heroes% 'as one !y no means o.erloo)ed !y the rin&e% 'ho reAuired all
7a&)Ds assuring eloAuen&e to &onsole him( 7a&) himself% indeed% had a .ery
oor e>&heAuer% and after their dayDs refreshment% they 'ere entirely
'ithout money( 4hen night dre' on% the rin&e 'as an>ious to se&ure a
lodging% !ut as they had no means to hire one% 7a&) said% PNe.er mind%
master% 'e shall do 'ell enough% for I ha.e an un&le li.es 'ithin t'o miles
of this la&eG he is a huge and monstrous giant 'ith three headsG heDll fight
fi.e hundred men in armour% and ma)e them flee !efore him(Q PAlasVQ
Auoth the rin&e% P'hat shall 'e do thereB HeDll &ertainly &ho us u at a
mouthful( Nay% 'e are s&ar&e enough to fill his hollo' toothVQ PIt is no
matter for that%Q Auoth 7a&)G PI myself 'ill go !efore% and reare the 'ay
for youG therefore tarry and 'ait till I return(Q 7a&) then rides off full seed%
and &oming to the gate of the &astle% he )no&)ed so loud that the
neigh!ouring hills resounded li)e thunder( The giant% terri!ly .e>ed 'ith the
li!erty ta)en !y 7a&)% roared out% P4hoDs thereBQ He 'as ans'ered% PNone
!ut your oor &ousin 7a&)(Q @uoth he% P4hat ne's 'ith my oor &ousin
,0,
7a&)BQ He relied% PDear un&le% hea.y ne's(Q PGod 'ot%Q Auoth the giant%
Prithee 'hat hea.y ne's &an &ome to meB I am a giant 'ith three heads%
and !esides thou )no'est I &an fight fi.e hundred men in armour% and
ma)e them fly li)e &haff !efore the 'ind(Q POh% !ut%Q Auoth 7a&)% PhereDs
the rin&e a8&oming 'ith a thousand men in armour to )ill you% and destroy
all that you ha.eVQ POh% &ousin 7a&)%Q said the giant% Pthis is hea.y ne's
indeedV I 'ill immediately run and hide myself% and thou shalt lo&)% !olt%
and !ar me in% and )ee the )eys till the rin&e is gone(Q 7a&) Ioyfully
&omlied 'ith the giantDs reAuest% and fet&hing his master% they feasted and
made themsel.es merry 'hilst the oor giant laid trem!ling in a .ault under
ground(
In the morning% 7a&) furnished the rin&e 'ith a fresh suly of gold
and sil.er% and then sent him three miles for'ard on his Iourney%
&on&luding% a&&ording to the story8!oo)% Phe 'as then retty 'ell out of the
smell of the giant(Q 7a&) after'ards returned% and li!erated the giant from
the .ault% 'ho as)ed 'hat he should gi.e him for reser.ing the &astle from
destru&tion( P4hy%Q Auoth 7a&)% PI desire nothing !ut the old &oat and &a%
together 'ith the old rusty s'ord and sliers 'hi&h are at your !edDs
head(Q @uoth the giant% PThou shalt ha.e them% and ray )ee them for my
sa)e% for they are things of e>&ellent useG the &oat 'ill )ee you in.isi!le% the
&a 'ill furnish you 'ith )no'ledge% the s'ord &uts asunder 'hate.er you
stri)e% and the shoes are of e>traordinary s'iftness( These may !e
ser.i&ea!le to you; therefore ta)e them 'ith all my heart(Q
7a&) 'as delighted 'ith these useful resents% and ha.ing o.erta)en his
master% they Aui&)ly arri.ed at the ladyDs house% 'ho% finding the rin&e to
!e a suitor% reared a slendid !anAuet for him( After the reast 'as
&on&luded% she 'ied his mouth 'ith a hand)er&hief% and then &on&ealed it
in her dress% saying% PKou must sho' me that hand)er&hief to8morro'
morning% or else you 'ill lose your head(Q The rin&e 'ent to !ed in great
sorro' at this hard &ondition% !ut fortunately 7a&)Ds &a of )no'ledge
instru&ted him ho' it 'as to !e fulfilled( In the middle of the night she
&alled uon her familiar to &arry her to the e.il sirit( 7a&) immediately ut
on his &oat of dar)ness% and his shoes of s'iftness% and 'as there !efore
her% his &oat rendering him in.isi!le( 4hen she entered the lo'er regions%
she ga.e the hand)er&hief to the sirit% 'ho laid it uon a shelf% 'hen&e
7a&) too) it% and !rought it to his master% 'ho sho'ed it to the lady the ne>t
day% and so sa.ed his life( The ne>t e.ening at suer she saluted the rin&e%
telling him he must sho' her the lis tomorro' morning that she )issed last
this night% or lose his head( He relied% PIf you )iss none !ut mine% I 'ill(Q
PThat is neither here nor there%Q said she% Pif you do not% death is your
ortionVQ At midnight she 'ent !elo' as !efore% and 'as angry 'ith the
sirit for letting the hand)er&hief go; P/ut no'%Q Auoth she% PI 'ill !e too
hard for the rin&e% for I 'ill )iss thee% and he is to sho' me thy lis(Q She
did so% and 7a&)% 'ho 'as standing !y% &ut off the siritDs head% and !rought

,0"
it under his in.isi!le &oat to his master% 'ho rodu&ed it triumhantly the
ne>t morning !efore the lady( This feat destroyed the en&hantment% the e.il
sirits immediately forsoo) her% and she aeared still more s'eet and
lo.ely% !eautiful as she 'as !efore( They 'ere married the ne>t morning%
and shortly after'ards 'ent to the &ourt of 9ing Arthur% 'here 7a&)% for his
eminent ser.i&es% 'as &reated one of the )nights of the Round Ta!le(
Our hero% ha.ing !een su&&essful in all his underta)ings% and resol.ing
not to remain idle% !ut to erform 'hat ser.i&es he &ould for the honour of
his &ountry% hum!ly !esought his maIesty to fit him out 'ith a horse and
money to ena!le him to tra.el in sear&h of ne' ad.enturesG for% said he%
Pthere are many giants yet li.ing in the remote art of 4ales% to the
unsea)a!le damage of your maIestyDs su!Ie&tsG 'herefore may it lease you
to en&ourage me% I do not dou!t !ut in a short time to &ut them off root
and !ran&h% and so rid all the realm of those giants and monsters in human
shae(Q 4e need s&ar&ely say that 7a&)Ds generous offer 'as at on&e
a&&eted( The )ing furnished him 'ith the ne&essary a&&outrements% and
7a&) set out 'ith his magi&al &a% s'ord% and shoes% the !etter to erform
the dangerous enterrises 'hi&h no' lay !efore him(
After tra.elling o.er se.eral hills and mountains% the &ountry through
'hi&h he assed offering many imediments to tra.ellers% on the third day
he arri.ed at a .ery large 'ood% 'hi&h he had no sooner entered than his
ears 'ere assailed 'ith ier&ing shrie)s( Ad.an&ing softly to'ards the la&e
'here the &ries aeared to ro&eed from% he 'as horror8stru&) at
er&ei.ing a huge giant dragging along a fair lady% and a )night her hus!and%
!y the hair of their heads% P'ith as mu&h ease%Q says the original narrati.e%
Pas if they had !een a air of glo.es(Q 7a&) shed tears of ity on the fate of
this haless &oule% !ut not suffering his feelings to render him negle&tful of
a&tion% he ut on his in.isi!le &oat% and ta)ing 'ith him his infalli!le s'ord%
su&&eeded% after &onsidera!le trou!le% and many &uts% to desat&h the
monster% 'hose dying groans 'ere so terri!le% that they made the 'hole
'ood ring again( The &ourteous )night and his fair lady 'ere o.ero'ered
'ith gratitude% and% after returning 7a&) their !est than)s% they in.ited him
to their residen&e% there to re&ruit his strength after the frightful en&ounter%
and re&ei.e more su!stantial demonstrations of their o!ligations to him(
7a&)% ho'e.er% de&lared that he 'ould not rest until he had found out the
giantDs ha!itation( The )night% on hearing his determination% 'as .ery
sorro'ful% and relied% PNo!le stranger% it is too mu&h to run a se&ond
ha6ard; this monster li.ed in a den under yonder mountain% 'ith a !rother
more fier&e and &ruel than himself( Therefore% if you should go thither% and
erish in the attemt% it 'ould !e a heart8!rea)ing to me and my lady; let
me ersuade you to go 'ith us% and desist from any further ursuit(Q The
)nightDs reasoning had the .ery oosite effe&t that 'as intended% for 7a&)%
hearing of another giant% eagerly em!ra&ed the oortunity of dislaying his
,05
s)ill% romising% ho'e.er% to return to the )night 'hen he had a&&omlished
his se&ond la!our(
He had not ridden more than a mile and a half% 'hen the &a.e
mentioned !y the )night aeared to .ie'% near the entran&e of 'hi&h he
!eheld the giant% sitting uon a !lo&) of tim!er% 'ith a )notted iron &lu! !y
his side% 'aiting% as he suosed% for his !rotherDs return 'ith his !ar!arous
rey( This giant is des&ri!ed as ha.ing Pgoggle eyes li)e flames of fire% a
&ountenan&e grim and ugly% &hee)s li)e a &oule of large flit&hes of !a&on%
the !ristles of his !eard resem!ling rods of iron 'ire% and lo&)s that hung
do'n uon his !ra'ny shoulders li)e &urled sna)es or hissing adders(Q 7a&)
alighted from his horse% and utting on the in.isi!le &oat% aroa&hed near
the giant% and said softly% POhV are you thereB it 'ill not !e long ere I shall
ta)e you fast !y the !eard(Q The giant all this 'hile &ould not see him% on
a&&ount of his in.isi!le &oat% so that 7a&)% &oming u &lose to the monster%
stru&) a !lo' 'ith his s'ord at his head% !ut unfortunately missing his aim%
he &ut off the nose instead( The giant% as 'e may suose% Proared li)e &las
of thunder%Q and !egan to lay a!out him in all dire&tions 'ith his iron &lu!
so deserately% that e.en 7a&) 'as frightened% !ut e>er&ising his usual
ingenuity% he soon desat&hed him( After this% 7a&) &ut off the giantDs head%
and sent it% together 'ith that of his !rother% to 9ing Arthur% !y a 'aggoner
he hired for that urose% 'ho ga.e an a&&ount of all his 'onderful
ro&eedings(
The redou!ta!le 7a&) ne>t ro&eeded to sear&h the giantDs &a.e in sear&h
of his treasure% and assing along through a great many 'inding assages% he
&ame at length to a large room a.ed 'ith freestone% at the uer end of
'hi&h 'as a !oiling &aldron% and on the right hand a large ta!le% at 'hi&h
the giants usually dined( After assing this dining8room% he &ame to a large
and 'ell8se&ured den filled 'ith human &ati.es% 'ho 'ere fattened and
ta)en at inter.als for food% as 'e do oultry( 7a&) set the oor risoners at
li!erty% and% to &omensate them for their sufferings and dreadful
anti&iations% shared the giantDs treasure eAually amongst them% and sent
them to their homes o.erIoyed at their une>e&ted deli.eran&e(
It 'as a!out sunrise 'hen 7a&)% after the &on&lusion of this ad.enture%
ha.ing had a good nightDs rest% mounted his horse to ro&eed on his
Iourney% and% !y the hel of dire&tions% rea&hed the )nightDs house a!out
noon( He 'as re&ei.ed 'ith the most e>traordinary demonstrations of Ioy%
and his )ind host% out of rese&t to 7a&)% reared a feast 'hi&h lasted many
days% all the no!ility and gentry in the neigh!ourhood !eing in.ited to it(
The )night related the heroDs ad.entures to his assem!led guests% and
resented him 'ith a !eautiful ring% on 'hi&h 'as engra.ed a reresentation
of the giant dragging the distressed )night and his lady% 'ith this motto;
4e 'ere in sad distress you see%

,01
Mnder the giantDs fier&e &ommand%
/ut gainDd our li.es and li!erty
/y .aliant 7a&)Ds .i&torious hand(
/ut earthly hainess is not generally of long duration% and so in some
rese&ts it ro.ed on the resent o&&asion% for in the midst of the festi.ities
arri.ed a messenger 'ith the dismal intelligen&e that one Thunderdell% a
giant 'ith t'o heads% ha.ing heard of the death of his t'o )insmen% &ame
from the north to !e re.enged on 7a&)% and 'as already 'ithin a mile of the
)nightDs house% the &ountry eole flying !efore him in all dire&tions( The
intelligen&e had no effe&t on the dauntless 7a&)% 'ho immediately said% PLet
him &omeV I ha.e a tool to i&) his teethGQ and 'ith this elegant assertion%
he in.ited the guests to 'itness his erforman&e from a high terra&e in the
garden of the &astle(
It is no' ne&essary to inform the reader that the )nightDs house or &astle
'as situated in an island en&omassed 'ith a moat thirty feet dee% and
t'enty feet 'ide% assa!le !y a dra'!ridge( No' 7a&)% intending to
a&&omlish his urose !y a &le.er stratagem% emloyed men to &ut through
this dra'!ridge on !oth sides nearly to the middleG and then% dressing
himself in his in.isi!le &oat% he mar&hed against the giant 'ith his 'ell8tried
s'ord( As he aroa&hed his ad.ersary% although in.isi!le% the giant% !eing%
as it aears% an ei&ure in su&h matters% 'as a'are of his aroa&h% and
e>&laimed% in a fearful tone of .oi&ec
Fi% fee% fo% fumV
I smell the !lood of an English manV
/e he ali.e or !e he dead%
IDll grind his !ones to ma)e me !readV
PSay you so%Q said 7a&)G Pthen you are a monstrous miller indeed(Q The
giant% deely in&ensed% relied% PArt thou that .illain 'ho )illed my
)insmanB then I 'ill tear thee 'ith my teeth% and grind thy !ones to
o'der(Q P/ut%Q says 7a&)% still ro.o)ing him% Pyou must &at&h me first% if
you lease;Q so utting aside his in.isi!le &oat% so that the giant might see
him% and utting on his 'onderful shoes% he enti&ed him into a &hase !y Iust
aroa&hing near enough to gi.e him an aarent &han&e of &ature( The
giant% 'e are told% Pfollo'ed li)e a 'al)ing &astle% so that the .ery
foundations of the earth seemed to sha)e at e.ery ste(Q 7a&) led him a
good distan&e% in order that the 'ondering guests at the &astle might see
him to ad.antage% !ut at last% to end the matter% he ran o.er the dra'!ridge%
the giant ursuing him 'ith his &lu!G !ut &oming to the la&e 'here the
!ridge 'as &ut% the giantDs great 'eight !urst it asunder% and he 'as
re&iitated into the moat% 'here he rolled a!out% says the author% Pli)e a
,02
.ast 'hale(Q 4hile the monster 'as in this &ondition% 7a&) sadly !antered
him a!out the !oast he had made of grinding his !ones to o'der% !ut at
length% ha.ing teased him suffi&iently% a &art8roe 'as &ast o.er the t'o
heads of the giant% and he 'as dra'n ashore !y a team of horses% 'here 7a&)
ser.ed him as he had done his relati.es% &ut off his heads% and sent them to
9ing Arthur(
It 'ould seem that the giant8)iller rested a short time after this
ad.enture% !ut he 'as soon tired of ina&ti.ity% and again 'ent in sear&h of
another giant% the last 'hose head he 'as destined to &ho off( After
assing a long distan&e% he &ame at length to a large mountain% at the foot of
'hi&h 'as a .ery lonely house( 9no&)ing at the door% it 'as oened !y Pan
an&ient man% 'ith a head as 'hite as sno'%Q 'ho re&ei.ed 7a&) .ery
&ourteously% and at on&e &onsented to his reAuest for a lodging( 4hilst they
'ere at suer% the old man% 'ho aears to ha.e )no'n more than 'as
suse&ted% thus addressed the hero; PSon% I am sensi!le you are a &onAueror
of giants% and I therefore inform you that on the to of this mountain is an
en&hanted &astle% maintained !y a giant named Galligantus% 'ho% !y the hel
of a &onIuror% gets many )nights into his &astle% 'here they are transformed
into sundry shaes and forms; !ut% a!o.e all% I ese&ially lament a du)eDs
daughter% 'hom they too) from her fatherDs garden% !ringing her through
the air in a &hariot dra'n !y fiery dragons% and se&uring her 'ithin the &astle
'alls% transformed her into the shae of a hind( No'% though a great many
)nights ha.e endea.oured to !rea) the en&hantment% and 'or) her
deli.eran&e% yet no one has !een a!le to a&&omlish it% on a&&ount of t'o
fiery griffins 'hi&h are la&ed at the gate% and 'hi&h destroyed them at their
aroa&hG !ut you% my son% !eing furnished 'ith an in.isi!le &oat% may ass
!y them undis&o.ered% and on the gates of the &astle you 'ill find engra.en
in large &hara&ters !y 'hat means the en&hantment may !e !ro)en(Q The
undaunted 7a&) at on&e a&&eted the &ommission% and ledged his faith to
the old man to ro&eed early in the morning on this ne' ad.enture(
In the morning% as soon as it 'as daylight% 7a&) ut on his in.isi!le &oat%
and reared himself for the enterrise( 4hen he had rea&hed the to of
the mountain% he dis&o.ered the t'o fiery griffins% !ut% !eing in.isi!le% he
assed them 'ithout the slightest danger( 4hen he had rea&hed the gate of
the &astle% he noti&ed a golden trumet atta&hed to it% under 'hi&h 'ere
'ritten in large &hara&ters the follo'ing lines;
4hoe.er doth this trumet !lo'%
Shall soon the giant o.erthro'%
And !rea) the !la&) en&hantment straight%
So all shall !e in hay state(
7a&) at on&e a&&eted the &hallenge% and utting the trumet to his

,03
mouth% ga.e a !last that made the hill re8e&ho( The &astle trem!led to its
foundations% and the giant and &onIuror 'ere o.erstri&)en 'ith fear%
)no'ing that the reign of their en&hantments 'as at an end( The former
'as seedily slain !y 7a&)% !ut the &onIuror% mounting u into the air% 'as
&arried a'ay in a 'hirl'ind% and ne.er heard of more( The en&hantments
'ere immediately !ro)en% and all the lords and ladies% 'ho had so long !een
&ruelly transformed% 'ere standing on the nati.e earth in their natural
shaes% the &astle ha.ing .anished 'ith the &onIuror(
The only reli& of the giant 'hi&h 'as left 'as the head% 'hi&h 7a&) &ut
off in the first instan&e% and 'hi&h 'e must suose rolled a'ay from the
influen&e of the en&hanted &astle% or it 'ould ha.e P.anished into this airQ
'ith the !ody( It 'as fortunate that it did so% for it ro.ed an inestima!le
trohy at the &ourt of 9ing Arthur% 'here 7a&) the Giant8)iller 'as shortly
after'ards united to the du)eDs daughter 'hom he had freed from
en&hantment% Pnot only to the Ioy of the &ourt% !ut of all the )ingdom(Q To
&omlete his hainess% he 'as endo'ed 'ith a no!le house and estates%
and his &enchant for giant8)illing ha.ing su!sided% or% 'hat is more ro!a!le%
no more monsters aearing to interrut his tranAuillity% he a&&omlished
the usual &on&lusion to these romanti& narrati.es% !y assing the remainder
of his life in the enIoyment of e.ery domesti& feli&ity(
,00
Jack the Giant Kier; a c( ,-"# Penny /oo)
Introduction
This short !oo)% u!lished in /an!ury around ,-"# !y 7ohn Gol!y Rusher
<a leading rodu&er of &ha!oo)s=% ro.ides a good illustration of the later
oular .ersions of this tale( The !oo) itself is housed E as a single un&ut
sheet E in the de Grummond +hildrenDs Literature Resear&h +olle&tion at
the Mni.ersity of Southern ?ississii(
,

Te,t
9ind Reader% 7a&) ma)es you a !o'%
The hero of giants the dreadG
4hom )ing and the rin&es alaud
For .alour% 'hen&e tyranny fled(
In +orn'all% on Saint ?i&haelDs ?ount%
A giant full eighteen feet high%
Nine feet round% in &a.ern did d'ell%
For food &leared the fields and the sty(
And% glutton% 'ould feast on oor souls%
4hom &han&e might ha.e led in his 'ayG
Or gentleman% lady% or &hild%
Or 'hat on his hands he &ould lay(
He 'ent o.er to the main land% in sear&h of food% 'hen he 'ould thro'
o>en or &o's on his !a&)% and se.eral shee and igs% and 'ith them 'ade
to his a!ode in the &a.ern(
Till 7a&)Ds famed &areer made him Aua)e%
/le' his horn% too) matto&) and sadeG
, CThe 7a&) and the /eanstal) and 7a&) the Giant89iller ProIe&tD% edited !y
?i&hael N( Salda% at www.#s+.ed#)engish)fairytaes)Pack)Packho+e.ht+(

,0-
Dug t'enty feet dee near his den%
And &o.ered the it he had made(
The giant de&lared heDd de.our
For !rea)fast 'ho dared to &ome nearG
And lei6urely did /lunder!ore
4al) hea.ily into the snare(
Then 7a&) 'ith his i&)a>e &ommen&ed%
The giant most terri!ly did roarG
He thus made an end of the firstE
The terri!le Giant /lunder!ore(
His !rother% 'ho heard of 7a&)Ds feat%
Did .o' heDd reent of his !lo's%
From +astle En&hantment% in 'ood%
Near 'hi&h 7a&) did shortly reose(
This giant% dis&o.ering our hero% 'eary and fast aslee in the 'ood%
&arried him to his &astle% and lo&)ed him u in a large room% the floor of
'hi&h 'as &o.ered 'ith the !ones of men and 'omen( Soon after% the giant
'ent to in.ite his friend Re!e&)s% to ma)e a meal of 7a&)G 'ho sa' the
monsters aroa&hing% and ut on his &a of )no'ledge% to &onsider ho'
he might !est e>tri&ate himself from ortending dangers(
The giant and friend% arm in arm%
7ohn li)ed not the loo) of Re!e&)sG
He found a strong &ord 'ith a noose%
And !ris)ly slit o.er their ne&)s(
He fastened the &ord to a !eam%
And !oldly slid do'n 'ith his s'ordG
He se.ered their heads in a tri&eG
To free all &onfined he ga.e 'ord(
History informs us that he too) the )eys of the &astle from the girdle of
Giant /lunder!ore% and made sear&h through the !uildingG 'here he found
three ladies tied u !y the hair of their heads to a !eamG they told him their
hus!ands had !een )illed !y the giants% and themsel.es 'ere &ondemned to
death% !e&ause they 'ould not arta)e of the remains of their de&eased
hus!ands( Ladies% said 7a&)% I ha.e ut an end to the 'i&)ed monster and
his giant friend Re!e&)sV
,0$
Great lords and fine ladies 'ere there%
Susended or tied to great hoo)sG
?ost heartily than)ed our friend 7ohnG
Re&orded his fame in those !oo)s(
The ladies all thought him di.ine%
The no!les in.ited him home;
The &astle he ga.e for their use%
And he for ad.entures did roam(
At length 7ohn &ame to a handsome !uilding% he 'as informed 'as
inha!ited !y an enormous 4el&hman% the terror of the surrounding
neigh!ourhood% not .ery li)ely to ro.e friendly to our hero% and ga.e a
genteel rat% tat% too% at the door(
At this Giant8&astle% most grand%
The 4el&hman meets 7ohn at the doorG
Gi.es 'el&ome% and food% and a !ed%
/ut 7a&) sa.es his life on the floor(
The old a&&ount of the diffi&ult season informs us that 7ohn o.erheard
the giant 4el&hman utter the follo'ing not .ery agreea!le lines;E
Though here you lodge 'ith me this night%
Kou shall not see the morning lightG
?y &lu! shall dash your !rains out AuiteV
7ohnDs &onsidering &a is again in reAuest% and finding a log of 'ood he
la&ed it !et'een the sheets% and hid himself% to 'itness the giantDs anger
and &lu! la'(
?id dar)ness% the giant his !ed
/ela!ours the ost 7ohn ut thereG
And safe in the &orner he &ret%
/ehind the great giantDs arm &hair(
Early in the morning 7a&) 'al)ed into the giantDs room% to than) him for
his lodging( The giant surrised to see him% so early he aeared to say% and
&ontinuedE
Kou slet 'ell% my friend% in your !edB
Did nought in your slum!ers assailB

,-#
7ohn did to his Auerist rely%
A rat ga.e some flas 'ith his tail(
7a&) than)ed the giant for his e>&ellent nightDs slee% and although the
4el&hman 'as surrised that he had not )illed him% he did not e>ress
more% !ut fet&hed t'o large !o'ls of udding% for his o'n and his lodgerDs
reast% thin)ing 7a&) ne.er &ould emty one of them(
Hasty udding for !rea)fast 'as !rought%
And 7ohn too) mu&h more than his friendG
4hi&h slit in his large leather !ag%
The giant &ould not &omrehend(
Says 7a&)% No' IDll she' you a tri&)E
PA tatQ for a giantDs tra8doorV
He rit u his large leather !ag%
And !rea)fast !esatterDd the floor(
Ods slutter hur nails% says his host%
Hur &an do that too% 'ithout dreadG
/ut Taff made a fatal atta&)%
And 7a&) in a tri&e doffDd his head(
7ohn sei6ed all his ri&hes and house%
And !ountiful 'as to the oorG
The risDners released from their &hains%
4hi&h !ound them in ain to the floor(
In sear&h of ne' ad.entures% our hero !eheld a relati.e of the late
highlander% dragging to the a!ode 7a&) had made his o'n !y stratagem% a
no!le 9night and his affian&ed lady% and soon determined his mode of
deli.eran&e for them(
A &ousin% not heard of his fate%
Sei6ed Sir 9night and a lady so fair%
4hen &oming to see giant friend%
And draggDd them 'ith for&e !y the hair(
7a&) donnDd his in.isi!le &oat%
Shar s'ord and s'ift shoes for the frayG
He res&ued the )night and the fair%
And great mighty giant did slay(
,-,
His &a for mu&h )no'ledge and s)ill%
He used in en&ounters most rareG
His s'ord all the giants did )ill%
For seed none his shoes &ould &omare(
7a&) ha.ing hitherto !een su&&essful%determined not to !e idleG he
therefore resol.ed to tra.el% and to ta)e his horse of mat&hless seed% his
&a of )no'ledge% his s'ord of sharness% his elasti& shoes of s'iftness% and
in.isi!le &oat% o.er hill and dale(
Tradition states% that 7a&) assed through the &ounties of O>ford%
4ar'i&)% and NorthamtonG and .isited the Mni.ersity% +rou&hhill%
/an!ury8&ross and +astle% the Amhitheatre in /ear8garden% 4ro>ton%
Edge8hill% :&(
He tra.elled the &ountry around%
East% 'est% north and south% far and nearG
A!road or at home he 'as found%
4here he of a giant &ould hear(
7a&) 'as informed !y an old hermit% at the foot of a high mountain% of an
en&hanted &astle% at the to of the mount inha!ited !y Galligantus and a
magi&ian% 'here they had imrisoned a du)eDs daughter and her
&omanions; he soon &lim!ed to the summit% and read these lines;E
4hoe.er &an this trumet !lo'%
Shall &ause the giantDs o.erthro'(
7a&) !le' a loud shrill !last% ha.ing on his in.isi!le dress% 'ith his trusty
s'ord !y his side; the giant and magi&ian loo)ed for the intruder% !ut soon
e>hi!ited ea&h an headless trun)% 'hen he released the inmates% 'hom he
'ished to share the .ast ri&hes of the magi&ianDs treasury( The du)eDs
daughter lainly informed him that she 'ould 'illingly do so on one
&ondition% 'hi&h 'as seedily arranged on the arri.al of the du)e and his
du&hess(
St( George the great dragon did slay%
Hunters 'ild !oars ma)e &omliant%
And !easts of the forest 'ay8layG
7a&) is the dread of the giant(
Pray 'ho has not heard of his fameB
His a&tions so !old and unliantG
The friend of the ri&h and the oor%

,-"
/ut ne.er afraid of a giant(
A monster had heard of his fame%
And .o'ed he 'ould render him liantG
He sat on a stone at his door%
7a&) &ut off the nose of the giant(
He soon found the edge of his !lade%
/e&ame a most hum!le suliantG
And% 'hile he &omlained of the ain%
7a&) too) off the head of the giant(
7a&) threatens%Eall !raggarts !e'areV
And &o'ard oltroons he ma)es liantG
And thus all .ain8glorious uffs
Are silen&ed as 7a&) ser.ed the giant(
The +astle8en&hantment he ra6ed%
?agi&ian is made more &omliant%
Du)eDs daughter he res&ues from harm%
Lords% ladies% he sa.es from the giant(
Du)eDs daughter% 'ith ri&hes in store%
To admire our hero not sla&)G
In marriage they soon did unite%
The )ing ga.e great ri&hes to 7a&)(
His 'ife and his &hildren 'ere )ind%
Friends la&e in him great relian&eG
His !oys 'ere at &ollege refined%
His girls told the tale of the giants(
FINIS(
,-5
Some Arthurian Giant89illings
Introduction
Presented !elo' are a num!er of Arthurian giant8)illings% ranging from
those !elonging to the earliest stratum of the legend through to 4elsh
fol)lore of the se.enteenth &entury( In general% Arthur and his men E li)e
7a&) E )illed their giganti& enemies through a mi>ture of &unning and
e>treme .iolen&e( Indeed% as !oth I and others ha.e argued% su&h tales as
these ought to !e &onsidered essential sour&e material for 7a&)Ds role as the
e>terminator of all /ritainDs giants(
,
+ertainly% this seems to ha.e !een
originally a role assigned to Arthur in 4elsh and +ornish fol)lore% 'ith 7a&)
only ta)ing it o.er in English &ha!oo)s from the early eighteenth &entury(
As one old +ornishman ut it% the 'hole land at one time Cs'armed 'ith
giants% until Arthur% the good )ing% .anished them all 'ith his &ross8s'ordD(
"

Te,ts
a. 'ulh0ch ac !l0en
5
NArthurDs men
1
go in sear&h of the first item that they need to &omlete their
, T( Green% CTom Thum! and 7a&) the Giant89iller; T'o Arthurian Fairy TalesBD%
Fokore% ,,-(" <"##0=% ( ,"581#G +( Grooms% The Giants of <aes. %ewri %y+r#(
4elsh Studies .olume ,# <Lameter; Ed'in ?eller% ,$$5=% 'ho says of ArthurDs
giant8)illing that it is Ca tradition that re&edes and informs the oular &ha8
!oo) tales of 7a&) the Giant8)illerD <( l=(
" R( Hunt% Po&#ar -o+ances of the <est of Engand. The /ros, Traditions and
(#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa% t'o .olumes <rerint of ,--, edition% Felinfa&h;
Llaner&h Pu!lishers% ,$$5=% II% ( 5#0( It should !e noted that Arthur as a giant8
)iller 'as resent in the early to mid8nineteenth8&entury fol)lore &olle&ted !y
Hunt% !ut 7a&) 'as no'here to !e found(
5 The !abinogion% translated !y +( Guest <London; /ernard @uarit&h% ,-00=% (
"15812% "1$82#G 4rna&hDs name has !een ut into its &orre&t form% rather than
GuestDs CG'rna&hD(
1 In %#hwch ac 6wen Arthur is not resent at this )illing% !ut it seems li)ely that
he 'as in fa&t resent in the underlying tale that 'as !eing used !y the author of
%#hwch and has !een simly omittedG thus in the argua!ly earlier oem Pa g#r5

,-1
Auest% the s'ord of 4rna&h the GiantO
All that day they Iourneyed until the e.ening% and then they !eheld a .ast
&astle% 'hi&h 'as the largest in the 'orld( And lo% a !la&) man% huger than
three of the men of this 'orld% &ame out from the &astle( And they so)e
unto him% P4hen&e &omest thou% O manBQ PFrom the &astle 'hi&h you see
yonder(Q P4hose &astle is thatBQ as)ed they( PStuid are ye truly% O men(
There is no one in the 'orld that does not )no' to 'hom this &astle
!elongs( It is the &astle of 4rna&h the Giant(Q P4hat treatment is there for
guests and strangers that alight in that &astleBQ POhV +hieftain% Hea.en
rote&t thee( No guest e.er returned then&e ali.e% and no one may enter
therein unless he !rings 'ith him his &raft(Q
Then they ro&eeded to'ards the gate( Said G'rhyr G'alsta'd
Ieithoedd NCInterreter of TonguesDO% PIs there a orterBQ PThere is( And
thou% if thy tongue !e not mute in thy head% 'herefore dost thou &allBQ
POen the gate(Q PI 'ill not oen it(Q P4herefore 'ilt thou notBQ PThe
)nife is in the meat% and the drin) is in the horn% and there is re.elry in the
hall of 4rna&h the Giant% and e>&et for a &raftsman 'ho !rings his &raft%
the gate 'ill not !e oened to8night(Q PSerily% orter%Q then said 9ai% Pmy
&raft !ring I 'ith me(Q P4hat is thy &raftBQ PThe !est !urnisher of s'ords
am I in the 'orld(Q PI 'ill go and tell this unto 4rna&h the Giant% and I 'ill
!ring thee an ans'er(Q
So the orter 'ent in% and 4rna&h said to him% PHast thou any ne's
from the gateBQ PI ha.e( There is a arty at the door of the gate 'ho desire
to &ome in(Q PDidst thou inAuire of them if they ossessed any artBQ PI did
inAuire%Q said he% Pand one told me that he 'as 'ell s)illed in the !urnishing
of s'ords(Q P4e ha.e need of him then( For some time ha.e I sought for
some one to olish my s'ord% and &ould find no one( Let this man enter%
sin&e he !rings 'ith him his &raft(Q The orter thereuon returned and
oened the gate( And 9ai 'ent in !y himself% and he saluted 4rna&h the
Giant( And a &hair 'as la&ed for him oosite to 4rna&h( And 4rna&h
said to him% POh manV is it true that is reorted of thee that thou )no'est
ho' to !urnish s'ordsBQ PI )no' full 'ell ho' to do so%Q ans'ered 9ai(
Then 'as the s'ord of 4rna&h !rought to him( And 9ai too) a !lue
'hetstone from under his arm% and as)ed him 'hether he 'ould ha.e it
!urnished 'hite or !lue( PDo 'ith it as it seems good to thee% and as though
'ouldest if it 'ere thine o'n(Q Then 9ai olished one half of the !lade and
ut it in his hand( P4ill this lease theeBQ as)ed he( PI 'ould rather than all
that is in my dominions that the 'hole of it 'ere li)e unto this( It is a
mar.el to me that su&h a man as thou should !e 'ithout a &omanion(Q
Arthur is des&ri!ed as fighting in CA'arna&hDs hallD% this A'arna&h almost
&ertainly !eing %#hwchDs 4rna&h; see T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud;
Temus% "##0=% ( -1% ,#$% ,,"8,2(
,-2
POhV no!le sir% I ha.e a &omanion% al!eit he is not s)illed in this art(Q
P4ho may he !eBQ PLet the orter go forth and I 'ill tell him 'here!y he
may )no' him( The head of his lan&e 'ill lea.e its shaft% and dra' !lood
from the 'ind% and 'ill des&end uon its shaft again(Q Then the gate 'as
oened% and /ed'yr entered( And 9ai said% P/ed'yr is .ery s)ilful%
although he )no's not this art(Q
And there 'as mu&h dis&ourse among those 'ho 'ere 'ithout% !e&ause
that 9ai and /ed'yr had gone in( And a young man 'ho 'as 'ith them%
the only son of +ustennin the herdsman% got in also( And he &aused all his
&omanions to )ee &lose to him as he assed the three 'ards% and until he
&ame into the midst of the &astle( And his &omanions said unto the son of
+ustennin% PThou hast done thisV Thou art the !est of all men(Q And
then&eforth he 'as &alled Goreu NC!estDO% the son of +ustennin( Then they
disersed to their lodgings% that they might slay those 'ho lodged therein%
un)no'n to the Giant(
The s'ord 'as no' olished% and 9ai ga.e it unto the hand of 4rna&h
the Giant% to see if he 'ere leased 'ith his 'or)( And the Giant said% PThe
'or) is good% I am &ontent there'ith(Q Said 9ai% PIt is thy s&a!!ard that
hath rusted thy s'ord% gi.e it to me that I may ta)e out the 'ooden sides of
it and ut in ne' ones(Q And he too) the s&a!!ard from him% and the s'ord
in the other hand( And he &ame and stood o.er against the Giant% as if he
'ould ha.e ut the s'ord into the s&a!!ardG and 'ith it he stru&) at the
head of the Giant% and &ut off his head at one !lo'( Then they desoiled
the &astle% and too) from it 'hat goods and Ie'els they 'ould( And again
on the same day% at the !eginning of the year% they &ame to ArthurDs +ourt%
!earing 'ith them the s'ord of 4rna&h the Giant(
*
NThe o!taining of the leash made from DillusD !eardO
As 9ai and /ed'yr sat on a !ea&on &arn on the summit of Plinlimmon Ni.e.
+arn G'ylathyr on PumlumonO% in the highest 'ind that e.er 'as in the
'orld% they loo)ed around them% and sa' a great smo)e to'ards the south%
afar off% 'hi&h did not !end 'ith the 'ind( Then said 9ai% P/y the hand of
my friend% !ehold% yonder is the fire of a ro!!erVQ Then they hastened
to'ards the smo)e% and they &ame so near to it% that they &ould see Dillus
Sar.a'& NCthe /eardedDO s&or&hing a 'ild !oar( P/ehold% yonder is the
greatest ro!!er that e.er fled from Arthur%Q
,
said /ed'yr unto 9ai( PDost
, Again Arthur is not resent in the telling of this tale in %#hwch% !ut this hrase
ma)es referen&e to the e>isten&e of other tales of Dillus in 'hi&h Arthur 'as
in.ol.ed; on this tale% 'hi&h 'as also told in 4elsh fol)lore% see Green% %once&ts
of Arth#r% ( ,,28,3 and Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ,3083-( Furthermore% it is

,-3
thou )no' himBQ PI do )no' him%Q ans'ered 9ai% Phe is Dillus Sar.a'&%
and no leash in the 'orld 'ill !e a!le to hold Drud'yn% the &u! of Greid
the son of Eri% sa.e a leash made from the !eard of him thou seest yonder(
And e.en that 'ill !e useless% unless his !eard !e lu&)ed ali.e 'ith 'ooden
t'ee6ersG for if dead% it 'ill !e !rittle(Q P4hat thin)est thou that 'e should
do &on&erning thisBQ said /ed'yr( PLet us suffer him%Q said 9ai% Pto eat as
mu&h as he 'ill of the meat% and after that he 'ill fall aslee(Q And during
that time they emloyed themsel.es in ma)ing the 'ooden t'ee6ers( And
'hen 9ai )ne' &ertainly that he 'as aslee% he made a it under his feet%
the largest in the 'orld% and he stru&) him a .iolent !lo'% and sAuee6ed him
into the it( And there they t'it&hed out his !eard &omletely 'ith the
'ooden t'ee6ersG and after that they sle' him altogether(
And from then&e they !oth 'ent to Gelli 4i&% in +orn'all% and too) the
leash made of Dillus Sar.a'&Ds !eard 'ith them% and they ga.e it into
ArthurDs hand(
b. /eoffrey of (on*outh9s Historia &egu* Britanniae
,
In the meantime Arthur had ne's !rought him% that a giant of monstrous
si6e 'as &ome from the shores of Sain% and had for&i!ly ta)en a'ay
Helena% the nie&e of Du)e Hoel% from her guard% and fled 'ith her to the
to of that 'hi&h is no' &alled ?i&haelDs ?ountG and that the soldiers of the
&ountry 'ho ursued him 'ere a!le to do nothing against him( For 'hether
they atta&)ed him !y sea or land% he either o.erturned their shis 'ith .ast
ro&)s% or )illed them 'ith se.eral sorts of darts% !esides many of them that
he too) and de.oured half ali.e(
The ne>t night% therefore% at the se&ond hour% Arthur% ta)ing along 'ith
him +aius the se'er% and /ed.er the !utler% 'ent out ri.ately from the
&am% and hastened to'ards the mountain( For !eing a man of undaunted
&ourage% he did not &are to lead his army against su&h monstersG !oth
!e&ause he &ould in this manner animate his men !y his o'n e>amle% and
also !e&ause he 'as alone suffi&ient to deal 'ith them(
As soon as they &ame near the mountain% they sa' a fire !urning uon
the to of it% and another on a lesser mountain% that 'as not far from it(
And !eing in dou!t uon 'hi&h of them the giant d'elt% they sent a'ay
/ed.er to )no' the &ertainty of the matter( So he% finding a !oat% sailed
&learly related to the tale of ArthurDs )illing of RithoJRetho% found in Geoffrey
of ?onmouthDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae and 4elsh fol)lore <Green% %once&ts of
Arth#r% ( ,,3=(
, Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae% H(5% translated !y 7( A( Giles in The .ritish History of
Geoffrey of !on+o#th <London; 7ames /ohn% ,-1"=% ( "#28#-( See the follo'ing
on the t'o tales &ontained 'ithin this &hater; Green% %once&ts of Arth#r% (
,,38,-% and Grooms% Giants of <aes% ( ",18,-(
,-0
o.er in it first to the lesser mountain% to 'hi&h he &ould in no other 'ay
ha.e a&&ess% !e&ause it 'as situated in the sea( 4hen he had !egun to &lim!
u to the to of it% he 'as at first frightened 'ith a dismal ho'ling &ry of a
'oman from a!o.e% and imagined the monster to !e there; !ut Aui&)ly
rousing u his &ourage% he dre' his s'ord% and ha.ing rea&hed the to%
found nothing !ut the fire 'hi&h he had !efore seen at a distan&e( He
dis&o.ered also a gra.e ne'ly made% and an old 'oman 'eeing and
ho'ling !y it% 'ho at the sight of him instantly &ried out in 'ords
interruted 'ith sighs% PO% unhay man% 'hat misfortune !rings you to
this la&eB O the ine>ressi!le tortures of death that you must sufferV I ity
you% I ity you% !e&ause the detesta!le monster 'ill this night destroy the
flo'er of your youth( For that most 'i&)ed and odious giant% 'ho !rought
the du)eDs nie&e% 'hom I ha.e Iust no' !uried here% and me% her nurse%
along 'ith her into this mountain% 'ill &ome and immediately murder you in
a most &ruel manner( O delora!le fateV This most illustrious rin&ess%
sin)ing under the fear her tender heart &on&ei.ed% 'hile the foul monster
'ould ha.e em!ra&ed her% fainted a'ay and e>ired( And 'hen he &ould
not satiate his !rutish lust uon her% 'ho 'as the .ery soul% Ioy% and
hainess of my life% !eing enraged at the disaointment of his !estial
desire% he for&i!ly &ommitted a rae uon me% 'ho <let God and my old age
'itness= a!horred his em!ra&es( Fly% dear sir% fly% for fear he may &ome% as
he usually does% to lie 'ith me% and finding you here most !ar!arously
!ut&her you(Q
/ed.er% mo.ed at 'hat she said% as mu&h as it is ossi!le for human
nature to !e% endea.oured 'ith )ind 'ords to assuage her grief% and to
&omfort her 'ith the romise of seedy hel; and then returned !a&) to
Arthur% and ga.e him an a&&ount of 'hat he had met 'ith( Arthur .ery
mu&h lamented the damselDs sad fate% and ordered his &omanions to lea.e
him to deal 'ith him aloneG unless there 'as an a!solute ne&essity% and then
they 'ere to &ome in !oldly to his assistan&e( From hen&e they 'ent dire&tly
to the ne>t mountain% lea.ing their horses 'ith their armour8!earers% and
as&ended to the to% Arthur leading the 'ay(
The deformed sa.age 'as then !y the fire% 'ith his fa&e !esmeared 'ith
the &lotted !lood of s'ine% art of 'hi&h he had already de.oured% and 'as
roasting the remainder uon sits !y the fire( /ut at the sight of them%
'hose aearan&e 'as a surrise to him% he hastened to his &lu!% 'hi&h t'o
strong men &ould hardly lift from the ground( Mon this the )ing dre' his
s'ord% and guarding himself 'ith his shield% ran 'ith all his seed to
re.ent his getting it( /ut the other% 'ho 'as not ignorant of his design% had
!y this time snat&hed it u% and ga.e the )ing su&h a terri!le !lo' uon his
shield% that he made the shores ring 'ith the noise% and erfe&tly stunned
the )ingDs ears 'ith it( Arthur% fired 'ith rage at this% lifted u his s'ord% and
ga.e him a 'ound in the forehead% 'hi&h 'as not indeed mortal% !ut yet
su&h as made the !lood gush out o.er his fa&e and eyes% and so !linded himG

,--
for he had artly 'arded off the stro)e from his forehead 'ith his &lu!% and
re.ented its !eing fatal( Ho'e.er% his loss of sight% !y reason of the !lood
flo'ing o.er his eyes% made him e>ert himself 'ith greater fury% and li)e an
enraged !oar against a hunting8sear% so did he rush in against ArthurDs
s'ord% and grasing him a!out the 'aist% for&ed him do'n uon his )nees(
/ut Arthur% nothing daunted% slied out of his hands% and so !estirred
himself 'ith his s'ord% that he ga.e the giant no resite till he had stru&) it
u to the .ery !a&) through his s)ull( At this the hideous monster raised a
dreadful roar% and li)e an oa) torn u from the roots !y the 'inds% so did he
ma)e the ground resound 'ith his fall Arthur% !ursting out into a fit of
laughter at the sight% &ommanded /ed.er to &ut off his head% and gi.e it to
one of the armour8!earers% 'ho 'as to &arry it to the &am% and there
e>ose it to u!li& .ie'% !ut 'ith orders for the se&tators of this &om!at to
)ee silen&e(
He told them he had found none of so great strength% sin&e he )illed the
giant Ritho% 'ho had &hallenged him to fight% uon the mountain Ara.ius(
This giant had made himself furs of the !eards of )ings he had )illed% and
had sent 'ord to Arthur &arefully to flea off his !eard and send it to himG
and then% out of rese&t to his re8eminen&e o.er other )ings% his !eard
should ha.e the honour of the rin&ial la&e( /ut if he refused to do it% he
&hallenged him to a duel% 'ith this offer% that the &onAueror should ha.e the
furs% and also the !eard of the .anAuished for a trohy of his .i&tory( In this
&onfli&t% therefore% Arthur ro.ed .i&torious% and too) the !eard and soils
of the giantG and% as he said !efore% had met 'ith none that &ould !e
&omared to him for strength% till his last engagement( After this .i&tory%
they returned at the se&ond 'at&h of the night to the &am 'ith the headG to
see 'hi&h there 'as a great &on&ourse of eole% all e>tolling this 'onderful
e>loit of Arthur% !y 'hi&h he had freed the &ountry from a most
destru&ti.e and .ora&ious monster( /ut Hoel% in great grief for the loss of
his nie&e% &ommanded a mausoleum to !e !uilt o.er her !ody in the
mountain 'here she 'as !uried% 'hi&h% ta)ing the damselDs name% is &alled
HelenaDs Tom! to this day(
c. (alory9s ;e (orte <arthur
,
NArthur &omes uon the giant of ?ont St ?i&helO
Then the glutton anon started u% and too) a great &lu! in his hand% and
smote at the )ing that his &oronal fell to the earth( And the )ing hit him
again that he &ar.ed his !elly and &ut off his genitours% that his guts and his
, ?odernised .ersion of ?aloryDs 9e !orte /arth#r% /oo) S% &haters fi.e and
eight% translated !y E( Stra&hey and A( 4( Pollard% made a.aila!le online !y the
ProIe&t Guten!erg; htt&:))www.g#tenberg.org)dirs)ete4tTG)S+artSF.t4t
,-$
entrails fell do'n to the ground( Then the giant thre' a'ay his &lu!% and
&aught the )ing in his arms that he &rushed his ri!s( Then the three maidens
)neeled do'n and &alled to +hrist for hel and &omfort of Arthur( And
then Arthur 'eltered and 'rung% that he 'as other 'hile under and another
time a!o.e( And so 'eltering and 'allo'ing they rolled do'n the hill till
they &ame to the sea mar)% and e.er as they so 'eltered Arthur smote him
'ith his dagger(
And it fortuned they &ame to the la&e 'hereas the t'o )nights 'ere
and )et ArthurDs horseG then 'hen they sa' the )ing fast in the giantDs
arms they &ame and loosed him( And then the )ing &ommanded Sir 9ay to
smite off the giantDs head% and to set it uon a trun&heon of a sear% and
!ear it to Sir Ho'ell% and tell him that his enemy 'as slainG and after let this
head !e !ound to a !ar!i&an that all the eole may see and !ehold itG and
go ye t'o u to the mountain% and fet&h me my shield% my s'ord% and the
&lu! of ironG and as for the treasure% ta)e ye it% for ye shall find there goods
out of num!erG so I ha.e the )irtle and the &lu! I desire no more( This 'as
the fier&est giant that e.er I met 'ith% sa.e one in the mount of Ara!y%
'hi&h I o.er&ame% !ut this 'as greater and fier&er( Then the )nights fet&hed
the &lu! and the )irtle% and some of the treasure they too) to themsel.es%
and returned again to the host(
*
NAt the /attle of SoissonsO
Then the !attles aroa&hed and sho.ed and shouted on !oth sides% and
great stro)es 'ere smitten on !oth sides% many men o.erthro'n% hurt% and
slainG and great .alian&es% ro'esses and aerti&es of 'ar 'ere that day
sho'ed% 'hi&h 'ere o.er long to re&ount the no!le feats of e.ery man% for
they should &ontain an 'hole .olume( /ut in ese&ial% 9ing Arthur rode in
the !attle e>horting his )nights to do 'ell% and himself did as no!ly 'ith his
hands as 'as ossi!le a man to doG he dre' out E>&ali!ur his s'ord% and
a'aited e.er 'hereas the Romans 'ere thi&)est and most grie.ed his
eole% and anon he addressed him on that art% and he' and sle' do'n
right% and res&ued his eoleG and he sle' a great giant named Galaas%
'hi&h 'as a man of an huge Auantity and height% he shorted him and smote
off !oth his legs !y the )nees% saying% No' art thou !etter of a si6e to deal
'ith than thou 'ere% and after smote off his head(

,$#
d. Dohn ;eland9s Itinerary
,
The first Ri.er !e side Tyne that I assid o.er 'as +lardue N+laerdduO% that is
to say .ak %are% no great Streame !ut &umming thorough +ragges( In the
farther Side of hit I sa' ii( .eri oore +otagis for Somer Dayres for +atel(
and hard !y 'ere ii( Hillettes% thorough the 'i&h %ard#y assith% 'her they
fa!le that a Gigant striding 'as 'ont to 'as&h his Hondes% and that Art#re
)illid hym( The D'ellers say also that the Gigant 'as !uried ther!y% and
she' the Pla&e(
e. SiEn <afydd &hys on 'e0ri 'y*ru FB+elsh /iants9G
"
And all these Giants 'ere of enormous si6e% and <they 'ere= in the time of
Idris Ga'r% 'hi&h Idris 'as )ing and &hief o.er them( And in the land of
?eirionydd also% and &lose to Penn Aran in Penllyn% and under the la&e
&alled /'l&h8y8groes% is a gra.e of great si6e% 'here they say Lytta or Ritta
or Rithon'y or Itto Ga'r 'as !uriedG 'hose !ody some of the tri!e of
Giants mo.ed from Eryri to some'here near ?ynydd Aran Fa'r in
Penllyn( This Ri&&a Ga'r 'as the one 'ith 'hom Arthur had fought and
)illed in Eryri( And this Giant had made for himself a mantle <ilis= of
!eards of the )ings he had )illed( And he sent to Arthur to order him to &ut
off his o'n !eard and send it to him( And as Arthur 'as &hief of the )ings%
he 'ould la&e his !eard a!o.e the other !eards as an honour to Arthur(
And if he 'ould not do that% he as)ed Arthur to &ome and fight 'ith him%
and that the strongest of them should ma)e a mantle from the !eard of the
other( And 'hen they 'ent to fight% Arthur o!tained the .i&tory% and he
too) the GiantDs !eard and his mantle(
, 7ohn Leland% The @tinerary of John 9eand the Anti3#ary, in ,ine ;o#+es% third
edition <O>ford; 7ames Flet&her and 7oseh Pote% ,00#=% S% ( -5(
" R( /rom'i&h and D( Simon E.ans <ed(=% %#hwch and 6wen. An edition and st#dy
of the odest Arth#rian tae <+ardiff% ,$$"=% ( l.ii( Further Arthurian giant8)illings
re&orded from 4elsh fol)lore !y Rhys &an !e found a!o.e <( ,12= and in +(
Grooms% The Giants of <aes. %ewri %y+r#% 4elsh Studies .olume ,# <Lameter;
Ed'in ?eller% ,$$5=% ( 5##8#2% 5,#8,5% 5,3(
3
?is&ellaneous Arthuriana
,$5
An Arthurian FA@; Some FreAuently
As)ed @uestions
1. +as there a historical Arthur2
Kes% and no( If !y Arthur you mean the erson 'ho suosedly led the
/ritish &ounter8atta&) against the Anglo8Sa>ons in the later 2th &entury%
&ulminating in the famous /attle of /adon Hill% then the ans'er is simly
CyesD( Su&h a &hara&ter did indeed e>ist E 'e ha.e the e.iden&e for his
e>isten&e <and that of his most famous !attle= in GildasD /e E4cidio
.ritanniae% 'ritten c( 21# AD( Ho'e.er% if you mean something else then the
ans'er is ro!a!ly CnoD(
4as Arthur one of the four or fi.e eole named Arthur that 'e
ha.e in southern 4ales and southern S&otland% !orn !et'een c(
22#83"2 ADB No% it seems most unli)ely E they are !orn too late to
fight /adon <the only se&ifi& element of the Arthurian legend
'hi&h &an !e &onfirmed as genuinely histori&al and 'hi&h is resent
in the earliest Chistori&alD Arthurian sour&es= and their &hara&ters and
)no'n deeds seem imlausi!le for su&h a role as the founder of a
great legend(
4as CArthurD a titleB No% there is a!solutely no reason to thin) that
this is the &ase( This is simly many histori&al8Arthur theoristsD 'ay
of getting around the a')'ard fa&t that 'homsoe.er they 'ish to
&laim is Arthur E Mrien of Rheged% +uneglasus% +erdi& E 'as ne.er
a&tually &alled Arthur(
4as the /ritish leader at /adon a&tually &alled Arthur thenB No% he
'as ro!a!ly &alled Am!rosius Aurelianus% as Padel has
demonstrated( Arthur loo)s to !e the name of a fol)lori& or
mythi&al Hero and monster8)iller 'hose tales got mi>ed u 'ith the
a!o.e histori&al deeds in the early $th &entury% leading to these
!eing re8attri!uted to this fol)lori& hero( <This 'as% it must !e
stressed% a surrisingly &ommon o&&urren&e in medie.al literature
and seudo8history=(

,$1
Finally% 'as the /ritish leader at /adon anything li)e the Arthur of
medie.al legend% or did he Iust &ontri!ute the histori&al frame'or)
and the !attle of /adon to the later legendB The latter is almost
&ertainly the &ase( There is .irtually no tra&e of history in the early
Arthurian legend <see% for e>amle% %#hwch ac 6wen=% 'hilst the
familiar later medie.al stories of Arthur are Iust that; stories% not
history( /i6arre notions of the .i&tor of /adon as someone 'ho
rode 'ith a !and of )nights all around late 2th8&enturyJearly 3th8
&entury /ritain are a modern a&ademi& fantasy(
2. If the historical victor at Badon 0as called Arthur8 0here 0ould he
have been based2
An interesting Auestion( ?any historians ha.e referred to la&e su&h a
figure in southern /ritain% on the !asis of an assumtion that this is 'here
/adon 'as fought <usually it is eAuated 'ith /ath or /ad!ury Rings=( ?any
+elti&ists ha.e referred to la&e him in northern /ritain% some'here in the
east !et'een the Ri.er Hum!er and Edin!urgh% on the !asis of 2 Gododdin
and other legendary material( ?any enthusiasts &ontinue to la&e him in
+orn'all% north 4ales% +um!ria% Esse>% Glasgo'% Shroshire and almost
any'here else you &an thin) of( The only ossi!le 'ay of lo&ating su&h a
2th8&entury figure 'ould !e to use the !attles listed in the Historia .ritton#+%
in arti&ular the only one of these 'hi&h &an !e &onfirmed as histori&al%
/adon( This !attle is% unfortunately% unlo&ated E all suggestions are more or
less se&ulation% 'ith there !eing little solid e.iden&e a.aila!le to go on( To
Auote 7(N(L( ?yres% Cthe site of !ons .adonic#s in the a!sen&e of any early
toograhi&al information((( remains anyoneDs guess(D Ho'e.er% gi.en that it
is a !attle against the in.ading Anglo8Sa>ons% it does seem only reasona!le
that it <and thus any su&h Arthur= should !e la&ed some'here in /ritain
'here there 'ere Anglo8Sa>ons in signifi&ant num!ers c( 2## AD E that is
to say% in southern /ritain a&ross to roughly /ath% or in eastern /ritain u to
the East Riding of Kor)shire(
3. If the historical victor at Badon 0as called Arthur8 0as he a )ing8
e*peror or battleHleader2
Arthur is &ertainly des&ri!ed as a Cleader of !attlesD <d#4 beor#+= in the
Historia .ritton#+ !ut% as 7a&)son and others ha.e ointed out% this doesnDt
ne&essarily mean he 'asnDt a )ing( Nonetheless% the earliest sour&es to
des&ri!e him as a )ing &ome from the ,,th &entury and are legendary in
&hara&ter% so &annot !e relied uon( One early oem does &all him
CemerorD% a+era#d#r <_ Latin i+&erator =% 'hi&h might foreshado' Geoffrey
of ?onmouthDs Arthur in the Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae( On the other hand%
,$2
'e must !e &autious% as the stri&t meaning of the 'ord is ro!a!ly &loser to
Cgeneral% &ommanderD in 4elsh usage( To !e honest% if he 'as a su!8Roman
emeror of /ritain then he has left remar)a!ly fe' tra&es of his e>isten&e
and status in the early sour&es( Gi.en all this it is ro!a!ly !est to sti&) 'ith
the Historia .ritton#+Ds des&rition of him as a !attle8leader% though e.en
this is un&ertain and may !e /i!li&ally8deri.ed !y the author of the Historia%
rather than a genuine refle&tion of any su&h ArthurDs status( If it 'as a
genuine des&rition of his status% it should !e ta)en to simly mean 'hat it
says E theories that ma)e d#4 beor#+ not a literal statement !ut an offi&ial
title or osition% analogous to the )no'n Late Roman %o+es .ritanniae% are
more C&olourfulD than lausi!le( To Auote ?yres on&e more% Cif 'e add
anything to the !are statement that Arthur may ha.e li.ed and fought the
Sa>ons% 'e ass at on&e from history to Roman&e(D
. +as Arthur &iota*us2 'an 0e use /eoffrey of (on*outh to
reconstruct BArthurian history92
No( Geoffrey is a highly in.enti.e historian 'hose &laim to ossess a no'8
lost Can&ient !oo)D &annot !e in any 'ay trusted( He rather seems to !e
indulging in the Cold !oo)D &laim to try and enhan&e the reutation of his
'or)( His Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae loo)s to ha.e ta)en themes% motifs%
names and narrati.e elements from a great .ariety of sour&es% 'ith Geoffrey
'ea.ing them together into a 'or) that is undou!tedly his o'n &reation(
4here 'e &an identify his sour&es% he has maniulated and altered them to a
.ery great degree( As to Riotamus% if Ashe is right in identifying him as one
of the sour&es of GeoffreyDs ortrayal of Arthur% this has little meaning
from an insular erse&ti.e( There is no hint that Riotamus 'as Arthur in
the 4elsh sour&es and the theory has !een re&ently dismissed as nothing
more than Cstra's in the 'indD% 'ith Riotamus &learly !eing a name% not a
title( If he is refle&ted in GeoffreyDs 'or) then this is either GeoffreyDs o'n
&ontri!ution to the Arthurian legend or% Iust ossi!ly% a /reton
histori&isation of Arthur 'ith the deeds of Riotamus <though the latter
deends on the highly du!ious e.iden&e of the 9ife of (aint Go#e:no#% 'hi&h
does itself arahrase the Historia .ritton#+ and may !e influen&ed !y
Geoffrey=(
". +hat is the earliest reference to the Arthurian legend2
The 2 Gododdin referen&e% 'hi&h des&ri!es Arthur as a military suerhero
<to 'hom a man 'ho )illed 5## &annot &omare=% may go !a&) to !efore
35- AD% !ut this is not &ertain( The !arwnad %ynddyan mention of Arthur%
'hi&h seems to ha.e the same &on&et of Arthur as 2 Gododdin% is generally
admitted to ha.e its origins in the mid80th &entury% if the emendation of

,$3
artir to art#r is &orre&t <as it almost &ertainly is=( The tales of Arthur raiding
the Other'orld in Preide# Annwfyn ro!a!ly go !a&) to !efore the late -th
&entury% and the features used to date them thus 'ould also !e resent in
&omositions of the 0th &entury( The fol)lore in &hater 05 of the Historia
.ritton#+ <'hi&h in&ludes a referen&e to ArthurDs C4ildD hunt of the di.ine%
destru&ti.e and enormous !oar Twrch Trwyd= has !een re&ently &onsidered
Calready an&ientD !y the $th &entury( These 'ould seem to !e some of the
earliest Arthurian referen&es and they are dis&ussed in detail% along 'ith
other otential mem!ers of the Cearliest stratumD of the Arthurian legend% in
&hater t'o of %once&ts of Arth#r(

$. +hat is the earliest reference to Arthur as a historical figure2
The earliest sour&e 'hi&h demonstra!ly ossesses a &on&et of Arthur as a
histori&al figure is the Historia .ritton#+% sometimes )no'n as CNenniusD(
This is no' generally agreed to ha.e !een a 'or) of syntheti& seudo8
history% unasso&iated 'ith Nennius and 'ritten in the early $th &entury E
either in -"$ or -5# AD <not the 0th &entury% or Cc( -##D as some older
!oo)s state=( Thus the first referen&e to a histori&al Arthur &omes from o.er
5## years after he is suosed to ha.e fought /adonG he is not mentioned in
any of the &ontemorary or near8&ontemorary sour&es that 'e ossess(
Although there is a theory that an Old 4elsh !attle8listing oem underlies
the HistoriaDs a&&ount% this is !oth urely hyotheti&al and 'ould hel us
little e.en if this 'erenDt the &ase <see no' &hater one of %once&ts of Arth#r
for a .ery full dis&ussion=( Se&ulation that the Annaes %a+briae <C4elsh
AnnalsD= mentions of Arthur ha.e their origins in 3th8&entury Easter ta!les
is also no' dismissed as nonsense E these entries loo) to !e solidly ,#th
&entury in origin and most ro!a!ly deri.ati.e in their &on&et of Arthur of
the Historia .ritton#+(
>. +hat do you *ean by B/alfridian98 BpreH/alfridian9 and BnonH
/alfridian92
CGalfridianD &omes from the name of Geoffrey of ?onmouth% 'hi&h is in
Latin Gafrid#s !one+#tensis( Galfridian and ost8Galfridian literature refers
to GeoffreyDs o'n 'or)s and those later sour&es 'hi&h are &learly deri.ati.e
of his 'or)% most ese&ially his Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae( Pre8Galfridian
literature is that 'hi&h is generally agreed to date from !efore Geoffrey
'rote his H-.% that is c( ,,5-( Non8Galfridian literature is that 'hi&h%
though it may !e later in date than c( ,,5-% sho's no signs of !eing
deri.ati.e of% or e.en a'are of% GeoffreyDs 'or)(
,$0
C. Is all continental Arthurian literature postH/alfridian2
To some degree% yes E most &ontinental sour&es sho' an a'areness of
Geoffrey% or the 'or) of one of his translators and adators <su&h as 4a&e=(
Ho'e.er% there is mu&h in &ontinental literature that sho's no inde!tedness
to Geoffrey( The maIority of this is undou!tedly the result of the
imagination of &ontinental 'riters su&h as +hrWtien de Troyes% or &lassi&al
and other non8Arthurian sour&es that ha.e !een utilised !y them(
Nonetheless% some elements may reresent a &ontinental ta)e on genuinely
non8Galfridian Arthurian tradition% su&h as the a!du&tion of G'enh'yfar
or the )illing of Arthur !y %ath Pa#c( It should not !e forgotten that in
la&es su&h as Sain and Italy there is e.iden&e for a )no'ledge of the
Arthurian legend !y erhas c( ,,##(
I. Is 'orn0all really B3ing Arthur 'ountry92
+ertainly +orn'all )ne' of Arthur( In the ,-th &entury it &ould !e said that
C'hate.er is great% and the use and Author un)no'n% is attri!uted to ArthurD
E Arthurian fol)lore% in&luding his halls% his seats% his &hairs% his &a.es and
his ta!les% filled the &ountryside( Ho'e.er% this 'as eAually true in 4ales
too( Going !a&) to the re8Galfridian eriod 'e do not% in fa&t% find
+orn'all dominating the re&ord( In the ,,th8&entury %#hwch ac 6wen and
the re8Galfridian Early Sersion of Trioedd 2nys Prydein 'e find ArthurDs
&ourt la&ed in +orn'all E though it is at the unlo&ated% ossi!ly
unlo&ata!le% Kei wic <Cforest8gro.eD= not +amelot% or Tintagel( 4e also find
e.iden&e for a !elief in Arthur as still ali.e !eing so strong in +orn'all that
riots &ould !e started 'hen his e.er8lasting nature 'as denied( Ho'e.er%
other early sour&es asso&iate his legend 'ith 4ales% or Somerset% or
S&otland( This is true e.en at the le.el of the Cearliest stratumD of material%
that dating !efore c( $## AD( Here 'e find )no'ledge of Arthur and the
Arthurian legend in /rittany% south 4ales% the 4elsh ?ar&hes% Shroshire%
north 4ales and southern S&otland E essentially a&ross the entire /rittoni&8
sea)ing 'orld( Indeed% if 'e go !a&) to the .ery earliest hints of the
e>isten&e of the Arthurian legend% the t'o men !orn c( 22# AD and named
Arthur% one 'as from southern 4ales and one from southern S&otland( The
Arthurian legend loo)s to ha.e !een an8/rittoni& <&ommon to all /ritish
sea)ers= and unlo&alised from the .ery first(
1J. Ho0 *any children did Arthur have in nonH/alfridian +elsh
tradition2
?any% it 'ould seem( His son Amr is mentioned in the early $th8&entury
Historia .ritton#+ and the /rea+ of -honabwy% though in the Historia he is said

,$-
to ha.e !een )illed !y Arthur( Another son% Lla&heu% is mentioned in Pa g#r%
early oetry and the Triads E he aears to ha.e !een a martial hero% Iust
li)e his father( One late 4elsh te>t has him !eing )illed !y +ai% !ut this is
unli)ely to !e art of the insular tradition% !elonging to the Fren&h Peresva#s
<'here the son is Loholt= of 'hi&h the 4elsh 2 (eint Grea is a translation(
G'ydre is another re8Galfridian 4elsh son% named only in %#hwch ac
6wen as !eing )illed !y the Twrch Trwyd% at a site not too far from the later8
re&orded ro&)8formation )no'n as %errig !eibion Arth#r% the CStones of
ArthurDs SonsD% in ?yna&hlog8ddu( Finally% 'e find in one late manus&rit
another aarently non8Galfridian son% named Duran% 'ho seems to ha.e
died at +amlann( In addition to these four re8 or non8Galfridian sons%
Arthur also had t'o nehe's; one <G'al&hmai= erhas !y a sister named
G'yar% the other <Eli'lod= !y a !rother named ?ada'& <?adog=(
,$$
The ?onstrous Regiment of Arthurs;
A +riti&al Guide
1. Introduction
4hilst it &an &ertainly !e argued that the CoriginalD Arthur is ro!a!ly a non8
histori&al <fol)lori& or mythi&al= figure 'ho !e&ame asso&iated 'ith
histori&al deeds !y the ninth &entury .ia a ro&ess of histori&isation <Padel%
,$$1G Green% ,$$-aG Green% "##0=% it has to !e re&ognised that the oosing
.ie' has often !een ta)en too( 4ith regards to this% it is fair to say that a
.ast literature has !een generated !y the sear&h for histori&al &hara&ters 'ho
Cfit the fa&tsD E that is to say% !y the Auest to identify the CoriginalD histori&al
Arthur( The resent ie&e is intended as a guide to the four of the most
oular theories 'hi&h ha.e !een roosed !y those 'ho &hoose to ma)e
the a &riori assumtion that there really 'as a histori&al Arthur at the &ore of
the Arthurian legend( It is felt that su&h a guide is ne&essary due to the
&ontinuing oularity of this assumtion% arti&ularly outside of the
a&ademi& &ommunity% and the otential diffi&ulties for the interested reader
in dis&riminating !et'een the .arious theories roounded( The .alue of
these theories in general% and of the sear&h itself% is fully dis&ussed else'here
<Green% ,$$-aG Green% "##0= and needs no further ela!oration here% other
than to simly say that an enormous num!er of theories &an and ha.e !een
roosed( In order for the follo'ing guide to 'or)% the Auestion of 'hether
the sear&h for a histori&al Arthur is a useful one is ignored( Similarly% the
notion of Cno smo)e 'ithout fireD E 'hi&h is &riti&ised hea.ily else'here E is
treated as reasona!le% i.e. the analyses !elo' follo' the theories they dis&uss
in assuming that there ro!a!ly 'as a histori&al Arthur(
2. Arthur8 the 1ostH&o*an +arHleader
The notion that Arthur &ould ha.e !een a ost8Roman 'ar8leader has it
origins in a study of one of the earliest and most imortant Arthurian
sour&es% &hater 23 of the Historia .ritton#+ <'ritten c. -"$85# A(D(=% in
arti&ular the se&tion 'hi&h says CArthur fought against them Nthe Anglo8
Sa>on in.adersO in those days% together 'ith the )ings of the /ritons% !ut he
'as the leader in !attles Nd#4 beor#+O(D In the most !asi& and oular form

"##
of this theory% the a!o.e senten&e is treated as a literal statement that the
histori&al Arthur 'as a great 'arrior and 'ar8leader <'ith an imli&ation% it
is often suggested% that Arthur 'as not a )ing himself=% 'ho led the fight
against the Anglo8Sa>on in.aders( The rest of the te>t lists a num!er of his
suosed !attles% although only one of these E the /attle of /adon E &an !e
ro.en to ha.e definitely ta)en la&e in the ost8Roman eriod <GildasD /e
E4cidio .ritanniae of c. 21# A(D( mentions the !attle% !ut not Arthur=( This
theory is essentially the CdefaultD &on&et of a histori&al Arthur for the
a&ademi& &ommunity% and is used !y those resear&hers 'ho !elie.e that
Arthur ro!a!ly e>isted !ut thin) that 'e &an )no' nothing more of him
'ithout entering into the realms of se&ulation( This .ie' ta)es the Historia
.ritton#+ &hater 23 as <to some degree= e.iden&e of the e>isten&e of Arthur
and his !asi& nature and role% !ut freAuently doesnDt trust the &ontents of
this &hater to ro.ide relia!le e.iden&e 'ith regards to the !attles he
fought <aside from /adon= or the region he oerated in <see ese&ially
Green% ,$$-a and "##0% and Higham% "##"% on the reasons for this general
a&ademi& s&eti&ism a!out the relia!ility of the Historia .ritton#+%
arti&ularly 'ith regards to the !attles as&ri!ed !y it to Arthur=( Proonents
of this theory of Arthur as a 'ar8leader in&lude 7a&)son <,$2$G ,$3$=% 'ho
e>li&itly reIe&ts any lo&alisation of Arthur on the !asis of the Historia
!attles% and +harles8Ed'ards <,$$,=% 'ho &on&luded his re&ent sur.ey of
the e.iden&e for a histori&al Arthur !y saying that;
it &annot !e ruled out a &riori that some useful information a!out
the si>th &entury may% some day% !e surmised on the !asis of the
NHistoria .ritton#+O te>tG !ut% at the moment% the rose&ts are oor(
At this stage of the enAuiry% one &an only say that there may 'ell
ha.e !een an histori&al Arthur N!utO that the historian &an as yet say
nothing of .alue a!out him( <+harles8Ed'ards% ,$$,; "$=
The ad.antages of this theory are <,= that it is !ased firmly on a &riti&al
are&iation of the early Arthurian sour&es% usually fo&ussing on the Historia
.ritton#+ as the only te>t 'orthy of serious &onsideration as a lausi!le
sour&e of useful information on the nature of the histori&al Arthur <see% for
e>amle% +harles8Ed'ards% ,$$, and Green% ,$$-a 'ith regards to this=G <"=
that it re&ognises the ro!lems inherent in the use of the Historia and other
sour&esG and <5= that% although it does reAuire an a &riori assumtion that
Arthur e>isted% other'ise this theory refuses to go !eyond 'hat &an !e
esta!lished from these sour&es !y a &orre&t histori&al methodology( It does%
ho'e.er% lea.e us 'ith a some'hat indistin&t ortrait of the histori&al
Arthur(
4hilst many might a&&et the a!o.e as the most 'e &an legitimately say
of any histori&al Arthur% if 'e must ha.e one and gi.en the Auality of the
"#,
sour&es a.aila!le to us% some ha.e sought to e>and this through .arious
means( 7ones <,$31=% for e>amle% argues that the noti&e regarding ArthurDs
death at the /attle of +amlann in the Annaes %a+briae should !e treated as
authenti& and early and thus added to the a!o.e &on&et of a histori&al
Arthur( Al&o&) <,$0,= 'ould argue the same% seeing the Annaes %a+briae
entries <it also re&ords the /attle of /adon as !eing fought !y Arthur= as the
most relia!le sour&e of information on any histori&al Arthur% rather than the
Historia .ritton#+ a&&ount% arguing that they deri.e from si>th8&entury Easter
ta!les( /oth notions ha.e% ho'e.er% !een hotly &ontested !y more re&ent
resear&h into the Annaes %a+briae <see for e>amle Dum.ille% ,$00 and
Gra!o's)i and Dum.ille% ,$-1% 'hi&h indi&ate a ro!a!le early to mid8
tenth8&entury date for the Arthurian annals= and no a&ademi& resear&her
no' a&&ets the Annaes noti&es as 'itnesses to the histori&al Arthur that
&an !e relied uon(
Other attemts to fill8out the a!o.e &on&et of Arthur ha.e fo&ussed on
trying to lo&alise this Arthur( The most su&&essful <and erhas the most
methodologi&ally sound= of these is the CNorthern ArthurD theory of
/rom'i&h and others% dis&ussed !elo'% 'hi&h la&es the 'ar8leader of the
Historia .ritton#+ in the COld NorthD of /ritain on the !asis of a
&onsideration of regional !ias in the earliest stratum of Arthurian e.iden&e
<!oth histori&al and literary; see ese&ially /rom'i&h% ,$0283=( ?any other
theories try to identify and lo&ate the !attles of the Historia /rittonum in a
arti&ular region E for e>amle% the south8eastG the ?idlandsG southern
S&otland E in order to lo&alise Arthur there <something the CNorthern
ArthurD theory s&ruulously a.oids indulging in=% !ut these are seriously
undermined !y 7a&)sonDs <,$1283G ,$2$= 'arnings a!out the imossi!ility of
doing this E su&h attemts rely mainly on linguisti& CingenuityD rather than
sound s&holarshi E and the general and serious a&ademi& s&eti&ism o.er
the trust'orthiness of the HistoriaDs list of !attles <see /rom'i&h% ,$0283G
Green% ,$$-a and "##0G and Higham% "##"=( Lastly% some attemt to argue
from identifi&ations of the !attles in the Historia that Arthur 'as not
asso&iated 'ith any arti&ular lo&ality !ut rather fought !attles all o.er
/ritain from southern S&otland to south8'estern England <for e>amle%
Al&o&)% ,$0, and ,$0"=( This theory runs into maIor ro!lems% ho'e.er%
'ith regards to !oth lausi!ility and <on&e again= the nature and relia!ility of
the Historia .ritton#+ list of t'el.e !attles% of 'hi&h% it is 'orth noting on&e
more% /adon is the ony !attle mentioned that 'e )no' a&tually too) la&e
in the ost8Roman eriod <see 7a&)son% ,$2$% ese&ially (08-G /rom'i&h%
,$0283% ese&ially ( ,3-ff(G /rom'i&h et a, ,$$,; "85G Padel% ,$$1G and
Green% "##0 for <,= far !etter and less Cromanti&D e>lanations of 'hy
Historia .ritton#+ &hater 23 as&ri!es to its histori&al Arthur !attles in% for
e>amle% southern /ritain% +hester and %oed %eyddon in southern S&otland%
and <"= full dis&ussions of 'hy the HistoriaDs list of !attles &annot at all !e
treated as histori&ally relia!le=( The simle fa&t of the matter is that it is no'

"#"
generally agreed that the Historia .ritton#+Ds a&&ount is not trust'orthy or
relia!le enough to allo' any &on&lusions a!out the e>tent and area of
a&ti.ity of its suosedly histori&al Arthur to !e dra'n from it(
Finally% there are those 'ho 'ould return to the Historia .ritton#+Ds
statement that CArthur fought against them in those days% together 'ith the
)ings of the /ritons% !ut he 'as the leader in !attles Nd#4 beor#+OD for
further insiration( For them% the a!o.e statement indi&ates something
more than simle 'ar8leadershi and% erhas% an imlied non8royal status
for Arthur <see 7a&)son% ,$2$; $ for an argument that this statement does
not rule out Arthur ha.ing !een a )ing% and further !elo'=; it is rather
suggested that 'hat is !eing des&ri!ed !y the Historia .ritton#+ is Arthur
!eing aointed to the &ontrol of some )ind of &om!ined /ritish army E a
general% if you 'ill% aointed !y the /ritish )ings to lead the fight against
the in.aders 'here.er he is reAuired( Al&o&) <,$0,G ,$0"; ,28,-= &ertainly
seems to ta)e this .ie'% ha.ing Arthur as a Cgeneral &ommanding a
&om!ined /ritish for&eD% 'ith Arthur and his army riding around /ritain and
fighting in la&es as far aart as /ath and southern S&otland <see a!o.e on
the latter art of this=( Some 'ould go e.en further% ma)ing the hrase d#4
beor#+, Cleader in !attlesD% not a literal statement !ut an offi&ial title or
osition and analogous to the )no'n Late Roman %o+es .ritanniae <for
e>amle% Rhys% ,--1 and ,-$,; 38-=( +olling'ood <,$50; 5",ff(= sees this
ost8Roman /#4 !eing la&ed in &harge of a ro.ing Roman8style &a.alry
unit% 'hilst /a&hra&h <,$$#= fa.ours E on an analysis of <again= the Historia
.ritton#+ !attles E ha.ing him in &ontrol of a fifth8&entury .ersion of the
Roman na.al for&es in the north and east of /ritain(
+ertainly these last suggestions offer a mu&h more C&olourfulD .ision of
any histori&al Arthur !ut they &an !e <and ha.e !een= a&&used of going far
!eyond E sometimes .ery far !eyond E 'hat &an reasona!ly !e inferred
from the sour&es as to ArthurDs status and his role in the defen&e of /ritain(
In &on&lusion% most resear&hers 'ho !elie.e that a histori&al Arthur is at
least ossi!le ha.e referred to sti&) 'ith the &on&et of Arthur des&ri!ed
at the !eginning of this se&tion as the most that &an !e legitimately said
<ese&ially gi.en the oor Auality of our sour&es=; that is% a &on&et of
Arthur as a late fifth8Jearly si>th8&entury 'ar8leader% famed for leading the
fight against the in.ading Anglo8Sa>ons and 'inning a great .i&tory at
/adon% 'ithout any of the a!o.e se&ulations a!out aointed generalshis%
areas of oeration and 'hat8not( To Auote ?yres <,$-3; ,3=% Cif 'e add
anything to the !are statement that Arthur may ha.e li.ed and fought the
Sa>ons% 'e ass at on&e from history to Roman&e(D
See further% for e>amle% 7a&)son <,$2$; -8$= for a &ritiAue of attemts to
ma)e Arthur an aointed general and d#4 beor#+ a title% and +harles8
Ed'ards <,$$,; "182% "-= for a dis&ussion of the meaning of d#4 beor#+%
'here he argues that the hrase 'as &oined !y the author of the Historia
"#5
.ritton#+ to refle&t his .ie' that ArthurDs role 'as mu&h li)e that of Penda%
)ing of ?er&ia% at the mid8se.enth8&entury /attle of <inwXd% 'hen Penda
led a for&e of thirty other )ings and leaders against the Northum!rians% a
suggestion that re8oens the Auestion of ArthurDs royal status <or la&)
thereof= and is &learly in&omati!le 'ith any se&ulation a!out Caointed
generalsD( +harles8Ed'ardsD &omments do% of &ourse% .ery o'erfully raise
the Auestion of the e>tent to 'hi&h 'e &an really rely uon any of the
statements of Historia .ritton#+ &hater 23 as a useful guide to the suosed
fifthJsi>th8&entury reality of ArthurDs status and roleG in this light% the
senten&e dis&ussed a!o.e 'ould instead reresent an ana&hronism on the
art of the author of the Historia .ritton#+, roIe&ting his ninth8&entury ideas
a!out 'ar8leadershi onto an earlier age <+harles8Ed'ards% ,$$,; "-G see
also Higham% "##"; ,3820% ,3182 and &hater one of %once&ts of Arth#r on
this toi&=(
3. The :orthern Arthur
The Northern Arthur theory is one of the most rese&ta!le theories of a
histori&al Arthur% !eing suorted !y Thomas 7ones% Ra&hel /rom'i&h and
A(O(H( 7arman% amongst others( This model ta)es its &on&et of a histori&al
Arthur from &hater 23 of the Historia .ritton#+ E that is% it sees him as a
late fifth8Jearly si>th8&entury 'arrior famed for leading the fight against the
in.ading Anglo8Sa>ons <see a!o.e=( It then uses the nature and er&ei.ed
regional !ias of the .ery earliest stratum of Arthurian sour&es to argue that
these sour&es imly that this Arthur 'as originally a hero of 2 Gogedd, the
COld NorthD <that is northern England and southern S&otland=% and that his
later fame throughout /ritain 'as a later se&ondary de.eloment of his
legend( The Arthurian referen&e in 2 Gododdin <a oem from the COld
NorthD= is seen as arti&ularly signifi&ant in this theory% as is the
&on&entration of three or four early <c. 22#832# A(D(= CArthurD names in the
COld NorthD% in&luding a rin&e of the royal house of Dalriada( Other
imortant elements of the e.iden&e for a CNorthern ArthurD in&lude a
ossi!le northern /ritish origin for &hater 23 of the Historia .ritton#+ and
the Arthurian referen&es in the Annaes %a+briae <these elements are
&ontro.ersial% ho'e.er; see on the Historia% for e>amle% /rom'i&h% ,$0283G
Dum.ille% ,$00G Dum.ille% ,$-3G 9o&h% ,$$3; "108-=( 7arman has
&ommented 'ith regards to the 2 Gododdin referen&e <often seen as the
earliest referen&e to Arthur% dating from erhas as early as c. 3## A(D(= that
the oem is a .ery self8&ontained and insular 'or)% &on&erned only 'ith the
COld NorthD% and thus the mention of Arthur in it &an !e seen as imlying
that he 'as of that region <7arman% ,$-$8$#; ,08"#=( The most detailed
e>amination of the e.iden&e for a CNorthern ArthurD is that of /rom'i&h

"#1
<,$0283=% in 'hi&h she strongly argues for su&h an identifi&ation and
ro.ides a &onte>t for ArthurDs later% 'ider% fame !y asso&iating the
roosed shift of the Arthurian legend to 4ales 'ith the 'ell8esta!lished
mo.ement of early traditions &on&erning Northern heroes su&h as Mrien
Rheged and Lly'ar&h Hen south to 4ales !y Cat least as early as the ninth
&enturyD </rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,-#=(
One .ery maIor ad.antage o.er similar theories of ArthurDs geograhi&al
origins that this CNorthern ArthurD theory has is% of &ourse% its s&holarly
rigour and the fa&t that it is grounded firmly in a detailed and learned
analysis of the .ery earliest Arthurian sour&es( Another% as /rom'i&h notes%
is its deli!erate a.oidan&e of getting tied u in the futile games many
authors lay in trying to identify the e>a&t lo&ation of the !attles mentioned
in &hater 23 of the Historia .ritton#+ <S)ene% ,-3-; I% 2"8- is one e>amle
of this tenden&y 'hi&h might% if &orre&t% suort the Northern Arthur
hyothesisG see though 7a&)son% ,$1283% for !oth &riti&isms of S)ene and the
general futility of all attemts to identify and lo&ate more than a handful of
the !attles re&orded in the Historia=( Also &ounting in its fa.our is the
roonents 'illingness to admit to ro!lems 'ith their theory <something
that less relia!le theorists hardly e.er do=% rin&ially the fa&t that a mem!er
of the royal house of Dyfed in south 4ales E 'ho 'as ro!a!ly !orn in the
late si>th &entury E 'as named Arthur% and the referen&e to Arthur in the
mid8se.enth8&entury East Po'ys oem !arwnad %ynddyan </rom'i&h%
,$0283; ,00% ,0$G 7arman% ,$-,; 2G 7arman% ,$-$8$#; ,$( /rom'i&h offers
ossi!le solutions to !oth of these issues !ut these are not really satisfa&tory
and do not resol.e the issue; see further for dis&ussion and alternati.e
e>lanations &hater t'o of %once&ts of Arth#r% Green% ,$$-aG and Padel%
,$$1G and !elo'=(
Finally% t'o things must !e noted( First% the CNorthern ArthurD theory
does naturally deend to some large degree uon the dating% nature and
interretation of the e.iden&e mentioned a!o.e% and in this &onte>t it is
'orth noting the &ontro.ersies surrounding this <Green% ,$$-a and "##0%
and the referen&es therein=( Se&ond% the CNorthern ArthurD theory does ha.e
Auestions to ans'er 'ith regards to the /attle of /adon if E as is generally
a&&eted E this !attle 'as fought some'here in so#thern England against the
in.ading Anglo8Sa>ons( If this CNorthern ArthurD is asso&iated 'ith areas of
the COld NorthD su&h as Rheged or Gododdin% then 'e ha.e to assume that
either <,= /adon 'as not in the south <'hi&h &auses ro!lems 'ith !oth the
ar&haeology and Gildas% though these may not !e insurmounta!le=G <"=
Arthur ranged 'idely all o.er /ritain <in 'hi&h &ase the du!ious and
methodologi&ally fla'ed theories of non8lo&alised Arthur E su&h as Al&o&)%
,$0" E are in fa&t &orre&t and he 'as not an originally solely Northern figure
as /rom'i&h et a argue the sour&es indi&ate=G or <5= /adon 'as not
originally fought !y Arthur( If the latter is true then the entire &ase for
"#2
Arthur as a histori&al ersonage and defeater of the Sa>ons starts to
&ollase% as this &ase <'hate.er you may thin) of its merits= is fundamentally
!ased around the ArthurJ/adon &onne&tion% 'ith /adon suosedly !eing
the reason for ArthurDs fame amongst the /ritons and% furthermore% the
only thing that ties the Historia .ritton#+ a&&ount of Arthur to )no'n
history% 'ith the HistoriaDs a&&ount !eing the mainstay of the &ase for a
histori&al Arthur <see Green% ,$$-a% and a!o.e=(
One ossi!le solution to this issue <other than !eing for&ed to ma)e the
diffi&ult argument for a northern /adon= may !e to follo' /rom'i&h in
asso&iating Arthur 'ith Cthe south8eastern &orner of the POld NorthQ% that
is 'ith the East Riding of Kor)shire and ossi!ly 'ith Kor) itselfD <the later
Anglian )ingdom of Deira=% rather than the more northerly regions( This
'ould ut Arthur far enough south to fight fifth8&entury Anglian in.aders
<see% for e>amle% the large early8Anglian &remation &emetery at San&ton in
the East Riding of Kor)shire= and it is reasona!ly &lose to the most
northerly of the &andidates for /adon% /aum!er in northern Lin&olnshire(
Then% 'hen this area 'as lost to the in.aders% the traditions of a great
defender might ha.e !een assed north'ards to the sur.i.ing COld NorthD
)ingdoms <see /rom'i&h% ,$35G ,$0283; ,-#8,G ,$0-; "02G and Thomson%
,$0$; ",28$ for an argument that the East Riding E or the Sale of Kor) E
'as in fa&t the area Gildas 'as tal)ing a!out 'hen he ga.e details of the
settlement and re!ellion of the Anglo8Sa>on federates; this is highly
de!ata!le though% for e>amle 4right% ,$-1G Higham% ,$$,G Dar)% ,$$5;
"3#833G Higham% ,$$1=( O.erall% this seems to !e the most lausi!le .ariant
of the CNorthern ArthurD theory(
. Arthur the #*peror
The notion that Arthur 'as some sort of emeror has its origins firmly in
the ?iddle Ages( Geoffrey of ?onmouth% in his Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae,
has Arthur as the ruler of an emire that e.entually en&omassed /ritain%
/rittany% Ireland% I&eland% Gaul and Nor'ay% and e.en &hallenged Imerial
Rome itself% and there may !e tra&es of this &on&etion in earlier te>ts su&h
as the Old 4elsh oem Gereint fiAi#sB Erbin, 'here Arthur is &alled
Cemeror% leader in toil Ni.e. !attleOD% though the term translated as CemerorD%
a+era#d#r, may !e !etter read in this &onte>t as CgeneralD or C&ommanderD
<7arman% ,$-5; ,#3=( In the t'entieth and t'enty8first &enturies% ho'e.er%
the notion that the histori&al Arthur 'as genuinely an emeror% ruling o.er
the 'hole of /ritain% has not E to say the least E a&hie.ed 'idesread assent
amongst a&ademi&s( In fa&t the theory had its only serious modern
&hamion in 7ohn ?orris% 'ho sa' Arthur as the dominant figure of his
age( ?orris made an e>tensi.e study of CThe Age of ArthurD <as he termed

"#3
it= and his main &on&lusions on ArthurDs identity from this resear&h 'ere as
follo's;
He 'as the emeror% the all8o'erful ruler of the 'hole of /ritain%
and the seat of his o'er 'as in the lo'lands N+ol&hester%
a&&ording to ?orris% 'as +amelotO[ NHe restoredO the go.ernment
of NtheO Roman emeror% eAuied 'ith a hierar&hy of &i.il and
military offi&ers% on the model of that 'hi&h had e>isted in the
earlier fifth &entury[ These institutions endured for at least thirty
years after /adon [ 4ith Arthur died the unity of /ritain% and all
hoe of re.i.ing it under /ritish rule[ The rule of Arthur had
!een an age of order% truth and Iusti&e% to !e raised in
retrose&t[ Arthur dominates and unites the history of t'o
&enturiesG his .i&tory 'as the &lima> and &onsummation of the
fifth8&entury strugglesG and his undoing shaed the history of the
si>th &entury% the mould 'herein the future of the /ritish Isles 'as
formed( He 'as at on&e the last Roman emeror in the 'est% and
the first medie.al )ing of the &ountry no' &alled England [ He
left a golden legend% and he res&ued a &orner of the Roman 'orld
from !ar!arian rule for a short sa&e( <?orris% ,$05; ,5"8,1,=
Mnli)e some of the other theories of a histori&al Arthur dis&ussed here% fe'
'ould no' !e temted to des&ri!e ?orrisD CArthur the EmerorD theory as a
rese&ta!le 'or) of s&holarshi in its totality% and ese&ially 'ith regards to
Arthur( As has !een argued at length !y t'o distinguished re.ie'ers% it is Can
out'ardly imressi.e ie&e of s&holarshiD 'hi&h C&rum!les uon inse&tion
into a tangled tissue of fa&t and fantasy 'hi&h is !oth misleading and
misguidedD <9ir!y and 4illiams% ,$0283=( This .ie' is suorted to some
.ery large degree !y Da.id Dum.ille in his Iustly famous atta&) on !oth
?orris and Al&o&) <,$0,=% CSu!8Roman /ritain; History and LegendD% 'here
he demonstrates the utter in.alidity of ?orrisD aroa&h to the sour&es
'hi&h renders his Cre&onstru&tionD of e.ents almost &omletely 'orthless
<Dum.ille% ,$00=( Another re.ie'er% 7ames +am!ell% is slightly more
generous% re&ognising the good hidden in amongst the !ad% !ut he too
admits that The Age of Arth#r is a !oo) so misleading% so idiosyn&rati&% so full
of ro!lems% diffi&ulties% and tras for the un'ary% that it should !e used
only !y rofessional s&holars E already familiar enough 'ith the ongoing
de!ates and the rimary sour&es to ignore the many unrelia!le theories and
assages in the !oo) E and that it is manifestly not a 'or) aroriate for
amateurs or ne'&omers to the su!Ie&t <+am!ell% ,$02=( Mnfortunately% this
seems to !e Iust the &ategory of readers 'ho ma)e most use of the !oo)
no'adays% 'ith .ery fe' rofessional resear&hers e.er no' returning to the
tome due to these immense ro!lems(
"#0
". The SouthH+estern Arthur
The !elief that the histori&al Arthur !elongs to the south8'est of /ritain has
!een suorted re&ently !y authors su&h as Ashe <,$3-; 2#8,= and Dunning
<,$--=% !ut it is an an&ient and oular asso&iation( Thus% for e>amle% he is
&alled &enn kadoed Kernyw% C&hief of the !attalions of +orn'allD% in the c. ,,2#
non8Galfridian oem 2+ddiddan Arth#r a?r Eryr% and in HermanDs /e
!irac#is (anctae !ariae 9a#densis <CThe ?ira&les of St( ?ary of LaonD= a .isit
to +orn'all in ,,,5 !y some &anons from Laon almost ended in .iolen&e
and rioting 'hen one of the .isitors dared to argue that the eole of
/odmin 'ere 'rong in their !elief that Arthur Cstill li.edD% indi&ating the
great strength of interest and feeling amongst the lo&al +ornish oulation
of the early t'elfth &entury to'ards Arthur <see +oe and Koung% ,$$2; 1180%
and Padel% ,$$1; -8$% on this=( Another south8'estern asso&iation for Arthur
is the fa&t that a the early nati.e sour&es E the t'elfth8&entury 4elsh oets%
the non8Galfridian Trioedd 2nys Prydein <the C4elsh TriadsD=% and %#hwch ac
6wen <'hi&h has !een .ariously dated from the mid8tenth &entury to the
late ele.enth &entury= E agree that ArthurDs &ourt 'as &alled Kei wic <Cthe
forest gro.eD= and 'as to !e found in +orn'all( Indeed% Kei wic also seems
to aear in the Arthurian oem Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5, 'hi&h may date from
as early as the ninth &entury% and as su&h there is a strong suggestion that
the tradition of Kei wic as ArthurDs &ourt 'as one of &onsidera!le antiAuity
<in the oem it is not% ho'e.er% stated 'here this la&e 'as to !e found !ut%
gi.en that Kei wic is ne.er lo&ated any'here other than +orn'all in nati.e
tradition% a +ornish lo&ation &an reasona!ly !e assumedG see further on all
the a!o.e /rom'i&h% ,$0-; 581G Padel% ,$$,; "5181#G 9o&h% ,$$1; ,,"0=(
Other e.iden&e for an asso&iation of Arthur 'ith south8'estern /ritain
in&ludes the mid8late ninth8&entury oem Gereint fiAi#sB Erbin\ the ;ita Pri+a
(ancti %arantoci <c( ,,##B=% 'hi&h mentions a dragon8slaying eisode in
SomersetG the story of G'enh'yfarDs a!du&tion and imrisonment at
Glaston!ury <and ArthurDs summoning of the men of +orn'all and De.on
to hel free her= in the ;ita Gidae of +arado& of Llan&arfan <,,"#s or
,,5#s=G the !elief that Glaston!ury 'as ArthurDs last resting la&e and
A.alon <see !elo'=G and Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs story of ArthurDs
&on&etion at Tintagel% +orn'all <many of these sour&es are dis&ussed
further in Green% ,$$-! and "##0=(
These are the )inds of materials uon 'hi&h the theory of a south8
'estern Arthur has often !een !uilt <for e>amle% 4ilson% n(d(; $380=( The
ro!lem 'ith all of this is% of &ourse% that it stems mainly from sour&es
refle&ting the Arthurian legend% rather than those% su&h as the Historia
.ritton#+% 'hi&h are generally felt to refle&t% to some degree% the Arthurian
reality( Naturally% this does raise some .ery imortant methodologi&al issues(
Fundamentally this theory ro&eeds from the same !asis as the CNorthern
ArthurD theory% that is an attemt to lo&ate the 'ar8leader of Historia

"#-
.ritton#+ &hater 23 !y loo)ing at the regional !ias of the Arthurian sour&es(
Ho'e.er% t'o things need to !e noti&ed here( First% 'e ha.e to re&ognise
that the a!o.e sour&es for a CSouth84estern ArthurD are generally far more
ClegendaryD in nature than those used !y the CNorthern ArthurD theory(
Se&ond% 'hilst there are more of them% they are also largely later E
sometimes mu&h later E in date than those used !y the CNorthern ArthurD
theory <ese&ially if the 2 Gododdin referen&e &an !e dated to !efore c. 35-
A(D(% as 9o&h% ,$$0 has re&ently arguedG see% ho'e.er% Green% ,$$-a and
"##0=( If 'e are to see the de.eloment of the Arthurian legend as a general
mo.ement from so!er history to fantasti&al <and in&reasingly oular=
legend% then !oth of these features 'ould tend to add 'eight to /rom'i&hDs
notion that the resen&e of the legend in the south8'est refle&ts a se&ondary
de.eloment of an originally northern legend and hero% though there are
issues 'ith this theory </rom'i&h% ,$0283 and a!o.e=(
Gi.en the a!o.e &onsiderations% the &ase for a CSouth84estern ArthurD
'ould seem to reAuire further suort if it is to !e &onsidered lausi!le( If
the suosed dis&o.ery of ArthurDs gra.e in the ,,$#s !y the mon)s at
Glaston!ury A!!ey <and their &laim that Glaston!ury 'as A.alon= &ould !e
ro.en to !e genuine then this 'ould o!.iously signifi&antly alter the
situation( +(A( Ralegh Radford <,$3-= and L( Al&o&) <,$0,= ha.e attemted
to% at least artially% argue this &ase% !ut they fail to &on.in&e <see Raht6%
,$$5G +arey% ,$$$G +arley% ,$$$=( Another ossi!le lin) 'ith reality &omes
from the Al&o&)Ds e>&a.ations at +ad!ury +astle% Somerset% 'hi&h sho'ed
that this imortant Iron8Age hill8fort 'as reo&&uied and hea.ily refortified
in the late fifth or si>th &entury !y a .ery o'erful 'ar8lord <Al&o&)% ,$0"
and ,$$2=% the Arthurian lin) !eing Leland in the si>teenth &entury 'ho
re&ords that the lo&al eole thought that this site 'as ArthurDs +amelot(
+ertainly the ossi!ility is interesting% !ut the Arthurian lin) is !ased on
.ery late traditions% first re&orded more than ,### years after the histori&al
Arthur is suosed to ha.e li.ed% 'hi&h se.erely limits their .alue in
&onstru&ting any theory of a histori&al ArthurG +ad!ury8+amelot therefore
&annot !e ta)en as roof of a CSouth84estern ArthurD(
The Auestion must therefore !e as)ed% is there any good reason to
!elie.e that the CSouth84estern ArthurD theory is 'orth suortingB I thin)
that 'e &an &autiously ans'er Cyes% erhasD here% on the follo'ing !asis(
4or)ing 'ith the &riti&al study of the early materials as our foundation% 'e
&an say that most serious resear&hers E if they !elie.e in Arthur at all E
'ould argue that the Historia .ritton#+ is the only lausi!le sour&e of
information on any histori&al Arthur that 'e ossess% and that the most that
&an !e inferred from this sour&e 'ith any degree of &onfiden&e is that
Arthur 'as a late fifth8Jearly si>th8&entury 'ar8leader% famed for leading the
fight against the Anglo8Sa>on in.aders and 'inning a great .i&tory at the
/attle of /adon( No'% gi.en that the .i&tory o.er the Anglo8Sa>ons at
"#$
/adon is suosedly the main reason for ArthurDs fame E and the fa&t that it
is the ony !attle asso&iated 'ith Arthur in the Historia .ritton#+ <the sour&e
of the main a&ademi& &on&et of any histori&al Arthur= 'hi&h 'e )no'
from other histori&al sour&es a&tually too) la&e in the ost8Roman eriod E
it does not seem unreasona!le to ta)e its lo&ation as some sort of a guide to
the region of oeration of any histori&al ArthurG it is the only remotely
relia!le &lue that our Chistori&alD sour&es &an ro.ide for us( Of &ourse this
does reAuire a degree of assumtion% mainly that /adon 'ould ha.e !een
fought in ro#ghy the region Arthur oerated 'ithin% !ut this does not seem
unreasona!le either( The notion that any histori&al Arthur 'as a general or
e.en an emeror<V= 'ho led a &om!ined /ritish army in fighting !attles all
o.er /ritain E as Al&o&) <,$0, and ,$0"= and ?orris <,$05= ma)e him E%
not Iust his o'n general region <'here.er that might ha.e !een=% is no longer
suorted !y serious resear&hers and &an !e dismissed on the grounds of
!oth lausi!ility and the nature and relia!ility of the Historia .ritton#+ list of
t'el.e !attles% uon 'hi&h it largely rests <as noted a!o.eG see the other
referen&es there for further details% ese&ially /rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,3-ff(% and
a!o.e=( One 'ould not 'ish to &laim that an identifi&ation of /adon might
&losely lo&alise Arthur E it &annot !e denied that ost8Roman 'ar8leaders
might ha.e ranged o.er a reasona!ly 'ide area% e.en if the notion of them
tra.elling all o.er /ritain &an !e dismissed E !ut it +ay gi.e us some idea
a!out the genera region that he oerated 'ithin <I am% of &ourse% lea.ing to
one side here the Auestion of 'hether /adon 'as a&tually fought !y Arthur%
for the .ery good reasons set out a!o.e=(
So% 'here 'as /adonB ?ost resear&hers agree that this !attle 'as fought
some'here in southern /ritain% 'ith 7a&)son 'riting that Cno amount of
ingenuity &an ma)e /adon% the most ro!a!ly genuine of NArthurDs !attlesO%
anything !ut a !attle against the Sa>ons or the 7utes in southern EnglandD
<7a&)son% ,$2$; ,# E see also% for e>amle% /rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,0"=( Some
dissenting .oi&es ha.e !een raised against this &onsensus% referring to
argue the diffi&ult &ase for a lo&ation of /adon in the north of /ritain
<Thomson% ,$0$; ",28,$ and Dum.ille% ,$-1; 0#8"=% !ut this suggestion is
highly &ontentious and has not re&ei.ed 'idesread suort <see for
e>amle Higham% ,$$,G Dar)% ,$$5; "3#83G Higham% ,$$1G 4right% ,$-1=(
Further% the general &onsensus that /adon ro!a!ly !elongs to southern
/ritain is suorted and sulemented !y the ar&haeology of fifth8&entury
Anglo8Sa>on settlement% 'hi&h indi&ates that the earliest and most e>tensi.e
settlements and &onAuests !y the in.ading Anglo8Sa>ons o&&urred in the
south and east of /ritain% ma)ing this the most lausi!le region for the
oeration of a /ritish 'ar8leader fighting the in.aders <good modern
summaries and introdu&tions to the ar&haeology in&lude +ar.er% ,$-$G
Ha')es% ,$-$G Hines% ,$$#G Higham% ,$$"G 4el&h% ,$$5G S&ull% ,$$2G and
Arnold% ,$$0% &hater "=(
If 'e &an thus say that /adon ro!a!ly !elongs to southern /ritain%

",#
'here in southern /ritain 'as itB There are t'o main theories 'ith regards
to this( The first theory argues that the name .adon 'ould% 'hen it 'as
ta)en into Old English and if the site 'as a fortified hill% regularly !e&ome
the modern English la&e8name C/ad!uryD and .ariants <see 7a&)son% ,$258-G
Gelling% ,$--; 3#8,=( There are a num!er of C/ad!uryD names in southern
and eastern England that might thus ha.e their origins in .adon, in&luding
/ad!ury Rings <Dorset=% Liddington +astle <4iltshire% this site !eing on&e
)no'n as /ad!ury +am=% /ad!ury Hill </er)shire=% and /aum!er
<Lin&olnshire=% 'ith /ad!ury Rings in Dorset often !eing the fa.oured
a!o.e the others <see ese&ially 7a&)son% ,$258-=( Another fa.oured
C/ad!uryD identifi&ation is Liddington +astle% !ut re&ent ar&haeologi&al
e>&a.ations there seem to &ast dou!t on the lausi!ility of any identifi&ation
of this site 'ith /adon% desite suort for it from +ham!ers <,$"0=% ?yres
<,$-3; ,2$= and others <see Hirst and Raht6% ,$$3=( The se&ond theory
follo's Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae in identifying
/adon 'ith /ath% an identifi&ation that has !een ta)en u in modern times
!y Al&o&) <,$0,; 0#80,= and the /ur)itts <,$$#= on !oth hilologi&al and
ar&haeologi&al grounds( On the 'hole it &annot yet !e said to !e &lear 'hi&h
of these &ometing theories should &ommand our suort( Ho'e.er% as the
most re&ent sur.ey of the e.iden&e has &ommented% 'e &an say on the most
general le.el that the !alan&e of ro!a!ilities and &urrent s&holarly oinion
indi&ates that Cthe !attle ro!a!ly too) la&e in the south8'estD <Hirst and
Raht6% ,$$3; ,0=(
In &on&lusion% if 'e assume <as it does not seem unreasona!le to do=
that the lo&ation of /adon &an !e seen as a ro#gh guide to the general region
that the Arthur of the Historia .ritton#+ &hater 23 oerated in% then it
follo's that Arthur 'as Auite ossi!ly a figure from the southern ortion of
/ritain and most ro!a!ly the south8'est( This notion has the maIor
ad.antage of !eing !ased around 'hat &an !e reasona!ly assumed from the
Chistori&alD sour&es a!out any ossi!le genuinely histori&al Arthur% rather
than a er&ei.ed regional !ias in the Cnon8histori&alD material &on&erning
Arthur% and if it is a&&eted then it does go a long 'ay to'ards ma)ing the
CSouth84estern ArthurD theory the lausi!le theory that the later legendary
material on its o'n &annot(
There are% naturally% a num!er of issues 'ith this theory; First% !y its .ery
nature in arguing for a CSouth84estern ArthurD% this theory ignores or sets8
aside the e.iden&e for a northern !ias in the early Arthurian material su&h as
2 Gododdin, as o!ser.ed !y /rom'i&h <,$0283= and others <see a!o.e=( To
this 'e &an add that there is also early e.iden&e for a )no'ledge of Arthur
and his legends in 4ales% in&luding Historia .ritton#+ &hater 05 <the
traditions related here are &onsidered to re8date the ninth &entury;
/rom'i&h and E.ans% ,$$"; l>.i=G the oem Preide# Annwfyn <'hi&h 9o&h
argues should !e dated to !efore the late eighth &entury; 9o&h% ,$$3; "358
",,
2=G the mid8se.enth8&entury East Po'ys oem !arwnad %ynddyanG and the
e>isten&e of Arthur ma Petr of the Dyfed royal house% !orn c( 20# A(D(
</rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,0-8$=( This is% of &ourse% art of a 'ider issue 'hi&h
seriously affe&ts the CNorthern ArthurD theory too; e.en the .ery earliest and
most relia!le e.iden&e for the distri!ution of a )no'ledge of the Arthurian
legend E the use of the name Arthur in the mid8late si>th &entury !y the
royal houses of !oth Dyfed and Dalriada E indi&ates that this )no'ledge
'as e>tremely 'idely sread% from south 4ales to southern S&otland( The
e>lanation of all this is .ery diffi&ult% ese&ially gi.en that theories of the
histori&al Arthur as an age8defining figure 'ho fought all around /ritain are
no longer &onsidered lausi!le or methodologi&ally defensi!le% as noted
a!o.e <for ossi!le solutions to this ro!lem% see /rom'i&h% ,$0283; ,00ff(G
Padel% ,$$1% ese&ially ("1G Green% ,$$-a and &hater t'o of %once&ts of
Arth#r; /rom'i&hDs is the only solution that has !een offered 'hi&h 'ould
maintain Arthur as a histori&al figure% and it forms art of her CNorthern
ArthurD theory=( Of &ourse% as formulated a!o.e% the CSouth84estern
ArthurD theory is rimarily !ased around the Chistori&alD sour&es% not
materials refle&ting the gro'th of the Arthurian legend% !ut this does not
mean that these &onsiderations &an !e dis&ounted or ignoredG the Auestion
still has to !e as)ed% if 'e argue that the histori&al Arthur !elonged to the
south8'est% 'hat then are 'e to ma)e of this .ery early e.iden&e for a
)no'ledge of his legend in 4ales and southern S&otlandB
Se&ond% the a!o.e argument for a CSouth84estern ArthurD is !ased
around an assumtion that /adon 'ould ha.e !een fought in roughly the
same region that any histori&al Arthur oerated 'ithin( 4hilst this is not at
all unreasona!le% it is an assumtion and it should !e remem!ered that early
medie.al 'ar8!ands &ould !e .ery mo!ile% raiding dee into enemy territory(
Gi.en% ho'e.er% that 'e are only loo)ing for a rough general region for
ArthurDs oeration% rather than an e>a&t lo&ation% this is mu&h less of a
&on&ern and an issue than it might ha.e !een( And third and finally% 'e
should not forget that /adon has not a&tually !een se&urely identified(
4hilst most agree that it 'as fought in southern /ritain and most li)ely in
the south8'est% there are dissenting .oi&es( It ought not to !e forgotten that
one of the C/ad!uryD8style la&e8names 'hi&h may deri.e from .adon is
lo&ated in Lin&olnshire% still south of the Hum!er !ut in the East ?idlands
rather than the south8'est( Furthermore% /adon may not% of &ourse% ha.e
!een any of the la&es so far suggested !ut rather some as8yet8undis&o.ered
site else'here in /ritain% 'here erhas a ne' English or S&andina.ian
la&e8name has silently rela&ed and erased the earlier name C/adonD(

","
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",5
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7(/( +oe and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The %etic (o#rces for the Arth#rian
9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=
R(G( +olling'ood and 7(N(L( ?yres% -o+an .ritain and the Engish (ette+ents
<O>ford% ,$50=
9(R( Dar)% %ivitas to Kingdo+: .ritish Poitica %ontin#ity, EFF'GFF <London%
,$$5=
D(N( Dum.ille% COn the North /ritish Se&tion of the Historia .ritton#+D%
<esh History -eview% -(5 <,$00=% ( 512821
D(N( Dum.ille% CSu!8Roman /ritain; History and LegendD% History% 3"
<,$00=% ( ,058$"
D(N( Dum.ille% CThe &hronology of /e E4cidio .ritanniae, /oo) ,D% in ?(
Laidge and D(N( Dum.ille <edd(= Gidas: ,ew A&&roaches <4ood!ridge%
,$-1=% ( 3,8-1
D(N( Dum.ille% CThe Histori&al Salue of the Historia .ritton#+D% Arth#rian
9iterat#re% 3 <,$-3=% ( ,8"3
R( Dunning% Arth#r: King in the <est <Glou&ester% ,$--=
?( Gelling% CTo'ards a &hronology for English la&e8namesD% in D( Hoo)e
<ed(= Ango'(a4on (ette+ents <O>ford% ,$--=% ( 2$803

",1
L(?( Go'ans% %ei and the Arth#rian 9egend% Arthurian Studies HSIII
<+am!ridge% ,$--=
9( Gra!o's)i and D(N( Dum.ille% %hronices and Annas of !edieva @reand
and <aes <4ood!ridge% ,$-1=
T( Green% CThe Histori&ity and Histori&isation of ArthurD <,$$-a=% ar&hi.ed
at htt&:))www.arth#riana.co.#k)historicity)arth#r.ht+
T( Green% CA /i!liograhi& Guide to 4elsh Arthurian LiteratureD <,$$-!=%
ar&hi.ed at htt&:))www.arth#riana.co.#k)notes03#eries),01S^Arth9it.&df
T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=
S(+( Ha')es% CThe South8East After the Romans; The Sa>on SettlementD% in
S(A( ?a>field <edd(= The (a4on (hore. A Handbook <E>eter% ,$-$=% ( 0-8$2
N(7( Higham% COld light on the Dar) Age lands&ae; the des&rition of
/ritain in the /e E4cidio .ritanniae of GildasD% Jo#rna of Historica Geogra&hy%
,0 <,$$,=% ( 53580"
N(7( Higham% -o+e, .ritain and the Ango'(a4ons <London% ,$$"=
N(7( Higham% The Engish %on3#est: Gidas and .ritain in the Fifth %ent#ry
<?an&hester% ,$$1=
N(7( Higham% King Arth#r, !yth'+aking and History <London% "##"=
7( Hines% CPhilology% Ar&haeology and the Advent#s (a4on#+ ve Angor#+D% in
A( /ammes!erger and A( 4ollman <edd(= .ritain HFF'IFF: 9ang#age and
History <Heidel!erg% ,$$#=% ( ,0853
S( Hirst and P( Raht6% CLiddington +astle and the /attle of /adon;
E>&a.ation and Resear&h ,$03D% The Archaeoogica Jo#rna% ,25 <,$$3=% ( ,8
2$
9(H( 7a&)son% COn&e Again ArthurDs /attlesD% !odern Phioogy% 15 <,$1283=%
( 11820
9(H( 7a&)son% CThe site of ?ount /adonD% Jo#rna of %etic (t#dies% "(" <,$258
-=% ( ,2"822
",2
9(H( 7a&)son% CThe Arthur of HistoryD% in R( Loomis <ed(= Arth#rian
9iterat#re in the !idde Ages <O>ford% ,$2$=% ( ,8,,
9(H( 7a&)son% The Gododdin <Edin!urgh% ,$3$=
A(O(H( 7arman% CThe Delineation of Arthur in Early 4elsh SerseD% in 9(
Sarty <ed(= An Arth#rian Ta&estry: Essays in !e+ory of 9ewis Thor&e <Glasgo'%
,$-,=% ( ,8",
A(O(H( 7arman% CThe Arthurian Allusions in the /la&) /oo) of +armarthenD%
in P(/( Grout et a <edd(= The 9egend of Arth#r in the !idde Ages <+am!ridge%
,$-5=% ( $$8,,"
A(O(H( 7arman% CThe Arthurian Allusions in the /oo) of AneirinD% (t#dia
%etica% "1J"2 <,$-$8$#=% ( ,28"2
T( 7ones% CThe Early E.olution of the Legend of ArthurD% ,ottingha+
!edieva (t#dies% - <,$31=% ( 58",
D(P( 9ir!y and 7(E(+( 4illiams% CRe.ie' of The Age of Arth#rD% (t#dia %etica%
,#8,, <,$0283=% ( 1218-3
7(T( 9o&h% CRe.ie' of R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=% The Arthur of the 4elshD%
(&ec##+% 3$(1 <O&to!er% ,$$1=% ( ,,"08$
7(T( 9o&h% CThe +elti& LandsD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= !edieva Arth#rian 9iterat#re:
A G#ide to -ecent -esearch <Ne' Kor)=% ( "5$85""
7(T( 9o&h% The Gododdin of Aneirin. Te4t and %onte4t fro+ /ark'Age ,orth
.ritain <+ardiff% ,$$0=
7( ?orris% The Age of Arth#r <London% ,$05=
7(N(L( ?yres% CRe.ie' of The Age of Arth#rD% Engish Historica -eview% $#
<,$02=% ( ,,583
7(N(L( ?yres% The Engish (ette+ents <O>ford% ,$-3=
O(7( Padel% CSome south8'estern sites 'ith Arthurian asso&iationsD% in R(
/rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh. The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva
<esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( ""$8 "1-

",3
O(7( Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0
<Summer ,$$1=% ( ,85,
P( Raht6% Gastonb#ry <London% ,$$5=
+(A( Ralegh Radford% CGlaston!ury A!!eyD% in G( Ashe <ed(= The 1#est for
Arth#r?s .ritain <London% ,$3-=% ( $08,,#
7( Rhys% %etic .ritain <London% ,--1=
7( Rhys% (t#dies in the Arth#rian 9egend <O>ford% ,-$,=
+( S&ull% CAroa&hes to material &ulture and so&ial dynami&s of the
migration eriod in eastern EnglandD% in 7( /intliff and H( Hamero' <edd(=
E#ro&e .etween 9ate Anti3#ity and the !idde Ages <O>ford% ,$$2=% ( 0,8-5
4(F( S)ene% The Fo#r Ancient .ooks of <aes <Edin!urgh% ,-3-=
E(A( Thomson% CGildas and the History of /ritainD% .ritannia% ,# <,$0$=% (
"#58"3
?( 4el&h% CThe ar&haeologi&al e.iden&e for federate settlement in /ritain in
the fifth &enturyD% in F( Sallet and ?( 9a6ans)i <edd(= 9?Ar+Ze -o+aine et es
barbares d# @;e a# ;@@e si_ces <Paris% ,$$5=% ( "3$800
+( 4ilson% CSear&h for the Real ArthurD% in /( Du>!ury et a, King Arth#r
%o#ntry in %ornwa <St Teath% n(d(=
N( 4right% CGildasDs Geograhi&al Perse&ti.e; Some Pro!lemsD% in ?(
Laidge and D(N( Dum.ille <edd(= Gidas: ,ew A&&roaches <4ood!ridge%
,$-1=% ( -28,#3
",0
An Arthurian Referen&e in !arwnad Gw"nB
The ?anus&rit E.iden&e E>amined
Although the early 4elsh oeti& referen&es to Arthur are no' freAuently
dis&ussed and utilised% there is one ossi!le referen&e that is only .ery rarely
mentioned% and only then in non8a&ademi& 'or)s( This is the aarent
referen&e to Arthur in the %an# 9ywarch Hen oem !arwnad Gw"n% noted !y
the !yvyrian Archaioogy of <aes% ($5!% and S)eneDs Fo#r Ancient .ooks II%
(153( The oem itself has re&ently !een dated !y Ro'land <in Eary <esh
(aga Poetry% (5--8$= to the late -th to mid8$th &entury% and its Arthurian
.ersion runs as follo's;
Gwen wrth awen yd weas neithwyr
arth#r ny techas
G'an 'at&hed last night !y the Lla'enG
Arthur did not retreat(
The reason for the a!sen&e of this referen&e from re&ent a&ademi&
dis&ussions of the early Arthurian legend is the fa&t that it is not found in
the Red /oo) of Hergest <R/= te>t of the oem% 'hi&h is the rimary !asis
of all modern editions( The se&ond line of the engyn in the R/ reads;
ath#c ny techas
The .ersion 'hi&h su!stitutes arth#r for ath#c is only noted as a .ariant
reading in the editions of 4illiams% Ford and Ro'land% 'ith no further
&omment( The Auestion addressed in the resent arti&le is simly 'hether
this &urrent reIe&tion of the arth#r reading is fully Iustified(
Mnfortunately% the !yvyrian Archaioogy% 'hi&h treats the arth#r reading as
rimary% does not re.eal its sour&e for this line( Aside from this% the arth#r
reading is )no'n only from t'o Cte>tsD 'ithin a single manus&rit% National
Li!rary of 4ales 1$05% &olle&ted and &oied !y Dr 7ohn Da.ies of ?all'yd
!efore ,35,( The ath#c .ersion% on the other hand% is found in the late ,1th8
&entury R/% the ,3#0 Peniarth ?s( ,,,% /L( Addl( ?s( 5,#22% and <again=
NL4 1$05 <the ages from the 4hite /oo) of Rhydder&h <4/= 'hi&h

",-
should ha.e &ontained this oem are unfortunately missing=( The R/ is
&learly a mu&h older manus&rit than any of the others and there are more
e>amles of the ath#c reading than the arth#r( Ne.ertheless% it is 'orth
e>amining these manus&rits further to see 'hether the arth#r .ersion of the
engyn &an !e &omletely dismissed from &onsideration(
First let us deal 'ith the main ath#c readings( The R/ is% of &ourse%
famous as one of our main sour&es of medie.al 4elsh literature( It has !een
des&ri!ed as a one .olume li!rary% &ontaining almost the 'hole !ody of
4elsh literature )no'n to ha.e !een &ommitted to 'riting !efore ,1##( As
su&h it is easy to see 'hy it has !een gi.en riority( Ho'e.er% the R/ te>t
&annot !e &onsidered to !e &omletely relia!le( It should not !e forgotten
that it is only a late ,1th8&entury &oy of a oem 'hi&h 'as &omosed u to
3## years earlier% and editorial 'or) !y 4illiams and others indi&ates that
emendations to the te>t of the Lly'ar&h Hen engynion are ne&essary and
readings in other manus&rits are sometimes suerior(
T'o of the other ath#c readings are related% as !oth Peniarth ?s( ,,, and
/L( Addl( ?s( 5,#22 deri.e from a lost ,205 &oy of the lost 4/ ortions
of the %an# 9ywarch Hen( As su&h 'e &an assume that the ,1th8&entury 4/
.ersion of ?ar'nad G'an also read ath#c% not arth#r( This% naturally% greatly
suorts the notion that ath#c is &orre&t% though not to su&h a great e>tent as
might !e at first thought( The 4/ is% of &ourse% famous in its o'n right as
the other maIor reository of medie.al 4elsh literature aside from the R/%
and it is indeed a little earlier in date than the R/ <mid8,1th &entury=(
Ho'e.er% it is not indeendent of the R/ E they !oth seem to deri.e% at
least in the &ase of their engynion oetry% from an earlier &ommon single
sour&e <Ro'land% CThe Red /oo) engynion?% (-#8"=( As su&h% the main
'itnesses to the ath#c reading of line ,1! of the %an# 9ywarch do not in fa&t
reresent dis&rete ie&es of e.iden&e for the &orre&tness of this readingG
rather they are reresentati.e of a single manus&rit tradition <although the
fa&t that !oth the 4/ and the R/ &ontained ath#c indi&ates that this
tradition &ould 'ell go !a&) !eyond the mid8,1th &entury=(
Ne>t 'e &ome to NL4 1$05( This manus&rit is most interesting%
&ontaining &oies of a num!er of different% earlier 4elsh manus&rits(
/riefly% it in&ludes; a &oy of a lost manus&rit of the 'or)s of the
Gogynfeirdd <in&luding "0 oems not found any'here else=G a &oy of the
/oo) of TaliesinG the oldest e>tant &oy of !arwnad %ynddyan <a genuinely
mid80th8&entury oem 'hi&h in&ludes one of the earliest referen&es to
Arthur=G a uniAue .ersion of the Cengynion 9ywarchD% termed !y Ro'land
CNL4 1$05aD in her study of the engynion oetryG a &oy of mis&ellaneous
oetry from the R/G and a se&ond uniAue &oy of the Cengynion 9ywarchD%
termed !y Ro'land CNL4 1$05!D(
From the erse&ti.e of !arwnad Gw"n% the imortant thing to note here
is that neither 1$05a nor 1$05! &an !e seen as a simle &omosite &oy of
",$
e>tant .ersions( Instead they !oth aear to !e genuinely medie.al in origin
and indeendent from the R/ and the C4/D te>ts <and ea&h other= E indeed%
in some readings they are &learly suerior to the R/ and the C4/D and
&onfirm some of the emendations to the te>t roosed !y 4illiams and
others <Ro'land% CRed /oo) engynionDG Ro'land% Eary <esh (aga Poetry%
(5$0ff(=( So ho' do they treat the se&ond line of the engynB In fa&t% !oth
&ontain !oth readings of this line( NL4 1$05a reads ath h#g% &hanged a!o.e
to arth#r% 'hilst 1$05! reads Arth#r% 'ith C9. % NYR/O Ath#g ) ath dd#gD
added in the margin( Presuma!ly Da.ies &oied 1$05aDs ath#c reading and
then 'ent !a&)% after dis&o.ering 1$05!Ds reading% and C&orre&tedD it to
arth#r <'hilst noting% in 1$05!% the fa&t that R/ E 'hi&h Da.ies had
a.aila!le to him E disagreed 'ith this reading=(
Thus 'e effe&ti.ely ha.e three dis&rete 'itnesses to the line in Auestion(
One% NL4 1$05!% uses arth#r and ro!a!ly goes !a&) to at least the time of
the R/% though it is not deri.ed from this( The other t'o% NL4 1$05a and
the R/J4/ te>t% use ath#c)ath h#g% and ro!a!ly go !a&) !eyond the ,1th
&entury% though !y ho' mu&h isnDt &lear( The fa&t that none of these te>ts
gi.e us a definiti.e .ersion of the Lly'ar&h Hen engynion% all &ontaining
some readings 'hi&h are suerior and some 'hi&h are inferior to those
found in the other manus&rits% means that 'e &annot !e &omletely &ertain
that the arth#r reading of NL4 1$05! and !yvyrian Archaioogy is a mista)e
through a &onsideration of the manus&rits alone( Ho'e.er% the &om!ined
C'eightD of the R/% C4/D and NL4 1$05a te>ts &ertainly ushes us strongly
in this dire&tion% and it is not imossi!le that 'hilst NL4 1$05a and ! do
not deri.e from either the R/ or the 4/% they &ould deri.e from the lost
sour&e of the R/J4/ te>t <'hi&h 'ould remo.e the status of the arth#r
.ersion as a dis&rete 'itness to the lost original te>t and ma)e it simly a
mista)e in transmission=(
+an a &onsideration of &onte>t hel &lear this u any furtherB !arwnad
Gw"n is a lament !y Lly'ar&h Hen for his son G'an% 'ho has !een )illed( If
the arth#r reading is &orre&t then the engyn in Auestion and the t'o that
follo' it 'ould translate as follo's;
G'an !y Lla'en )et 'at&h last night(
Arthur did not retreat(
Sad is the tale on the green !an)(
G'an !y Lla'en )et 'at&h last night(
'ith his shield on his shoulder(
Sin&e he 'as my son he 'as ready(
G'an !y Lla'en )et 'at&h last night
'ith his shield against his &hin(

""#
Sin&e he 'as my son he did not es&ae(
As should !e &lear% a referen&e to Arthur does not really seem to fit here
'ith the &onte>t of the ie&e( The only 'ay 'e &an really a&&ommodate it is
if 'e assume that G'an is !eing honoured as a mighty 'arrior !y the oet%
either through ma)ing Arthur resent at his last !attle or !y &alling him
Arthur <Iust as 'e find Arthur !eing used in the mid80th8&entury !arwnad
%ynddyan and the ossi!ly mid to late $th8&entury Gereint fiAi#sB Erbin=(
On the other hand% if 'e &hoose the ath#c reading 'e run into ro!lems
as the te>t &an only !e made sense of !y emendation( T'o su&h
emendations ha.e !een roosed( Sir Ifor 4illiams <%an# 9ywarch Hen=
suggested that the line should read cat gad#c n# techas rather than the ath#c
N)ath h#gO ny techas 'e find in all the manus&rits 'hi&h &ontain the ath#c
reading% gi.ing;
G'an !y Lla'en )et 'at&h last night(
In the fight he fled not(
Sad is the tale on the green !an)(
4hilst argua!ly gi.ing !etter sense than the arth#r .ersion% the reAuirement
of serious emendation is trou!ling !e&ause it osits that the
R/JC4/DJ1$05a te>ts are all &orruted% 'hen it is on the !asis of the
C'eightD of these te>ts that the arth#r reading <'hi&h reAuires no
emendation= is dismissed( The other roosed emendation <!y !oth
+aer'yn 4illiams% ..%(% ", <,$31=% ("380% and Ro'land% Eary <esh (aga
Poetry= is far more elegant and satisfa&tory% adding only yr to the !eginning of
the line as it aears in the R/% gi.ing;
G'an !y Lla'en )et 'at&h last night(
Desite the onslaught he did not retreat(
Sad is the tale on the green !an)(
4hilst it does still assume that the R/JC4/DJ1$05a te>t is &orrut <though
to a lesser degree=% it ro.ides an e>lanation of this &orrution .ia the fa&t
that the 'ord re&eding ath#c in the manus&rits 'as neithwyr% 'hi&h% as it
ends in 'yr% 'ould ha.e made it easy for s&ri!es to s)i a&ross a follo'ing yr
!efore ath#c(
To sum u% it seems highly li)ely that the referen&e to Arthur in the
!yvyrian Archaioogy and NL4 1$05! .ersions of !arwnad Gw"n% desite
!oth these te>ts treating it as rimary% is in fa&t a &orrution and not
CgenuineD( Ho'e.er% gi.en the nature of the manus&rit e.iden&e 'e &annot
!e &omletely &ertain of this% arti&ularly as the non8Arthurian .ersions of
!arwnad Gw"n are all assumed to !e themsel.es &orrut% e.en if rimary%
"",
and in need of some degree of emendation to ma)e sense <something 'hi&h
is not true of the Arthurian .ersion=(

"""
The Other Early Arthurian +y&le; the Tale
of Tristan and Isolt
1. Introduction
The medie.al Arthurian legend% as found in the Roman&es% is not solely <or
e.en &hiefly= a!out Arthur% a fa&t too many Arthurian enthusiasts forget(
Those 'ho !elie.e in and argue for a histori&al Arthur are legion% 'hilst
?yrddin and others are often negle&ted% la&)ing their o'n !and of &heerful
suorters to argue a!out the smallest detail in their legends( This !rief
study aims to slightly redress the !alan&e( There are t'o )ey insular story8
&y&les that inform the international Arthurian legend E that a!out Arthur
himself% 'ith 'hi&h the maIority of this 'e!site is &on&erned% and that
a!out the lo.e8triangle !et'een 9ing ?ar)% Tristan and Isolt( This latter is
one of the great medie.al tales% insiring 4agner% and it is the fo&us for the
resent in.estigation(
Though it is found in a num!er of medie.al .ersions% hardly any of
'hi&h are a&tually &omlete% a !rief summary of the )ey elements might run
as follo's <the follo'ing is% of &ourse% a &omosite of these .arious
.ersions=( The tale in general tells of the ad.entures of a rin&e named
Tristan% the nehe' of 9ing ?ar) of +orn'all( As might !e e>e&ted%
Tristan e.entually finds his 'ay to his un&leDs &ourt at Tintagel% 'here he is
raised for his manliness E he% li)e Arthur% 'as a great 'arrior( Tristan% !y
'ay of .arious ad.entures <in&luding the )illing of a dragon=% then ends u
!eing resonsi!le for transorting the fair Isolt from Ireland to +orn'all to
marry his un&le% a&&omanied !y a otion that IsoltDs mother had reared
to ensure her daughter and ?ar) 'ould not ha.e a lo.eless marriage( As is
the 'ay 'ith lo.e otions% it ends u !eing mista)enly drun)en !y those it
'as not intended for E Tristan and Isolt% 'ho !e&ome instantly !esotted
'ith ea&h other(
The tale then !e&omes one of de&etion through a .ariety of eisodes(
Thus Isolt su!stitutes her maid for herself on her 'edding night% though
?ar) )no's nothing of this and is simly grateful to his nehe' for
!ringing his 'onderful ne' 'ife to him( Similarly% in the summer ?ar)Ds
&ourt mo.es to Lan&ien% suosedly in south +orn'all( The t'o &ontinue
their illi&it relations% using the )ingDs &ham!er 'hen he is out hunting% until
one day ?ar) dis&o.ers them and e>iles Tristan from his &ourt( Not
""5
dis&ouraged% the o!sessed air &ontri.e ne' 'ays to meet% Tristan thro'ing
t'igs into the stream that runs !eneath IsoltDs 'indo' to tell her to hasten
to an ale or&hard to meet him( Mnfortunately for them% an e.il d'arf
dis&o.ers them .ia magi& and informs ?ar)( ?ar) sies on them from the
!ran&hes of a tree% trying to find roof of their guilt% though he lea.es
&on.in&ed of their inno&en&e 'hen he is un)no'ingly re.ealed to Tristan
and Isolt !y the light of the moon% allo'ing them to ma)e a lay of the
meeting(
Although this falsified inno&en&e of their meetings allo's TristanDs
reinstatement to &ourt% ?ar)Ds &on.i&tion does not last( Tristan is gi.en a
fa.oured retainerDs sleeing osition% ne>t to the )ingDs !ed% 'hilst the
d'arf% angry at his mistreatment after his suosed lies a!out the or&hard%
sets a tra so that Tristan is &aught .isiting Isolt 'hilst ?ar) is a'ay from
his !ed !y flour on the floor( Tristan and Isolt are senten&ed to !e !urnt%
though Tristan es&aes !y Iuming from a &hael E )no'n as CTristanDs
LeaD E o.er a &liff to safety( Isolt is then senten&ed to !e ra.ished !y leers%
a fate she is res&ued from !y her lo.er% 'ho ta)es her into hiding in the
forest of ?orrois(
After further ad.entures% Isolt and ?ar) are re&on&iled at the ford of
?al Pas as the otion8insired o!session !egins to 'ane <though her and
TristanDs lo.e remains=% and Tristan is on&e more !anished% though he
a&tually goes again into hiding( ?ean'hile% Isolt is reAuired !y unfriendly
lords to ro.e her inno&en&e of adultery !y a u!li& Trial !y Ordeal E she
agrees on the &ondition that 9ing Arthur is resent and it should ta)e la&e
at /lan&heland% ?ar)Ds high hunting ground( On the aointed day she
ro.es her inno&en&e through tri&)ery 'ith the hel of Tristan% 'ith 'hom
she then &onsents to &ontinue &u&)olding ?ar) 'ithV This lasts !ut a short
'hile% this time% and Tristan e.entually a&&edes to her leas to go far a'ay
for the safety of them !oth( He ends his life in /rittany% married to another
Isolt( On his death8!ed he as)s for the original Isolt to &ome to him and
ro.ide a &ure for his 'ounds% 'hi&h she does E unfortunately the se&ond
Isolt su&&um!s to Iealousy and tells him that the other is not &oming%
&ausing TristanDs death( 4hen his lo.er finally rea&hes him% she lies do'n in
his arms and dies too(
2. The Tristan of the +elsh
This% then% is the legend 'e are &on&erned 'ith E ho' mu&h% if anything% is
this tale refigured in insular +elti& sour&esB 4here do its origins lieB Our
e.iden&e for an insular Tristan tradition is highly fragmentary !ut there
&learly 'as some )ind of tale &ir&ulating !efore the Roman&es 'ere 'ritten(
Thus there are allusions to Tristan in the 4elsh Triads% Trioedd 2nys Prydein

""1
<T2P=( Although these only sur.i.e in ,5th8 and ,1th8&entury manus&rits%
their origins lie in the ,,th or ,"th &enturies and they are largely
indeendent of &ontinental de.eloments </rom'i&h% ,$0-=( In these
/rystan <the 4elsh form of Tristan= is named as one of the Tri Gaofydd%
CEnemy Su!duers% lords of hostilityD <T2P ,$=% and one of the Tri Thaeithiog
%ad% 'arriors 'ho 'ore a B&oronet in !attle as a mar) of distin&tion <T2P
",=% indi&ating that he held an a&&eted la&e in early heroi& tradition(
This is true also of !arch <the 4elsh form of ?ar)=% 'ho is named in
T2P ,1 as one of the Tri 9ynghesawg% CSeafarersD( He also aears in the mid8
late $th8&entury /la&) /oo) Engynion 2 .edda# as a fol)lori& hero 'hose
!urial la&e is &ommemorated !y tradition( This latter referen&e is
arti&ularly interesting as he is &ollo&ated 'ith Arthur himself in this te>t(
Although minimal% the Arthurian asso&iations of at least ?ar&hJ?ar) may
thus go !a&) to a .ery early stage( Furthermore% in this &onte>t it is 'orth
noting that that all three heroes lin)ed 'ith Drystan in T2P ", are
Arthurian heroes or mem!ers of ArthurDs &ourt in %#hwch ac 6wen( Indeed%
in %#hwch <line ,$,= Drystan is himself listed as a mem!er of ArthurDs &ourt
<surnamed Hayarn% Iron8Fist=% as is% searately% Isolt <Esyt= herself% though
this may !e an addition to the &ourt8list </rom'i&h% ,$$,a; ",,G /rom'i&h
and E.ans% ,$$"; ,,#=(
4hat is most interesting in all of this is that Drystan% ?ar&h and Esyllt
are ne.er named together in any of the a!o.e% 'hi&h raises the Auestion of
'hether 'e &an a&tually demonstrate the e>isten&e of the Tristan tale itself E
rather than the arti&iants E in 4elsh materials that re8date the Anglo8
Norman .ersions of the story( There are t'o or three sour&es that may !e
rele.ant here( The first is the des&rition of Drystan as one of the Tri
Gwrddfeichiad% C?ighty <or Po'erful= S'ineheardsD <T2P "3=% 'here he is
asso&iated 'ith !oth ?ar&h and Esyllt( This alludes to a &urious tale of the
rote&tion of ?ar&hDs igs% 'hi&h Arthur is trying to steal( Mnfortunately
/rom'i&h suggests that this is an untraditional eisode and an ironi&
fa!ri&ation% erhas a&tually insired !y the Anglo8Norman tales
</rom'i&h% ,$$,a; ",$8"#=(
Aside from this 'e only ha.e a oem <or fragments of t'o oems=( This
is found in the ,5th8&entury /la&) /oo) of +armarthen and names
/7i8ristan and !arch <'ithout atronymi&s= in a highly dramati& &onte>t;
Drystan is enraged at your &oming;
I 'ill not a&&et my &asting out <!y youB=%
For my art% I ha.e sold <or C!etrayedD= ?ar&h for you(
To a.enge 9yhei& 'ould !e my desire
!e&ause of his s'eet 'ordsG
Alas% d'arf% your anger 'as hostile to me(
</rom'i&h% ,$$,a; ",5=
""2
The a!o.e% 'ith its lin)ing of the names Drystan and ?ar&h% a hostile d'arf
and a C&asting outD% has !een seen <ro!a!ly rightly= as refle&ting some of the
eisodes found in &ontinental and Anglo8Norman .ersions of the Tristan
legend( This imression is strengthened !y the fa&t that earlier in the oem
'e find an earlier allusion that runs C'e t'o 'ere &omanions in the la&e
'here the 'ater &arries the lea.esD% 'hi&h is suggesti.e of the Ct'igsJ&his in
the streamD in&ident% 'hi&h did indeed in.ol.e a hostile d'arf </rom'i&h%
,$$,a; ",-=( If su&h asso&iations are legitimate then it is &ru&ial to )no'
ho' old this oem a&tually is( /rom'i&h dates them &ertainly to re8,,##%
'hi&h 'ould seem to ut them se&urely out of the rea&h on &ontinental
influen&e </rom'i&h% ,$$,a; ",1=( Indeed% gi.en that the .er!al noun
ending 'i` is retained in the oem% ro.ed !y internal rhyme% this &an !e
tentati.ely e>tended !a&) e.en further; as 9o&h has noted% 8i` seems to
ha.e !e&ome shortened to 'i in the se&ond half of the $th &entury or the
first half of the ,#th &entury% imlying that the &omosition of this oem
re8dates this de.eloment <9o&h% ,$$3; "03G 9o&h% ,$$0; &>>.iii=(
The notion of the Anglo8Norman and &ontinental .ersions of the
Tristan legend ha.ing at least art of their origins in a 4elsh story thus rests
largely on the a!o.e oem( Other than this 'e &an only demonstrate 'ith
&ertainty the e>isten&e of the &hara&ters in 4ales% not the lo.e8story that
!inds them together( Indeed% aside from T2P "3% this situation is maintained
through the ,"th &entury and into the ,1th &entury% 'ith ?ar&h and
DrystanDs names !eing used as heroi& standards of &omarison( Only from
the mid8,1th &entury do 'e find e>li&it referen&es in 4elsh oetry to the
lo.e8story itself% in the 'or)s of Gruffudd a ?aredudd and Dafydd a
G'ilym E indeed% the lo.e otion first aears in the ,2th &entury% 'hen
Dafydd a! Edm'nd refers to Cthe drin) of TrystanD(
A ,2th8&entury .ersion of T2P <though one 'hi&h has ar&hai& features
indi&ating an earlier 'ritten e>emlar= may also !e rele.ant in this &onte>t(
Here 'e find Drystan not simly as the hero he is in earlier Triads !ut also
no' as a lo.er( He is one of the Three Lo.ers% Three Stu!!orn ?en and
Three Peers of ArthurDs +ourt <T2P 0,% 0"% 05=( Later in the same
manus&rit Esyt Fyngwen <Esyllt Fair8hair=% DrystanDs mistress% is named as
one of the Three Faithless 4i.es <T2P -#= 'ith the same eithet as she has
in the ,,th8&entury %#hwch ac 6wen( Finally% Trystan a& Tawch is named in
the mid8,2th8&entury triadi& Pedwar !archog ar H#gain 9ys Arth#r <the
CT'enty8four 9nights of ArthurDs +ourtD=% 'here he is groued as one of the
CThree En&hanter 9nights of ArthurDs +ourtD 'ith the Arthurian !enw a&
Teirgwaedd and Eddiig %or% Cthe D'arfD( These all ro!a!ly oint to an
in&reasing interest in the figure of Drystan and Esyllt in light of the
&ontinental roman&es% as /rom'i&h has noted% though 'ith this !eing
&om!ined 'ith the insular treatment of Drystan <,$$,a; ",28,3=(
In fa&t% the only really lausi!le indeendent 4elsh referen&e% !eyond
the /la&) /oo) oem% is found in the 2storya Trystan% CThe Tale of TrystanD%

""3
'hi&h is a mi>ed rose and .erse <engynion= te>t found in manus&rits of the
,3th to ,-th &enturies <although the .erse assages are &ertainly older than
this=( The )ey &hara&ters in this are% of &ourse% Trystan% Esyllt and ?ar&h%
though Arthur% +ai and G'al&hmai lay a art( In this tale Trystan and
Esyllt are in e>ile in %oed %eyddon 'hilst Arthur goes 'ith his 'ar!and to
see) Cdenial or &omensationD on !ehalf of ?ar&h a ?eir&hia'n( TrystanDs
magi&al a!ilities <&omare Pedwar !archog ar H#gain 9ys Arth#r= re.ent
Arthur et a from dire&tly &onfronting him and instead Arthur ma)es ea&e
!et'een Trystan and ?ar&h% ruling that one of them should ha.e Esyllt
'hilst the lea.es 'ere on the trees and the other 'hen they are leafless(
Esyllt then states;
Three trees are of good )ind;
Holly and I.y and Ke'
'hi&h )ee their lea.es 'hile they li.e E
Trystan 'ill ossess me 'hile he li.esV
</rom'i&h% ,$$,a; ",0=
There is little to indi&ate dire&t influen&e on the 2storya !y the Fren&h
Tristan roman&es E there are% in fa&t% shar differen&es in treatment and
nature E and rather it has its greatest affinity 'ith the Triads% the /la&) /oo)
of +armarthen oem and some lines of the medie.al oet Dafydd a
G'ilym <'ho may a&tually refer to ArthurDs solution to the disute in the
2storya=% 'ith there !eing suggestions that some ortions of the tale <su&h as
the y+ddiddan !et'een G'al&hmai and Trystan= are not only erhas mu&h
older than the resent manus&rits !ut 'ere originally searate <see
/rom'i&h% ,$$,a; ",38,$G /rom'i&h% ,$0-; 55"% 5-581G Ro'land% ,$$#;
"2"81=(
To sum u% there is &lear e.iden&e that% as &hara&ters% Drystan% ?ar&h
and Esyllt 'ere )no'n to 4elsh tradition% and from an early eriod(
Ho'e.er% the ties that !ind them together are surrisingly rarely found in
the early material% 'ith only the fragmentary oem !eing free of any
susi&ion of &ontamination from the Anglo8Norman and &ontinental
Roman&e .ersions( If the oem is ta)en as roof of an early 4elsh
)no'ledge of the lo.e8story% then the 2storya Trystan and T2P "3 referen&es
&an !e seen as deri.ati.e of this% rather than &ontinental or Anglo8Norman
tales( Nonetheless% 'hilst there might thus seem to !e a reasona!le &ase for
the lo.e8story ha.ing !een )no'n to 4elsh tradition% it has to !e said that it
does not seem to ha.e !een a arti&ularly &entral art of it( The interest in
the tale of Tristan% Isolt and ?ar) in 4ales from the ,1th &entury on'ards
'ould seem to o'e less to a nati.e fas&ination 'ith this and more to the
e>ternal stimulus of the Fren&h Roman&es(
""0
3. The Tristan of the 'ornish
Gi.en the relati.e 'ea)ness of the e.iden&e for a re8Roman&e tradition of
the Tristan lo.e8story in 4ales% the Auestion must naturally !e as)ed 'hat
e.iden&e there is for a C+elti&D !a&)ground to the Anglo8Norman and
&ontinental Roman&es( +ertainly there must !e some +elti& !a&)ground to
these% if only !e&ause of Ct'igsJ&his in the streamD in&ident aears to !e
resent in the /la&) /oo) oemJoems and the fa&t that the names Tristan%
Isolt and ?ar) all stem from an insular &onte>t E thus !oth the Fren&h
forms Tristan and .rengain <IsoltDs maid= must ha.e &ome% in fa&t% from a
'ritten Old 4elsh sour&e </rom'i&h% ,$0-; 5"$G /rom'i&h% ,$$,!; "-#=(
The Auestion is% 'as all else in.ention% or is there any further e.iden&e to
suggest an insular !a&)ground to the Tristan legendB
A maIor landmar) in our understanding of this is Oli.er PadelDs CThe
+ornish /a&)ground of the Tristan StoriesD <,$-,=( Padel has &on.in&ingly
demonstrated that the +ontinental oets E and /Wroul ese&ially% 'riting in
the last third of the ,"th &entury E deri.ed their )no'ledge of the tale of
DrystanJTristan et a from +ornish fol)lori& sour&es( In fa&t% in /WroulDs
.ersion there is a detailed and still identifia!le +ornish lo&alisation of almost
all the maIor e.ents% in&luding the ford of e !a Pas <'hi&h is south of
Truro=% and the hunting8ground of a .anche 9ande% near ?al Pas and 'est
of Truro( Similarly ?ar)Ds &ourt at 9ancVen is no' generally a&&eted as
!eing that Lantyan near Fo'ey and the forest of !orrois in 'hi&h Tristan
and Isolt hide is the 'oodland atta&hed to the manor of ?ores)% outside
Truro <'hi&h /Wroul rightly identifies as !eing a nightDs ride from 9ancVen=(
Indeed% /Wroul demonstrates his detailed lo&al )no'ledge of +orn'all 'hen
the hermit in the story Cgoes off to the ?ount% for the fineries that are
thereD% &learly referen&ing the fa&t that t'o mar)ets 'ere found in the ,"th
&entury oosite St ?i&haelDs ?ount( ?ost interesting of all% his &omments
su&h as Cit is still at St SamsonDsG those 'ho ha.e seen it say soD and
C+ornishmen still &all that ro&) TristanDs LeaD imly a solid familiarity 'ith
+orn'all% and that the Tristan tale 'as art of +ornish
onomasti&Jtoograhi& fol)8legend <see Padel% ,$-,; 2-832=(
+learly the !est e>lanation of this is that many of the e.ents of the
Tristan legend% as found in /Wroul% 'ere a&tually deri.ed dire&tly from
+ornish stories &urrent in the ,"th &entury <!efore the Tristan legend 'as
'idely oular on the &ontinent= and thus that the legend itself may !e% in
fa&t% +ornish in origin( Further suort for this &ontention &omes from an
une>e&ted angle E a +ornish &harter( An Anglo8Sa>on &harter8!oundary
dated $30 AD names a hryt eset% CIsoltDs FordD in +ornish% 'ith the stream
&rossed !y this emerging at Porthallo' on the Li6ard eninsula <south of
.anche 9ande=( Gi.en the e>treme rarity of the name EsetJEsyt% Padel
&on.in&ingly sees this as reresenting a ie&e of onomasti& fol)lore li)e that
re&orded for Arthur and aarently lying !ehind CTristanDs LeaD E in this

""-
&ase it is !est seen as reresenting an alternati.e lo&alisation of the e.ents
that /Wroul la&ed at e !a Pas <Padel% ,$-,; 328-=( As su&h it 'ould aear
that not only 'as /WroulDs a&&ount deri.ed aarently from ,"th8&entury
+ornish fol)8tale% !ut that the tale of Tristan and Isolt 'as !eing told% at
least 'ith regards to the e.ents at the ford% in +orn'all !y the mid8,#th
&entury(
These +ornish &onne&tions% so o!.ious in /Wroul% are not &onfined to
this te>t( All the medie.al oets E Thomas% ?arie de Fran&e% Eilhart% and
Gottfried E la&e ?ar)Ds &ourt in +orn'all% as /rom'i&h too has no'
re&ognised <,$$,; ""#=( Further% they sho' +ornish lo&al )no'ledge !eyond
that mentioned !y /Wroul( Thus Eilhart mentions .ancheande and a&&urately
identifies it as a hunting8ground% 'hi&h is 'hat names su&h as +ha&e'ater
indi&ate it a&tually 'as( +learly% for the medie.al Roman&ers% the Tristan
legend 'as a legend set in +orn'all% this unanimity !eing argua!ly highly
signifi&ant and these &on&lusions remaining rele.ant 'hether one !elie.es in
some &ontinental Cur8TristanD narrati.e or not( The e.iden&e of /Wroul and
hryt eset 'ould suggest that this 'as not simly an idle or meaningless
lo&alisation !ut rather it reresented the region from 'hi&h these Anglo8
Norman and &ontinental authors ultimately deri.ed their )no'ledge of this
legend% 'hi&h 'as &urrent there from at least the ,#th &entury(
. The !rigins of the Tristan ;egend
So% 'here did the Tristan legend and its &hara&ters ultimately &ome fromB
4e ha.e t'o !ran&hes of e.iden&e( One suggests that the Tristan and Isolt
lo.e8story% though not arti&ularly oular in 4ales% 'as )no'n there <in at
least one eisode= !y the middle of the ,#th &entury% if the e.iden&e of our
/la&) /oo) oem<s= &an !e trusted( The other suggests that all the 'idely
)no'n Anglo8Norman and &ontinental Roman&e treatments of Tristan had
their origins in +orn'all and most ro!a!ly in a tale 'hi&h 'as tied to the
+ornish lands&ae and deri.ed from +ornish fol)8lore( This +ornish
.ersion too 'ould seem to ha.e !een in e>isten&e !y the mid8,#th &entury(
4hi&h .ersion has riorityB
It must !e admitted that it is imossi!le to ma)e a de&isi.e Iudgement
on this Auestion( Nonetheless% gi.en the detailed lo&alisation found in
/WroulDs .ersion% the &ontinental unanimity on the lo&ation of the legendDs
a&tion% and the fa&t that the ,#th8&entury !oundary8des&rition loo)s to
referen&e lo&al <and resuma!ly reasona!ly an&ient and 'ell8)no'n% for it to
!e used in su&h a des&rition= onomasti& +ornish fol)lore% a suggestion of
an ultimate +ornish origin must ha.e riority E ese&ially in light of the
aarent relati.e unoularity of the lo.e8story in 4ales until the ,1th
&entury( There is simly no &on.in&ing reason to re&ommend treating the
""$
Tristan legend as either an8/rittoni& or 4elsh in origin% gi.en all this(
Rather than indi&ating a 4elsh origin% the /la&) /oo) oem<s= might%
instead% !e seen as e.iden&e of the oularity and fame of a se&ifi&ally
+ornish legend from an early date% 'hi&h allo'ed )no'ledge of it to sread
to e.en 4ales !y the mid8,#th &entury(
The a!o.e s&enario 'ould seem% at resent% to !e the !est e>lanation
for the e.iden&e that 'e ha.e( E.en if there is still a little dou!t as regards
ho' the 4elsh referen&es emerged% it &an in any &ase !e said that +orn'all
'as the la&e from 'hi&h the story of Tristan and IsoltDs lo.e &ame into the
reertoire of +ontinental roman&e and thus that Padel is &orre&t in
&on&luding that the CTristan stories% then% are +orn'allDs most signifi&ant%
and !est8)no'n% gift to the literary 'orldD <,$-,; -#=( +ertainly su&h a
+ornish origin fits the e.iden&e a lot more satisfa&torily than the Pi&tish and
Irish genesis in.o)ed !y re.ious generations </rom'i&h% ,$25G Ne'stead%
,$2$=( The foundations of this latter theory are unsound and rest largely on
the follo'ing arguments(
First% that the names of !oth Drystan <Tristan= and his father in 4elsh
tradition% Tawch% are ro!a!ly of Pi&tish origin( +ertainly /rosten)/rostan%
the Pi&tish name &ognate 'ith the 4elsh /rystan% is a &ommon name in
Pi&tland( It aears% for e>amle% on a $th8&entury ins&rition at St Sigeans%
Angus and in the Pi&tish regnal lists <'hi&h also in&lude the shorter form
/r#st or /rest=( Ho'e.er% the name is &learly deri.ed from +elti&
=/r#stagnos( As su&h 4elsh /rystan is a erfe&tly good /rittoni& name and%
in fa&t% the earliest o&&urren&e of this name is on a 3th8&entury ins&ri!ed
stone from +orn'all <see further !elo'G /rom'i&h% ,$0-; 5"$G Padel% ,$-,;
2182G /rom'i&h% ,$$,a; ",#G 9o&h% ,$$3; "02=(
4ith regards to the name of DrystanDs father <first found in the Triads=%
the 4elsh /rystan vab Tawch is often &omared 'ith the Taorcan fii#s
/rostan and /rest 7/r#st8 fii#s Taorgen in the Pi&tish )ing8list% 'ith the result
that Tawch and Taorc7'8 ha.e often !een eAuated( The former has often
!een assumed to deri.e from the latter% thus Cro.ingD the Pi&tish origins of
Drystan( Ho'e.er% there are t'o diffi&ulties here; <a= nothing li)e
Tawch)Taorc aears in the Roman&es <indeed% the name of his father is
nota!ly .aria!le= and 'e thus &annot !e at all &ertain that the atronymi&
'as atta&hed to Drystan in the earliest 4elshJ+ornish material <it &ould !e
an in.ention% in light of its etymology% ta% C!ro'D b hwch% Cs'ine% so'D%
refle&ting its first aearan&e in T2P "3= <!= Taorc and Tawch &annot !e
said to !e &ognates E they are% in reality% entirely different names( At !est a
artial loan translation is in.ol.ed <9o&h% ,$$3; "02=( As +aer'yn 4illiams
notes% Cany idea that the name Tawch reresents the Pi&tish Taorc or its
diminuti.e Taorcan 'ould seem to !e unfounded% ese&ially in .ie' of the
forms Taorg% Taorgg% Taorggan% et&D <Auoted in /rom'i&h% ,$0-; 231=(
Se&ond% it is freAuently argued that the !asi& &ontent of the
TristanJIsoltJ?ar) lo.e8triangle deri.es from Irish storytelling% the &losest

"5#
arallel !eing in the Fenian story of Diarmaid and GrUinne( This tells ho'
the young heroine GrUinne is destined to !e the 'ife of Fionn ma&
+umhaill !ut% rather than marry him% she instead eloes 'ith Diarmaid% a
mem!er of his 'ar!and <and o&&asionally his nehe'=( The &oule li.e in
the 'ilderness in fear of Fionn 'ho su&&eeds in )illing Dairmaid through
trea&hery( Against seeing this as the origin of the Tristan story 'e ha.e to
re&ognise the follo'ing; <a= the outstanding oints of detail !et'een the t'o
stories are first aarent in the mid8,0th8&entury .ersion of the CPursuit of
Diarmaid and GrUinneD <!= as !oth Padel and /rom'i&h note% the Diarmaid
story seems to ha.e !een &onsidera!ly influen&ed !y the +ontinental Tristan
tradition in many oints of detail and thus the relationshi !et'een this and
the Tristan stories is li)ely to !e the re.erse of that generally assumed <see
Padel% ,$$1; 2380G /rom'i&h% ,$$,a; """85=( As su&h% &omarison !et'een
the story of Diarmaid and GrUinne and the Tristan legend &an tell us
nothing &ertain of the origins of the tale and of its &hara&ters(
A se&ond suggested Irish analogue in.ol.es an Irish monster8slaying
eisode in the ?iddle Irish Toch+arc E+ire% CThe 4ooing of EmerD( This is a
mainly ,#th8&entury tale !ut the stri)ing similarities !et'een this and one
reliminary art of TristanDs story in Eilhart% Gottfried% Tristra+s saga% and
(ir Tristre+ <the dragon8slayer eisode= may !e as late as the ,"th &entury E
as su&h Fren&h influen&e &annot !e e>&luded as a ossi!ility( Additionally it
must !e remem!ered that this seAuen&e has no e&hoes in the 4elsh Tristan
material <it is also a!sent from /WroulDs oem% 'hi&h 'ould seem to ha.e
the &losest affinities 'ith +ornish fol)lori& material= and Cat the .ery most%
the eisode reresents only one art of the reliminaries to the main Tristan
story% and thus again does not reresent roof of an Irish% or a Pi&tish%
origin for the main storyD <Padel% ,$-,; 23=(
In light of all this there is no &ogent reason to !elie.e that the tale of
Tristan and Isolt 'as of Pi&tish or Irish origins% arti&ularly gi.en the .ery
strong +ornish lin)s of the +ontinental material and the ro!a!le resen&e
of the tale in lo&al +ornish toograhi& fol)lore in the ,#th &entury( The
&ase is simly not &on.in&ing( Indeed% as 'as noted a!o.e% it &annot !e
forgotten that the earliest o&&urren&e of the name Tristan is in fa&t +ornish%
dating from ro!a!ly the 3th &entury( This is found on a memorial stone
near +astle Dore% +orn'all% 'hi&h reads <assuming that the ligatured A; of
the ins&rition should e>anded to A,;= /-;(TAA,B;( H@% @A%@T
%;,6!6-@ F@9@N(% Chere lies Drystan <Old +ornish =/rostan)=/restan=
son of +ynfa'r <O+ =Kenvar=D(
The e>a&t signifi&an&e of this is to !e de!ated( +ertainly% 'hen histori&al
enthusiasts ha.e &ared to &onsider Tristan% this has !een treated as e.iden&e
for a histori&al origin to the Tristan tale% or at least for Tristan himself <for
e>amle% Ashe% ,$$0=( The stone itself is found at a site around a mile and a
half to the south of +astle Dore in +orn'all% this site !eing itself a mile and
"5,
a half to the south of a farm named Lantyan <9ancVen=% 9ing ?ar)Ds ala&e in
/Wroul( Purely from a geograhi&al erse&ti.e one &an see 'hy a
&onne&tion !et'een the stone and the Tristan legend has !een attra&ti.e(
The resen&e of an early form of the name Tristan &lose !y Lantyan is%
ne.ertheless% not the only reason that this stone has !een seen as signifi&ant
E the se&ond name on the stone% %;,6!6-@% is often &laimed to C!eD
?ar) himself( This is done on the !asis of the fa&t that 4rmono&% in the
$th8&entury /reton 9ife of (t Pa# A#reian% has St Paul en&ountering one
9ing ?ar&us ruling some'here in /ritain <+orn'all or Glamorgan=% 3#e+
aio no+ine 1#ono+ori#+ vocant% C'hom !y another name they &all
@uonomoriusD <4elsh tradition does indeed% it should !e o!ser.ed% gi.e the
name +ynfa'rJ=Kenvar to a mem!er of the /rittoni& royal family of
Dumnonia; Padel% ,$-,; note 3#=( So% 'hat are 'e to ma)e of all thisB
No'% the later name is a &ommon one in 4ales% /rittany and +orn'all
and so 'e must !e &autious E a &oin&iden&e is not imossi!le% and is e.en
li)ely a&&ording to /rom'i&h <,$$,a; "", and ,$0-; 11283G note that Tristan
is ?ar)sd nehe'% not son% in /Wroul=( Nonetheless% there &ould !e some
lin) !et'een the stone% Lantyan and 4rmono&Ds remar)s( There is%
ho'e.er% Cno reason 'hy the relationshi !et'een it and the stories should
not !e re.erse of that assumed !y those 'ho 'ish to read histori&al fa&t into
the storiesD <Padel% ,$-,; 0-=( Padel suggests that the resen&e of the stone
may ha.e !een itself resonsi!le for /WroulDs% or his sour&eDs% lo&alisation of
?ar)Ds ala&e at Lantyan( Similarly% Padel suggests that 4rmono&Ds
&omment% 'ritten in a monastery 'ith &lose lin)s to +orn'all% might ha.e
!een due to a )no'ledge of the stone and a desire on his art to &onne&t
the Tristan of legend 'ith the /-;(TAA,B;( of the stone(
All told Padel sees this as the most li)ely e>lanation% 'ith the legend of
Tristan and Isolt !eing urely fol)lori& in origins( He does% ho'e.er% lea.e
oen the ossi!ility that Cthe +ornish stories had gro'n u around an
histori&al figure% the man &ommemorated on the stoneD% 'ith the ro.iso
that Cthey 'ould still not !e histori&al e.ents% of &ourseD E /Wroul 'as
'riting more than half a millennium after the stone 'as set u and is not a
histori&al sour&e% 'hilst oular &laims that +astle Dore 'as any histori&al
?ar)Ds ala&e of 9ancVen must !e reIe&ted gi.en that a re8e>amination of the
ar&haeology of this la&e sho's that there 'as no signifi&ant re8o&&uation
in the 2th to 0th &enturies <Padel% ,$-,; 0-8$ and note 33G Padel% ,$$,; "1,8
5=( 4ith regards to all this% it may !e 'orth noting that the ultimate
etymologi&al meaning of Old +ornish Eset% 4elsh Esyt% Cshe8'ho8is8'orth8
loo)ing8atD% is .ery aroriate for the &hara&ter of Isolt( As su&h it may !e
suggested that CEseltJEsyllt as a !eautiful 'oman of storytelling might go
!a&) to a time 'hen the name 'as understood% in the 2th &entury or earlierD
<Padel% ,$-,; 33=( If so% then IsoltDs origins as a romanti& &hara&ter of
fol)lore 'ould re8date the /-;(TAA,B;( of the stone% something 'hi&h
might 'ell !e seen as 'eighing in fa.our of PadelDs theory that the story of

"5"
Tristan and Isolt 'as an&ient fol)8tale% unrelated to any histori&al figures
</-;(TAA,B;( &ould% indeed% ha.e !een named after the &hara&ter%
rather than .i&e8.ersa% if any e>lanation of this name is felt ne&essary=(
". Bibliography
Ashe% A( ,$$0% The Traveer?s G#ide to Arth#rian .ritain% third edition
<Glaston!ury=

/rom'i&h% R( ,$25% CSome Remar)s on the +elti& Sour&es of PTristanQD%
Transactions of the Hono#rabe (ociety of %y++rodorion% (5"83#
/rom'i&h% R( ,$0-% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads <+ardiff; se&ond
edition=
/rom'i&h% R( ,$$,a% CThe Tristan of the 4elshD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=
The Arth#r of the <esh: The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re
<+ardiff=% ("#$8"-
/rom'i&h% R( ,$$,!% CFirst Transmission to England and Fran&eD% in R(
/rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh: The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva
<esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff=% ("058$-
/rom'i&h% R( and E.ans% D(S( ,$$"% %#hwch and 6wen. An Edition and (t#dy
of the 6dest Arth#rian Tae <+ardiff=
9o&h% 7(T( ,$$3% CThe +elti& LandsD% in N(7( La&y <ed(= !edieva Arth#rian
9iterat#re: A G#ide to -ecent -esearch <Ne' Kor)=% ("5$85""
9o&h% 7(T( ,$$0% The Gododdin of Aneirin. Te4t and %onte4t fro+ /ark'Age
,orth .ritain <+ardiff=
Ne'stead% H( ,$2$% CThe Origin and Gro'th of the Tristan LegendD% in R(S(
Loomis <ed(= Arth#rian 9iterat#re in the !idde Ages <O>ford=% (,""855
Padel% O(7( ,$-,% CThe +ornish /a&)ground of the Tristan StoriesD%
%a+bridge !edieva %etic (t#dies% ,% (258-,
Padel O(7( ,$$,% CSome south8'estern sites 'ith Arthurian asso&iationsD% in
R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh: The Arth#rian 9egend in
!edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff=% (""$8"1-
"55
Ro'land% 7( ,$$#% Eary <esh (aga Poetry: a (t#dy and Edition of the Engynion
<+am!ridge=

"51
?yrddin : ?erlin; A Guide to the Early
E.olution of the ?erlin Legend
The ?erlin legend and its asso&iated rohe&ies &an !e slit into t'o main
hases( The first is the definitely re8Galfridian 4elsh stage in 'hi&h ?erlin
<4elsh !yrddin= is &on&ei.ed of as a legendary rohet( The se&ond is the
transformation of this ?yrddin% !y Geoffrey of ?onmouth% into an
internationally reno'ned 'i6ard and .ati&inator named ?erlin 'ho lays a
&ru&ial role in !ringing a!out the &on&etion of Arthur and 'ho is
rominent in later Arthurian story(
4e do not ossess a rose .ersion of the ?yrddin legend in ?iddle
4elsh% !ut it has !een argued that a general idea of its &ontents &an !e
dedu&ed from a num!er of allusions found in si> medie.al oems 'hi&h%
&om!ined 'ith S&ottish and Irish .ersions of the tale% ma)e ossi!le a
re&onstru&tion of its main outline( These oems are 2r Afaenna# <CThe
Ale8treesD=G 2r 6iana# <CThe GreetingsD=G 2+ddiddan !yrddin a Thaiesin
<CThe Dialogue of ?yrddin and TaliesinD=G %yfoesi !yrddin a Gwenddydd ei
%hwaer <CThe +on.ersation of ?yrddin and his Sister G'enddyddD=G
Gwasgargerdd fyrddin yn y .edd <CThe Diffused Song of ?yrddin in the Gra.eD=G
and Peirian Faban <C+ommanding KouthD=( The first three &an !e found in
the thirteenth8&entury /la&) /oo) of +armarthen and the remaining three
o&&ur in manus&rits dating from su&&eeding &enturies( Ho'e.er% all the
oems &ontain material that is ro!a!ly &onsidera!ly older than the dates of
the 'ritten te>ts and they all furthermore in&lude !oth legendary and
roheti& material <'ith the legendary matter !eing undou!tedly older than
the roheti&=% the roortions of 'hi&h .ary from oem to oem(
In most of these oems the su!Ie&t E 'ho is either named as ?yrddin or
is generally assumed to !e him E is ortrayed as a 4ild ?an of the 4oods
li.ing in %oed %eyddon <the C+aledonian ForestD=% 'here he has fled to after
losing his reason <C'andering 'ith madness and madmenD= in the northern
!attle of Arfderydd% fought !et'een ri.al &hieftains c( 205 A(D(G 'ith this
lase into madness ?yrddin is said to ha.e a&Auired the gift of rohe&y(
The antiAuity of these traditions is ho'e.er suse&t% at least in their
atta&hment to ?yrddin( In S&ottish sour&es there is a .irtually identi&al tale
of a 4ild ?an to that summarised a!o.e% !ut in these he is named Lailo)en
rather than ?yrddin( It has !een &on.in&ingly argued !y 7arman that the
a!o.e traditions of a roheti& 'ild man% 'hi&h are atta&hed to the name
"52
?yrddin% originally !elonged to this Lailo)en aloneG it 'as only 'hen the
legend of Lailo)en 'as transorted to 4ales% along 'ith other northern saga
material% that these traditions 'ere atta&hed to the name ?yrddin( 7arman
suggests that this o&&urred in ninth or tenth &enturyG Padel% in &ontrast% has
re&ently &ontended that this haened in the mid8t'elfth &entury% !ut
eAually agrees that these tales originally !elonged to Lailo)en <see further
!elo'=(
The Auestion therefore must !e&ome C'ho 'as the original 4elsh
?yrddin% if he is not the roheti& 4ild ?an of the oemsBD The solution
to this ro!lem lies in the name ?yrddin itself( The name !yrddin deri.es
from the la&e8name %aer'fyrddin% C+armarthenD <Dyfed=% and this &learly uts
?yrddin in the same &ategory as su&h figures as Port <a ersonal name
deri.ed the la&e8name Portsmouth=% that is an eonymous founder8figure
in.ented to e>lain a la&e8name E there is no ossi!ility that %aer'fyrddin
'as named !e&ause of ?yrddin% desite medie.al se&ulation to the
&ontrary( It further seems .ery li)ely that this figure 'as &redited 'ith some
o'ers of rohe&y re.ious to his asso&iation 'ith the legends of
Lailo)en% the roheti& 4ild ?an( This is ne&essary !oth to a&&ount for the
su!stitution of ?yrddinDs name in the Lailo)en material% and also !e&ause of
those fe' referen&es to ?yrddin that o&&ur outside of the si> oems
mentioned a!o.e; most imortant of these is the as&rition of a rohe&y
to ?yrddin in the c( $5# Dyfed oem Ar+es Prydein( 4ith the a!o.e in mind
'e &an no' turn to the a&&ounts of Geoffrey of ?onmouth(
Geoffrey of ?onmouth first mentions ?erlin <!erin#s% !ased on the
.ariant form of ?yrddin% !erddin% adIusted !y Geoffrey to a.oid a
unfortunate similarity in form to Fren&h +erde= in his Historia -eg#+
.ritanniae of c( ,,5-% in 'hi&h the mid8fifth8&entury /ritish )ing Sortigern
finds that the only 'ay for the foundations of his fortress to !e made se&ure
is to srin)le the !lood of a fatherless youth onto the stones( Su&h a youth
is found at +armarthen named ?erlin% 'hose mother% Geoffrey tells us% 'as
the daughter of the )ing of Dyfed( She% li.ing 'ith the nuns at a lo&al
&on.ent% had !een imregnated !y an in&u!us demon i.e. ?erlin 'as
fatherless( This &hild 'as further found to ha.e roheti& o'ers and
Geoffrey ma)es him utter the Pro&hetiae !erin#s% a long series of o!s&ure
rohe&ies( The essentials of this tale 'ere not rodu&ts of GeoffreyDs
imagination% !ut had rather !een lifted !odily from the Historia .ritton#+
<'ritten c( -"$85#=% 'ith &ontra&tions and e>ansions here and there%
in&luding the addition of the Pro&hetiae !erin#s( There are ho'e.er t'o
maIor &hanges that gi.e the story an entirely ne' dire&tion( Firstly% in the
Historia .ritton#+ the fatherless youth is named as Am!rosius% not
?yrddinJ?erlin( Se&ondly% in the Historia .ritton#+ the youth is found in
Gywysing <i.e. Glamorgan=% not at +armarthen in Dyfed( Thus it seems &lear
that the ?erlin of GeoffreyDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae 'as a result of
Geoffrey identifying the Historia .ritton#+Ds Am!rosius 'ith ?yrddin in his

"53
earliest form as the roheti& eonymous founder8figure of +armarthen( Of
&ourse Geoffrey didnDt simly lea.e his ortrayal of ?erlin 'ith this E he
&an !e seen to ha.e added .arious other elements% su&h as ?erlinDs
in.ol.ement 'ith the &on&etion of Arthur and 'ith the transortation of
the Stonehenge stones% 'hi&h ha.e no arallel in the re8Galfridian
material% thus transforming ho' later generations 'ould .ie' this figure(
GeoffreyDs interest in ?erlin aears to ha.e &ontinued after the
&omletion of his Historia and in his Latin oem of c( ,,2#% ;ita !erini% he
resents a ortrait of ?erlin totally at .arian&e 'ith that in the Historia( The
?erlin of this oem is &learly the same erson as the ?yrddin of the 4elsh
oems; !oth are 4ild ?en of the 'oods 'ho ha.e lost their reason in !attle
and su!seAuently li.e in the forest of %aidon or %eyddonG !oth &on.erse 'ith
the famed oet and reuted .ati&inator TaliesinG !oth are asso&iated 'ith
animal &omanions and ale8treesG and the &hara&ters that figure in the
4elsh oems <G'enddolau% Rhydder&h and G'enddydd= are &learly
resent in the ;ita !erini( There are% naturally% many oints of di.ergen&e%
!ut the general relationshi is &lear( The )ey Auestion is 'hat does this
meanB Ho' did this &ome a!outB 7arman holds that% 'hen 'riting his
Historia c( ,,5- Geoffrey 'as only slightly a&Auainted 'ith the ?yrddin
legends and this a&Auaintan&e merely amounted to )no'ledge of the !elief
at +armarthen in an eonymous roheti& founder8figure named
?yrddinJ?erddin( Ho'e.er% at some time su!seAuent to the u!li&ation of
the Historia he en&ountered re8e>isting legends of ?yrddin the roheti&
4ild ?an and thus set a!out &omosing a ne' ClifeD of ?erlin% 'hi&h
sho'ed inde!tedness to !oth the 4elsh oems and the Lailo)en tales( On
the other hand% Padel has re&ently suggested that the re.erse is true E rather
than !elie.ing that the ;ita !erini 'as influen&ed !y the 4elsh oems in
'hi&h ?yrddin aears as a 4ild ?an% he suggests that the ;ita 'as in fa&t
the first te>t to &onflate the Dyfed roheti& ?yrddin 'ith tales of a
northern 4ild ?an that originally !elonged to Lailo)en( As su&h the 4elsh
oems 'hi&h name ?yrddin as this figure 'ould% in his oinion% date from
after the ;ita !erini and !e deri.ati.e of it(
4hi&h of these &ometing models ought to !e adoted is a &omle>
issue( Some of the si> oems mentioned a!o.e 'ould &ertainly aear to
re8date the &omosition of GeoffreyDs ;ita !erini% in&luding 2r Afaenna#
and 2+ddiddan !yrddin a Thaiesin( Ho'e.er% in these &ases either the 4ild
?an of the oem is not named at all <as in 2r Afaenna#% 'ith his &ommon
identifi&ation as ?yrddin !eing simly an assumtion !ased on the other
oems=% or ?yrddin is named !ut it is not &lear that he 'as &onsidered to
ha.e !een the 4ild ?an of %oed %eyddon in the oem rather than merely a
famous rohet <as is the &ase 'ith the 2+ddiddan=( In fa&t% the only one of
the 4elsh oems 'hi&h &an !e &redi!ly &onsidered re8Galfridian and in
'hi&h a &on&et of ?yrddin as the 4ild ?an does definitely aear is the
"50
%yfoesi !yrddin a Gwenddydd ei %hwaer% 'here ?yrddin refers to his madness
after the !attle of Arfderydd( /oth 7arman and 7a&)son &onsider that the
%yfoesi had its origins !efore the ;ita !erini 'as 'ritten% erhas e.en as
early as the tenth &enturyG on the other hand% Padel notes that the earliest
manus&rit of the oem dates to c. ,5## and he e>resses dou!ts o.er
'hether 'e &an !e entirely &ertain that this oemDs &omosition must ha.e
o&&urred !efore c. ,,2#(
4hate.er the &ase may !e% the fa&t that Geoffrey rodu&ed t'o .ery
different ortraits of ?erlin seems not to ha.e unduly 'orried this most
in.enti.e of medie.al /ritish authors( Geoffrey sol.ed the ro!lem to his
satisfa&tion !y resenting ?erlinDs &areer as lasting from SortigernDs reign to
the late8si>th &entury% though it has to !e said that this solution aears to
ha.e strained e.en medie.al &redulity <see Giraldus +am!rensis% for
e>amle=( The .ie' thus de.eloed after Geoffrey that there had !een t'o
?erlins% the first that of the Historia and the se&ond that of the 4elsh
oems and the ;ita !erini% named rese&ti.ely !erin#s A+brosi#s <!yrddin
E+rys= and !erin#s (ivester <!erin#s %eidon#s% !yrddin <yt=(
Bibliography and %urther &eading
Any in.estigation into ?erlin must rely to a great e>tent on the u!lished
'or)s of A(O(H( 7arman% the leading authority on the early 4elsh literature
relating to the figure ?yrddin for the ast four de&ades% the most re&ent of
'hi&h is CThe ?erlin Legend and the 4elsh Tradition of Prohe&yD% in R(
/rom'i&h% A(O(H( 7arman and /(F( Ro!erts <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh.
The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff ,$$,=% ( ,,08,12%
on 'hi&h the a!o.e is largely !ased E his earlier u!li&ations on this toi&
in&lude CThe 4elsh ?yrddin LegendD% in R(S( Loomis <ed(= Arth#rian
9iterat#re in the !idde Ages: A %oaborative History <O>ford ,$2$=% ( "#85#G
2+ddiddan !yrddin a Thaiesin <+ardiff ,$2,G ,$30=G and CEarly Stages in the
De.eloment of the ?yrddin LegendD% in R( /rom'i&h and R(/( 7ones
<edd(= Ast#diaetha# ar yr Hengerdd, (t#dies in 6d <esh Poetry <+aerdydd ,$0-=%
( 5"3851$( O(7( PadelDs suggested re.ision to 7armanDs &hronology for the
de.eloment of the ?yrddin legend &an !e found in CGeoffrey of
?onmouth and the de.eloment of the ?erlin legendD% in %a+brian !edieva
%etic (t#dies% 2, <"##3=% ( 50832(
It is sometimes suggested that ?yrddin 'as a histori&al C!ardD of the
si>th &entury% the main roonents !eing Ni)olai Tolstoy in The 1#est for
!erin <London ,$-2= and Ra&hel /rom'i&h in her CK +ynfeirdd aDr
Traddodiad +ymraegD% in The .#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% "" <,$33=%
( 5#80( This &ontention is !ased entirely uon the aarent strength of the
medie.al tradition &on&erning him% a&&ording to 'hi&h he is almost the
eAual of Taliesin( The &ase is% ho'e.er% fatally 'ea)ened !y the follo'ing;

"5-
<,= the name ?yrddin deri.es from the la&e8name %aerfyrddinG <"= ?yrddin
is a!sent from the list of reno'ned 4elsh oets added to the Historia
.ritton#+ <'ritten A(D( -"$J5#=% 'hi&h mentions !oth Aneirin and TaliesinG
<5= ?yrddin is a!sent from northern and S&ottish tradition in general in re8
Geoffrey formsG and <1=% unli)e Aneirin and Taliesin% no )no'n early 'or)s
are as&ri!ed to ?yrddin( As su&h the &ase must !e reIe&ted E the arguments
are dis&ussed in detail !y Professor 7arman in CA oedd ?yrddin yn Fardd
HanesyddolBD% in (t#dia %etica% ,#J,, <,$0283=% ( ,-"8$0 and Dr
/rom'i&h has &on&eded the de!ate in light of the a!o.e deri.ation of the
name ?yrddin; Ra&hel /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(= Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The
<esh Triads <+ardiff ,$0-=% ( 22$83#(
"5$
C/ut ArthurDs Gra.e is No'here SeenD;
T'elfth8+entury and Later Solutions to
ArthurDs +urrent 4herea!outs
1. Introduction
The !elief that Arthur ne.er truly died and 'ill return is one of the !est
)no'n ase&ts of his legend% and the fo&us of the resent ie&e( The )ey
statement of this &on&et of Arthur is to !e found in Geoffrey of
?onmouthDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae <c. ,,5-=% 'here it is asserted that%
although Arthur C'as mortally 'oundedD at the !attle of +amlann% he E
unli)e the other 'arriors 'ho fell at that !attle E did not die of his deadly
inIuries% !ut 'as instead &arried off to the Isle of A.alon to !e someho'
mira&ulously &ured( This !rief &laim is further ela!orated in GeoffreyDs o'n
;ita !erini <c. ,,2,=, 'here the HistoriaDs imli&ation that Arthur 'as at
some oint &ured E and thus still li.ed and might one day return from
A.alon to rule /ritain E is made e>li&it 'hen Telgesinus suggests to
?erlinus that a shi !e sent to !ring Arthur !a&) from A.alon <see Padel
,$$1; ,,8,"G +lar)e ,$05=(
Ho'e.er% this notion of ArthurDs &ontinued e>isten&e and future return
'as aarently not a urely literary motif( For e>amle% 'e learn from the
Anglo8Norman oeti& te>t The /escri&tion of Engand <,,1#s= that the 4elsh
&an !e heard tal)ing a!out ho' they 'ill% C!y means of ArthurD E that is% !y
means of ArthurDs military ro'ess e>er&ised on !ehalf of the 4elsh after
his return E e>el the English and the Normans from /ritain( Similarly%
!oth Peter of /lois <c. ,,$#= and Giraldus +am!rensis <c( ,,$,= &omare the
.ritones mo&)ingly 'ith the 7e's% Ca'aiting their messiahD <Arthur=( In the
same 'ay% 4illiam of Ne'!urgh <,,$38-= says ho' Cmost of the /ritons are
thought to !e so dull that e.en no' they are said to !e a'aiting the &oming
of ArthurD% and they 'ill not hear that he is dead( Furthermore% the !elief
aears to ha.e !een !oth 'ide8sread and long8li.ed; the Italian
/on&amagno da Signa <c( ,"##= refers to it in a letterG 7ohn Lydgate in his
Fa of Princes <,15,8-= noted the !elief that Arthur Cshall resorte as lord and
so.ereyne Out of fayrye and regne in /reteyneDG and a late si>teenth8&entury
Sanish &hroni&ler related that Phili II s'ore at the time of his marriage to
?ary Tudor in ,221 that he 'ould resign the )ingdom if Arthur should

"1#
return <see /ullo&)8Da.ies ,$-#8"G Loomis ,$2$; 3182G Padel ,$$1; ,,=(
Although the earliest of the a!o.e referen&es imly an a&ti.e /rittoni&
oral tradition of ArthurDs sur.i.al and future return% it 'ill ne.ertheless !e
o!ser.ed that they are all effe&ti.ely Cost8GalfridianD% and thus that their
&laims may refle&t Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs &on&et of Arthur to some
greater or lesser degree( Furthermore% Arthur is &uriously a!sent from the
Old and ?iddle 4elsh roheti& oetry E 'hi&h refers to a .ariety of
Cmessiani&D heroes of the 4elsh% su&h as +ad'aladr% 'ho 'ill suosedly
return to defeat their enemies E that might !e used to &ounter this &on&ern
and offer dire&t &onfirmation of a 'idesread 4elsh !elief in ArthurDs
return for the se&ifi& urose of e>elling the English and the Normans
<see Padel "###; 3,85G 7ones ,$01; ,-5=( Ho'e.er% this is not to say that 'e
&an &onsider the core conce&t of Arthur as un)illa!le to !e ultimately the
in.ention of Geoffrey; 'hilst there is no hint of a lin) !et'een ArthurDs
return and the e>ulsion of the English in re8Galfridian literature% !oth his
deathlessness and otential return <for an un&lear urose= are referred to(
Thus a !elief in ArthurDs &ontinued life 'as suffi&iently o'erful in ,,,5 to
almost &ause a riot in +orn'all 'hen it 'as &ontradi&ted !y s&eti&al Fren&h
&anons; Cmany men rushed into the &hur&h 'ith armsD and% if lo&al assions
had not !een &almed% Cit 'ould &ertainly ha.e &ome to the silling of !loodD(
Similarly% 4illiam of ?almes!ury remar)ed in c. ,,"2 that CArthurDs gra.e is
no'here seen% 'hen&e antiAuity of fa!les still &laims that he 'ill returnD(
Indeed% the idea of ArthurDs &ontinued life E though not his return E seems
to !e re&orded as early as the ninth &entury% 'ith the Engynion y .edda#
&ommenting on the imossi!ility of findingJa&hie.ing Ca gra.e for ArthurD
<+oe and Koung ,$$2; 10G Padel ,$$1; ,#G Green "##0; 0"82% ,$3 E the latter
in&ludes a more detailed dis&ussion of this &on&et of Arthur in /rittoni&
tradition=(
All told then% this is E in some form or another E an an&ient and
enduring ase&t of the Arthurian legend( The aim of the follo'ing ie&e is
simly to ro.ide a guide to the ressing Auestion that ine.ita!ly must
a&&omany any assertion of ArthurDs &ontinued .itality su&h as those noted
a!o.e; if Arthur still li.ed% then 'here is he no'B And if he is to return as
some &laimed% from 'hen&e 'ill he !e &omingB
2. The Isle of Avalon
4hen the &on&et of ArthurDs sur.i.al and return e>tends !eyond a simle
statement of the e>isten&e of the !elief% the e>lanation for his &urrent
a!sen&e ta)es a num!er of forms%the !est )no'n of 'hi&h is that Arthur
'as !iding his time on the Isle of A.alon% to return 'hen his eole needed
him( The earliest referen&es to this Arthurian residen&e on the Isle of
"1,
A.alon are found in the 'or)s of Geoffrey of ?onmouth( In Historia -eg#+
.ritanniae HI(" <c. ,,5-= he asserted that Arthur C'as mortally 'oundedD at
+amlann% !ut 'as then C&arried off to the Isle of A.alon <ins#a+ A#aonis=%
so that his 'ounds might !e attended toD( In this am!iguous statement 'e
&an ro!a!ly see GeoffreyDs attemt to re&on&ile tales in 'hi&h Arthur died
at +amlann <Arthur is Cmortally 'oundedD= 'ith the !elief that Arthur still
li.ed <his 'ounds 'ould !e attended to in GeoffreyDs A.alon=% and thus
satisfy all his ossi!le audien&es <7arman ,$-5; ,,"G Padel ,$$1; ,,8,"=(
Further details of ArthurDs destination are gi.en !y Geoffrey in his ;ita
!erini% lines $#-81# <c( ,,2,=( In this te>t Geoffrey has t'o seers% ?erlinus
<?erlin% ?yrddin= and Telgesinus <Taliesin=% engaging in lengthy
&on.ersation( Telgesinus reminds ?erlinus% in his first see&h% that they t'o%
'ith their steersman /arinthus% &on.eyed the mortally 'ounded Arthur
o.er the sea to !e healed !y ?orgen at the !lissful% e.er8green CIsland of
Ales% 'hi&h is &alled the Fortunate IsleD <ins#a &o+or#+ 3#e fort#nata
vocat#r=( This ?orgen 'as the &hief of nine sisters 'ho resided o.er the
island )ingdom% and she 'as ossessed of magi&al o'ers% su&h as the
a!ility to &hange shae% heal 'ounds and fly( She ut Arthur in her &ham!er
on a golden !ed% telling him that health &ould !e returned to him% if only he
stayed 'ith her a long 'hile and a&&eted her treatment( Telgesinus then
de&lares that a message should% in .ie' of the oression of the /ritons% !e
sent to Arthur as)ing him to return% a suggestion ?erlinus resists in fa.our
of a'aiting the return of +ad'aladr and +ynan <%ad#aadr#s and %onan#s=%
the heroes of the tenth8&entury oem Ar+es Prydein <see 7arman ,$-5G
+lar)e ,$05=(
The ;ita !eriniDs CIsland of AlesD is undou!tedly the same la&e as
the CIsland of A.alonD that Arthur is ta)en to in GeoffreyDs Historia(
Although there has !een some de!ate o.er the meaning of ins#a+ A#aonis
<rendered enys A#aach in the 4elsh .r#t=% on the 'hole it seems &lear that it
should !e seen as a 4elsh &ommon noun meaning Ca la&e <island= of
alesJfruit8treesD rather than E as Loomis and others suggested on the
!asis on medie.al se&ulation E refle&ting the ersonal name Abaac%
Avaach( As su&h ins#a &o+or#+ aears to !e a literal translation of ins#a+
A#aonis)2nys Avaach </rom'i&h ,$0-; "338-G /ullo&)8Da.ies ,$3$; ,558
1G Loomis ,$2$; 33=( The origins of the name A.alon do% naturally% raise the
Auestion of 'hether the tale of ArthurDs &urrent lo&ation that Geoffrey
relates 'as entirely his o'n in.ention( 4hilst Geoffrey undou!tedly dre'
uon &lassi&al models of CFortunate IslesD in his des&rition of A.alon% in its
fundamental &hara&teristi&s E su&h as the a!undant ale trees% the
eretual youth% and the unending fertility E A.alon resents all the features
of the +elti& Other'orld islands found in early Irish literature% for e>amle
abhach% the elysian island of the sea8god ?anannan ma& Lir </rom'i&h
,$0-; "30% 13,8"G Loomis ,$2$; 33=( Furthermore% GeoffreyDs des&rition of
A.alon as an island ruled o.er !y nine magi&al .irgins is reminis&ent of the

"1"
stories told of the nine .irgin en&hantresses of the island of Sena% off the
&oast of /rittany E s)illed in magi&% medi&ine% di.ination and shae8shifting
E re&orded most fully !y Pomonius ?ela <c( 1,82# AD=% and the nine
maidens 'ho reside in an o.erseas fortress and ha.e in their &harge the
&auldron of the +hief of Annwfyn <the Other'orld= in the re8Galfridian
4elsh oem Preide# Annwfyn( Finally% the ruler of A.alon is named as
!orgen% a 4elsh8name meaning Csea8!ornD% 'hom later 'riters indi&ate 'as
&onsidered !y some at least to ha.e !een a goddessG note% for e>amle%
Giraldus +am!rensis des&rition of !organis as Ca &ertain imaginary goddessD
and later referen&es to her as !orgain e deesse% !orgne the goddes </rom'i&h
,$0-; 13,8"=(
Gi.en the a!o.e% it is diffi&ult to !elie.e that the Other'orldly CIsle of
A.alonD 'as the ultimate in.ention of Geoffrey of ?onmouth% though
&ertainly A.alon 'ith its inha!itants !e&omes a literary la&e used for
literary uroses in later te>ts E for e>amle% ?orgen !e&omes ArthurDs
sister% the mother of K.ain% and she ta)es on% in the roman&es% the ase&t of
a 'i&)ed en&hantress( ArthurDs asso&iation 'ith the Isle is more
Auestiona!le% !ut it does not seem entirey imlausi!le that it re8dates
GeoffreyG indeed% the theme of a sele&t fe' resting in the e.er8fertile Isles of
the /lessed is at least as old as an&ient Gree&e( In suort of this% !oth
Giraldus +am!rensis and Ger.ase of Til!ury attri!ute the !elief that Arthur
'as still ali.e and !eing attended to !y ?orgen in A.alon to the C.ulgar
traditionsD <that is% fol)lore= of the .ritones( As su&h it +ay !e that 'e ha.e% in
the a&&ounts gi.en !y Geoffrey% a refle&tion of a genuine re8Galfridian
C.ulgar traditionD 'hi&h sought to e>lain ArthurDs &urrent a!sen&e through
a &laim that he 'as resently residing on a C+elti&D Other'orld island(
Ne.ertheless% e.en if this is the &ase% the Auestion of ho' mu&h of the detail
of GeoffreyDs .ersion of e.ents &an !e trusted is to !e .ery mu&h de!ated;
thus the in.ol.ement of ?erlinus and Telgesinus in the translation of
Arthur is li)ely to !e a Galfridian addition% as is ro!a!ly the lin)ing of
ArthurDs resen&e in A.alon 'ith his inIury at the !attle of +amlann(
Indeed% as /udgey has ointed out% it &ould easily !e that the Galfridian
narrati.e of ArthurDs soIourn in A.alon 'as GeoffreyDs o'n imaginati.e re8
'or)ing of an Arthurian raid on an o.erseas Other'orld% similar to those
found in Preide# Annwfyn <see /udgey ,$$"; 5$1=(
Finally% any dis&ussion of Arthur and A.alon must ma)e at least some
mention of the famed !urial and &ross CfoundD !y the mon)s of Glaston!ury
in ,,$,( The rimary 'itness for this e.ent is Giraldus +am!rensisDs /e
Princi&is @nstr#ctione of c. ,,$58$ and his (&ec##+ Eccesiae of c( ,",3% !ut
a&&ounts are also to !e had from Ralh of +oggeshall <c( ,""2= and Adam of
Domerham <,"$,=% amongst others( These a&&ounts differ in se.eral
imortant ase&ts from one another% in arti&ular the reasons 'hy the
e>&a.ations 'ere &ondu&tedG the nature of the &offin and its &ontentsG and
"15
the ins&rition on the lead &ross <at least fi.e different .ersions are )no'n=(
The only maIor oints of agreement in the te>ts are to !e had in the
des&rition of 'here the mon)s dug% and in the !elief that the mon)s
CfoundD an ins&ri!ed lead &ross 'ith some gra.es 'hi&h re&orded that here
'as lo&ated the Creno'ned 9ing ArthurD% !uried Cin the Isle of A.alonD( This
eisode has !een mu&h dis&ussed !ut there no' seems to !e a general
agreement that the story that the mon)s had un&o.ered ArthurDs gra.e% 'ith
Glaston!ury !eing A.alon% is a late t'elfth8&entury fraud &ommitted !y the
Glaston!ury &ommunity% 'ith the &ross 'hi&h attested these &laims is no'
seen as a rodu&t of the t'elfth &entury E not the tenth or ele.enth &entury%
as some ha.e tried to &laim E and its te>t is deri.ati.e of Geoffrey of
?onmouthDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae <there 'as a &oy of this at
Glaston!ury from c( ,,0#=( The fraud may ha.e !een eretrated to attra&t
ilgrims to hel fund the re!uilding of the monastery% or for the !enefit of
the )ing of England E for 'hom it 'ould seem to ha.e had se.eral ossi!le
ad.antages E or indeed for a &om!ination of these t'o reasons <see on all of
this Raht6 ,$$5G +arley ,$$$; 10820=( 4hate.er the reason for the fraud% the
Cdis&o.eryD of ArthurDs suosed gra.e did nothing to damen the
'idesread C.ulgarD !elief that Arthur li.ed on and 'ould return% though it
did influen&e later medie.al Arthurian literature( As a 'hole then% the
in&ident tells us little a!out oular traditions regarding A.alon or a!out
ArthurDs asso&iation 'ith this Other'orldly CFortunate IsleD% !ut it does
demonstrates t'o things for us( Firstly% that the !elief that Arthur 'as still
ali.e and 'ould return 'as suffi&iently 'ell8)no'n to ma)e it 'orth'hile
the Glaston!ury &ommunity engineering su&h a fraud( Se&ondly% that the
!elief in Arthur still !eing ali.e 'as o'erful enough to sur.i.e this attemt
to deny it !y ma)ing the Other'orldly home of Arthur merely his gra.e at
Glaston!ury(
4hilst the Glaston!ury mon)s attemted to ma)e A.alon simly the
final resting la&e of Arthur% literary a&&ounts retained the notion that
Arthur 'as still ali.e and A.alon 'as a elysian la&e 'here he 'as staying
until it 'as time for him to return% though they too tried to gi.e A.alon a
'orldly lo&ation( Thus% for e>amle% the author of the Fo#riant et Forete
<c( ,"2#= identified A.alon 'ith Si&ily% 'ith the &hief fortress of ?organ
!eing !ongibeo <?ount Etna=% and this !elief assed into Si&ilian fol)lore%
'ith the mirage henomenon in the Straits of ?essina !eing &alled the Fata
!organa in the fourteenth &entury( The ?allor&an author Guillem Torroella%
in his 9a Fa#a <,53#80#=% also still &onsidered Arthur to !e 'aiting in
A.alon <again erhas identified as Si&ily=% des&ri!ing ho' he tra.elled to
A.alon on the !a&) of a 'hale and found Arthur and ?orgen a'aiting the
Cmessiani& returnD( 7ean dDOutremeuse similarly oints to a ?editerranean
lo&ality for A.alon in 9y !yre#r des Histors <'ritten !efore ,1##=% relating
ho' Ogier the Dane in the year -$3 'as shi're&)ed on A.alon% 'hi&h 'as
nine daysD sail from +yrus( Here Ogier fights 'ith% amongst others% ca&a#s

"11
<the PalugDs +at of re8Galfridian Arthurian legend= and Arthur himself
!efore !orghe <?orgen= &ondu&ts him to her ala&e% surrounded !y fruit8
trees and ools% and grants him% li)e Arthur% eretual youth and
immortality( 7eanDs a&&ount dre' on% at least artly% a fourteenth8&entury
Fren&h oem a!out Ogier <-o+an d?6gier e /anois=( This ho'e.er la&ed
A.alon in the Far East near the Earthly Paradise% 'ith a Danish reda&tor of
this oem identifying A.alon 'ith India% and eastern lo&ations for A.alon
are ro.ided !y other sour&es too( For e>amle% 9e .atard de .o#ion
<c. ,52#= des&ri!es ho' /audouin learns from the rin&es of ?e&&a that
!eyond the Red Sea lay the land of faerie 'here Arthur and ?orgen d'elt
<see Loomis ,$2$; 308-G La&y ,$$3; "283% 12-=( Needless to say% all of these
are urely literary imaginings and there is no reason to thin) that they refle&t
genuine /rittoni& !eliefs(
3. Arthur9s Subterranean 3ingdo*
4hilst the A.alon tale is 'ell )no'n from medie.al Arthurian literature%
insired a nota!le fraud% and Iust ossi!ly may ha.e its origins in genuine
non8Galfridian fol)lore% in the re&orded modern C.ulgar traditionsD it .ery
mu&h too) se&ond8la&e to another a&&ount of ArthurDs 'herea!outs as he
'aits to return% 'hi&h made little ima&t on the medie.al Arthurian
roman&es; the legend that Arthur 'as !iding his time in his magi&al
su!terranean )ingdomJa!ode 'hi&h &ould only !e entered through a &a.ern
in the side of a hillJmountain(
One of the earliest &ertain referen&es to this e>lanation of ArthurDs
resent 'herea!outs &an !e found in Ger.ase of Til!uryDs 6tia @+&eriaia <c(
,",,=( Ger.ase 'as familiar 'ith the Galfridian a&&ount of A.alon and
?orgen !ut he also notes% on the authority of nati.es% ho' a groom of the
/isho of +antania% ursuing a runa'ay horse% entered the side of ?ount
Etna in Si&ily .ia a narro' ath and &ame uon a fair lain 'ith all manner
of delights( Here he found Arthur lying on a &ou&h in a mar.ellous ala&e%
'ho% after telling him the story of his fight 'ith ?ordred and of his 'ounds
that oened afresh ea&h year% sent him a'ay 'ith resents to the !isho(
Ger.ase 'as in Si&ily 'ith the Norman 9ing 4illiam around ,,$# and his
story dates from this eriodG although its origins are erle>ing% they may
erhas lie in an undo&umented translantation of /reton fol)8legends to
Si&ily as a result of the &onAuest of Si&ily !y the Normans and their /reton
follo'ers <+ham!ers ,$"0; "",8"G Loomis ,$1,; "$08$G Loomis ,$2-; ,"8
,5=( In suort of this osition &an !e &ited etienne de RouenDs /raco
,or+annic#s( 4riting a little earlier than Ger.ase% in c( ,,3$% etienne de
Rouen &onfuses the tale of Arthur in A.alon 'ith 'hat 'ould aear to
ha.e !een a similar tale of ArthurDs underground )ingdom to that re&ounted
"12
!y Ger.ase% 'hilst ma)ing a mo&) of the C/reton HoeD( In this te>t Arthur
is said to ha.e gone to A.alon to !e 'ith !organis <?orgen% made here his
sister=% 'ho then grants him earthly immortality as ruler of the lo'er
hemishereG from here% in etienneDs a&&ount% Arthur then returns to rote&t
the /retons from Henry II( As Loomis long ago ointed out% the natural
imli&ation of su&h a ridi&uling of the notion that Arthur 'as 'aiting in an
antiodean )ingdom is that the /retons did a&tually !elie.e su&h a story
<Loomis ,$1,G Loomis ,$2$; 3$=( Thus it aears that the tale that Arthur
'as ali.e in a su!terranean )ingdom from 'hi&h he 'ould return 'as
esta!lished in /rittany% at least% from the mid8t'elfth &entury% and formed
suffi&ient art of the C/reton HoeD for it to !e 'orth satirising(
Other referen&es to this !elief in ArthurDs su!terranean Other'orldly
d'elling are to !e had% for e>amle% from the thirteenth8&entury
&omilation of oems /er <artb#rgkrieg% 'here there is an allusion to Arthur
d'elling in de+ berge% 'here he li.ed in delight E sulied 'ith a!undant
food and drin) E 'ith hundreds of his )nights% and in the English oem A
/is&#te between a %hristian and a Jew <c( ,502=% 'hi&h des&ri!es Arthur and his
)nights residing in a magnifi&ent manor rea&hed !y a ath under a hill
<Loomis ,$2$; 3$=( The most signifi&ant !ody of e.iden&e &omes from ost8
medie.al fol)lore ho'e.er( In this Arthur is similarly found in an
Other'orldly hollo' hillJmountain% !ut in many of the tales he and his men
are aslee E rather than a'a)e and li.ing in slendour E in their magi&al
a!ode( These legends are most freAuent in 4ales% and +ham!ers Auotes the
e>amle of +raig8y8Dinas as tyi&al;
A 4elshman is guided !y an English &unning manJ'i6ard to a hidden
en&hanted &a.ern leading dee underground( In this assage hangs a !ell
'hi&h must not !e tou&hed for% if it is% the inha!itants of the su!terranean
&ham!er 'ill a'a)e and as) CIs it dayBD( If this haens the ans'er must !e
gi.en CNo% slee thou onD% as the inha!itants of this &a.ern are the still8li.ing
Arthur and thousands of his men% aslee in a &ir&le% 'aiting until the !ell is
tolled for them to rise and lead the +ymry to .i&tory( 4ithin the &ir&le lay a
hea of gold and a hea of sil.er and the 4elshman is told !y the magi&ian
that he &an ta)e from only one ile E this he does% !ut on his 'ay out he
a&&identally stri)es the !ell% ha.ing to gi.e the reAuired ans'er in order to
es&ae 'ith his treasure( He is 'arned that he must not sAuander 'hat he
has stolen from the magi&al d'elling of Arthur% !ut 'hen it is all sent he
ays a se&ond .isit to the &a.ern( This time ho'e.er he forgets to gi.e the
&orre&t formula 'hen he a&&identally rings the !ell and se.eral )nights
a'a)e% !eat him% and send him forth a &rile( For the rest of his days he is
oor and &ould ne.er again find the entran&e <summarised from +ham!ers
,$"0; """85G Ashe ,$$3; 03=(
The story is similar else'here% though it .aries in minor rese&ts from
la&e to la&e% for e>amle% the !ell may !e rela&ed !y a !ugle% or the &a.e
leading to ArthurDs a!ode is dis&o.ered !y a sheherd see)ing his shee( On

"13
Sno'don ArthurDs men lie in the &a.e !ut not Arthur himselfG he fell at
+amlann and is !uried in a &airn <this o!.iously reresents an attemt to
re&on&ile the legend of Arthur still !eing ali.e 'ith the fol)8tale that he died
at +amlann% 'hi&h may ha.e originated in this area; see Sims84illiams ,$$,;
2,=(
This &on&et of Arthur is also to !e found in England and S&otland(
One early e>amle is from South +ad!ury hill% Somerset% 'hi&h is ro!a!ly
first re&orded !y the 4elsh antiAuary Elis Gruffudd% 'ho died in ,22"( He
re&ords t'o .ersions of the legend of Arthur magi&ally sleeing inside a hill%
one Cin the region of Glou&esterD and one 'here Arthur is Caslee in a &a.e
under a hill near Glaston!uryD% 'hi&h is ro!a!ly South +ad!ury E this
!elief ersisted into the nineteenth &entury% 'hen a arty of antiAuaries 'ere
as)ed on their .isit to South +ad!ury !y an old man CHa.e you &ome to
ta)e the )ing outBD <Padel ,$$,; "1#G Loomis ,$2$; 3$80#G other tales gi.e
the hollo' +ad!ury +astle iron or golden gates% see +ham!ers ,$"0; ,-2=(
Other instan&es are to !e had from Alderly Edge in +heshire% the Eildon
Hills in S&otland% St ?i&haelDs ?ount in +orn'all% and Free!orough Hill in
Kor)shire% for e>amle <Simson ,$-3G Loomis ,$2-; ,18,2=( In the English
and S&ottish .ersions of the tale the intruder is sometimes tested and fails
through &onfusion or ani&( Thus !eneath the +astle of Se'ingshields
Arthur slees 'ith his 'ife and &ourt% 'aiting for a horn to !e !lo'n and a
garter to !e &ut 'ith a s'ord of stone( A farmer follo's% !y a&&ident% a
&re.i&e to find them and &uts the garter 'ith the s'ord% 'hereuon Arthur
a'a)es uttering the 'ords;
O 'oe !etide that e.il day
On 'hi&h this 'itless 'ight 'as !orn%
4ho dre' the s'ord E the garter &ut%
/ut ne.er !le' the !ugle horn(
He then falls !a&) into his en&hanted slum!er( Similarly at Ri&hmond +astle
in Kor)shire Potter Thomson% 'ho finds ArthurDs hidden su!terranean
'aiting8la&e% fails to &omlete the ritual;
Potter Thomson% Potter Thomson% hadst thou !lo'n the horn%
Thou hadst !een the greatest man that e.er 'as !orn(
<+ham!ers ,$"0; ""182=
4hile there are &lear differen&es% the a!o.e tales are all &learly related and
testify to a strong oular !elief <found aarently in /rittany% 4ales%
England and southern S&otland= that the reason Arthur 'as not resently to
!e found 'as that he 'as 'aitingJsleeing in his magi&al su!terranean
)ingdomJa!ode% the entran&e to 'hi&h 'as often elusi.e and &ould only !e
"10
found on rare o&&asions( It is 'orth noting that there is no ossi!le
Galfridian or roman&e sour&e for this tale of ArthurDs underground
residen&e and% as dis&ussed a!o.e% the earliest referen&es oint to it ha.ing
its origins at least as early as the mid8t'elfth &entury as art of the mu&h8
mo&)ed /rittoni& !elief in ArthurDs Cmessiani& returnD( As su&h% it seems not
unreasona!le to treat it as a genuine e>amle of non8Galfridian /rittoni&
fol)lore% this !eing a de.eloment of the !elief that Arthur &ould ne.er !e
slain found in the Engynion y .edda#% desite the fa&t that it is not re&orded
from /ritish or English fol)lore until after the medie.al eriod(
Mltimately this tale% li)e that of Arthur in A.alon% 'ould seem to !e one
of ArthurDs resent a!sen&e !eing as&ri!ed to the fa&t that he 'as &urrently
residing% still ali.e E though sometimes aslee E in the +elti& Other'orld%
from 'hi&h he 'ould at some oint return( ArthurDs su!terranean
a!odeJ)ingdom is &ertainly of a magi&alJOther'orldly &hara&ter in these
tales% and it is &learly reminis&ent of the +elti& tradition that lo&ated the
Other'orld or Fairyland underground% 'ith elusi.e &a.erns in the side of
hillsJmountains a&ting as the entran&e to it <Rees : Rees ,$3,; 5-81#% 12%
5#582G Ross ,$$2; 11,G Loomis ,$1,G Loomis ,$2$; 0,=( It is also asso&iated
'ith the &ommon fol)8motif of the hero aslee in an Other'orldly
mountain% first re&orded !y Plutar&h of an unnamed /ritish deity aslee in a
dee en&hanted &a.ern in an island near /ritain <Thomson ,$228-%
num!ers A(20, and D(,$3#("G Ashe ,$$3; 03% 00G Padel ,$$1; 5#8,G Padel
,$$2; ,,#8,,G +ham!ers ,$"0; ""280% "5#=( The main differen&e from the
A.alon tale is simly one of the &on&etion of the Other'orld that Arthur
'as &urrently residing in% and the fa&t that% in this less literary tale% the
o'nerJruler often aears to !e Arthur himself% not the suosed8goddess
?orgen( It ought% in&identally% to !e noted that the notion that the tale of a
su!terranean sleeer 'as only atta&hed to genuinely histori&al figures% and
therefore that this tale Cro.esD that Arthur really e>isted <as roosed !y
Geoffrey Ashe=% is a false one% as &an !e seen from its atta&hment to a
/ritish deity in Plutar&h and to the Gaeli& Fionn ma& +umhaill <Ashe ,$$2;
08-G Padel ,$$1; 5#85,G Padel ,$$2; ,,#8,,=( In addition to the definite
e>amles of the legend% there are se.eral 6gof Arth#r% CArthurDs &a.eD% )no'n
from 4ales% 'hi&h ha.e no e>tant hollo' hillJ&a.e legend atta&hed to them
!ut 'hi&h may !e related( Similarly% Hunt <,-32; II(,-3= notes that in the
mid8nineteenth &entury% ArthurDs +a.es 'ere CfreAuently to !e met 'ithD in
'estern +orn'all% although he fails to ela!orate any further on these(
. The +ild Hunt
At South +ad!ury% Somerset% the legend of Arthur aslee in an underground
COther'orldD is Ioined !y another fas&inating e>lanation of ArthurDs

"1-
&urrent 'herea!outs% re&orded here in the modern eriod; there is an old
tra&) near +ad!ury +astle &alled CArthurDs Hunting +ause'ayD and se&tral
riders and hunting8dogs &an !e heard rushing along it on rough 'inter
nights% these !eing Arthur and his hounds E usually in.isi!le e>&et for glint
of his horseDs sil.er shoes E riding in the 4ild Hunt <Palmer ,$03; -5=( This
C4ild HuntD is an 'idesread and an&ient fol)8!elief found a&ross Euroe%
'hi&h 'ould seem to at least artly o'e its origins to an e>lanation of the
strange noises made !y storms and high 'inds( It is a hantom &hase 'ith a
se&tralJOther'orldly host <often said to !e the souls of the dead=% &oursing
through a forest or the air at night 'ith !ugles or horns !lo'ing and
a&&omanied !y the &ries of the hunting a&)( One of the earliest8re&orded
leaders of this Other'orldly hunt 'as OdinJ4oden% the Germani& god% and
the leadershi of the hunt seems to ha.e !een originally art of the role of
the Indo8Euroean ?fnner!und8gods% Odin !eing the &lassi& e>amle of
this tye <9ersha' "###% ese&ially "#81#=% although it 'as atta&hed o.er the
&enturies to many ersonages% !oth mythi&al and histori&al% su&h as
+harlemagne% the De.il% Herla <ossi!ly Odin under another name=% Ara'n
<9ing of Annwfyn% the 4elsh Other'orld=% and G'yn a Nudd(
Gi.en all of the a!o.e% the South +ad!ury fol)lore is &onseAuently
suggesti.e of a &on&et of Arthur in 'hi&h his resent a!sen&e is e>lained
as a result of his ta)ing on the leadershi of this mythi&al and se&tral host(
?oreo.er% the South +ad!ury tale is not the earliest referen&e to this role
for Arthur; as 'ith the referen&e to ArthurDs su!terranean faery )ingdom%
Ger.ase of Til!ury <c( ,",,= ro.ides one of the earliest a&&ounts of this
!elief( After finishing his Si&ilian story he re&ounts that he has heard
foresters from the 'oods of !oth /ritain and /rittany tell of &omanies of
)nights 'ho meet for hunting !eneath the full moon% 'ith hounds and a din
of hornsG 'hen Auestioned they re.eal themsel.es to !e of CArthurDs
householdD <+ham!ers ,$"0; ""-=( This !elief is also mentioned in the
Didot Per&e.al <c( ,""#85#=% and the rea&her etienne de /our!on in his
Tractat#s de diversis +ateriis &raedicabiib#s <c( ,"2#83#= says ho' on a moonlight
night a 'ood&utter met the 4ild Hunt E &omosed% says etienne% of de.ils
E near the ?ont du +hat in Sa.oy <'here% it should !e noted% the 4elsh
fol)tale of Arthur and %ath Pa#c !e&ame lo&alised= and he 'as told that the
hunting8arty 'as of ArthurDs household and his &ourt 'as near!y( The
'ood&utter then follo's the arty into ArthurDs faery ala&e% filled 'ith
)nights and ladies% dan&ing and feasting% and lays as dire&ted 'ith a !eautiful
lady% only to 'a)e u the ne>t morning on a !undle of faggots <Loomis
,$2-; ,,=(
There are numerous other referen&es to ArthurDs leadershi of the 4ild
Hunt( It is most interesting to note that in /rittany and 'estern Fran&e the
4ild Hunt is referred to as a %hasse Art#% referen&es to this aarently
going !a&) to at least the t'elfth &entury and &ontinuing right through until
"1$
the t'entieth <Loomis ,$2$; 0#G Taylor ,$",; "-08$=( These a&&ounts assign
.arious origins to the &hase !ut the most usual is that% in order to Ioin in a
hunt% Arthur left the ser.i&e of the mass at the moment of the ele.ation of
the host and for this sa&rilegious a&t he is &ondemned to &hase fore.er( A
.ersion from Fouggres <!et'een /rittany and ?aine= relates ho' Arthur on
that o&&asion ursued the hare through the forest to the .erge of an
enormous &liff% from 'hi&h the hare leaedG ho'e.er% instead of falling it
floats on !efore the &hase% 'hi&h follo'ed and &ontinues to ursue it%
unsu&&essfully% for eternity( Another famous referen&e to the legend of
Arthur and the 4ild Hunt is to !e had from the si>teenth8&entury %o+&aynt
of (cotand( In amongst a list of medie.al roman&e8titles to !e told for
re&reation 'e find;
Arthour )ny&ht he raid on ny&ht
Siht gyltin sur and &andil ly&ht
/ru&e too) this entry as indi&ati.e of a lost !allad !ased on the fol)8tale of
the 4ild Hunt% though its te>t has also !een &omared to &harms found in
later fol)lore 'ith the suggestion that it 'as nothing more than this </ru&e
,$,"; ,$"G Taylor ,$",; "-380=( A final interesting e>amle of the legend
&omes in a letter from 4illiam 4ords'orth to Allen +unningham% dated
No.em!er "5% ,-"5;
Do not say I ought to ha.e !een a S&ot&hman( Tear me not from
the &ountry of +hau&er% Senser% Sha)eseare and ?iltonG yet I o'n
that sin&e the days of &hildhood% 'hen I !e&ame familiar 'ith the
hrase CThey are )illing geese in S&otland% and sending the feathers
to EnglandD <'hi&h e.ery one had ready 'hen the sno' !egan to
fall=% and 'hen I used to hear in the time of a high 'ind% that
ArthurDs !o'er has !ro)en his !and%
And he &omes roaring u the landG
9ing oD S&ots 'iD aD his o'er
+annot turn ArthurDs !o'er%
I ha.e !een inde!ted to the North for more than I shall e.er !e
a!le to a&)no'ledge(
This &learly underlines the fa&t that the 4ild Hunt 'ould seem to ha.e !een
originally an e>lanation for the strange noises made !y storm8'inds( The
rhyme Auoted !y 4ords'orth from his &hildhood also finds its 'ay% in a
slightly different form% into /eatri> PotterDs The Tae of (3#irre ,#tkin <(
2#=;

"2#
Nut)in !egan again E
CArthur OD/o'er has !ro)en his !and%
He &ame roaring u the landV
The )ing of S&ots 'ith all his o'er%
+annot turn Arthur of the /o'erVD
Nut)in made a 'hirring noise to sound li)e the 'ind% and he too) a
running Ium right onto the head of Old /ro'nV
Ta)en together% this all indi&ates that the &on&et of Arthur in 'hi&h he is
leader of the 4ild Hunt 'as a strong and long8li.ed one( 7ust ho' early it
de.eloed is imossi!le to say 'ith &ertainty( The Fren&h referen&es to the
%hasse Art#% 'hi&h aarently !egin in the t'elfth &entury% resuma!ly
sread from /rittany to the other areas% and a /rittoni& origin for the
fol)lore is further indi&ated !y Ger.ase of Til!uryDs early thirteenth8&entury
attri!ution of the !elief to foresters from !oth /ritain and /rittany <see
Green "##0; "2$=( Indeed% it has re&ently !een suggested that ArthurDs
leadershi of the 4ild Hunt may go !a&) to the earliest stratum of the
legend( Not only has ArthurDs hunting of the giant suernatural !oar Twrch
Trwyth% 'hi&h aears in the ninth8&entury Historia .ritton#+ and the
ele.enth8&entury %#hwch ac 6wen% !een &onsidered to !e a form of the 4ild
Hunt <4est'ood ,$-2; "02% 11-G Green "##0; "50=% !ut if Arthur 'as
originay a ?fnner!und8god% as has re&ently !een .ery tentati.ely suggested%
then leadershi of the hunt 'ill ha.e al'ays !een a role of his <Green "##0;
"5581#=(

". Arthur the Bird
The a!o.e reresents the final &on&et of Arthur in 'hi&h he 'as still ali.e
in a human form( In addition to these e>lanations for his &urrent a!sen&e%
one further &on&et of ArthurDs fate is ese&ially strange in &hara&ter( This
holds that Arthur still li.es !ut that he has !een transformed into a !ird and
roams the earth in this form( The first referen&e to this !elief is found in
7ulian del +astilloDs ,2-" Sanish &hroni&le Historia de os -eyes Godos
<Loomis ,$2-; ,38,0=( This asserts that in England it 'as &ommon tal)
<fa+a co+#n= that Arthur had !een en&hanted into the form of a &ro' and
that many enalties 'ere infli&ted on anyone 'ho )illed one of these !irds(
This !elief is also famously referred to !y ?iguel de +er.antes Saa.edra%
'ho a&tually mentions the !elief three times in his /on 1#i4ote <,3#2 :
,3,2= and his osthumously u!lished Persies y (igis+#nda <,3,0=( The
follo'ing is from /on 1#i4ote% I% ii(2;
"2,
4hatV said Don @ui>ote% ha.e you ne.er read the annals and
history of England% 'hi&h treat of the famous e>loits of Arthur%
'hom% at resent% in our +astilian language% is &alled )ing Artus%
and of 'hom% there is an an&ient tradition% generally !elie.ed all
o.er Great8/ritain% that he did not die% !ut 'as% !y the art of
en&hantment% metamorhosed into a ra.en; and% that the time 'ill
&ome% 'hen he shall return% and re&o.er his s&etre and throne( For
'hi&h reason% it &annot !e ro.ed% that from that eriod to this%
any Englishman has )illed a ra.en( <Smollett ,022; 00=
The a!o.e 'as Auoted !y an eighteenth8&entury &orresondent% Edgar
?a&+ullo&h% in ,otes 0 1#eries <First Series% SIII% ( 3,-=% 'ho added his
o'n o!ser.ations on this matter( These 'ere in turn Auoted !y Ro!ert
Hunt in his /ros, Traditions and (#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa <,-32; II(5#-8$=
'ith further remar)s;
P?y reason for trans&ri!ing this assage Nfrom Don @ui>oteO is
to re&ord the &urious fa&t that the legend of 9ing ArthurDs e>isten&e
in the form of a ra.en 'as still reeated as a ie&e of fol)8lore in
+orn'all a!out si>ty years ago( ?y father% 'ho died a!out t'o
years sin&e% at the age of eighty% sent a fe' years of his youth in the
neigh!ourhood of Pen6an&e( One day he 'as 'al)ing along
?ara6ion Green 'ith his fo'ling8ie&e on his shoulder% he sa' a
ra.en at a distan&e% and fired at it( An old man 'ho 'as near
immediately re!u)ed him% telling him that he ought on no a&&ount
to ha.e shot at a ra.en% for that 9ing Arthur 'as still ali.e in the
form of that !ird( ?y father 'as mu&h interested 'hen I dre' his
attention to the assage 'hi&h I ha.e Auoted a!o.e(
PPerhas some of your +ornish or 4elsh &orresondents may
!e a!le to say 'hether the legend is still )no'n among the eole
of +orn'all or 4ales( EDGAR ?A++MLLO+H
PGuernsey(Q
I ha.e !een most desirous of dis&o.ering if any su&h legend as the
a!o.e e>ists( I ha.e Auestioned eole in e.ery art of +orn'all in
'hi&h 9ing Arthur has !een reorted to ha.e d'elt and fought%
and ese&ially ha.e I inAuired in the neigh!ourhood of Tintagel%
'hi&h is reorted to ha.e !een ArthurDs stronghold( No'here do I
find the ra.en asso&iated 'ith him% !ut I ha.e !een told that !ad
lu&) 'ill 'ould follo' the man 'ho )illed a +hough% for Arthur
'as transformed into one of these !irds(

"2"
THE %6-,@(H %H6NGH(
The tradition relati.e to 9ing Arthur and his transformation into a
ra.en% is fi>ed .ery de&idedly on the +ornish +hough% from the
&olour of its !ea) and talons( TheE
CTalons and !ea) all red 'ith !loodVD
are said to mar) the .iolent end to 'hi&h this &ele!rated &hieftain
&ame(
HuntDs &omments 'ith regards to the atta&hment of the legend to the
+ornish +hough E a red8legged and red8!illed &ro' E are &onfirmed !y
other sour&es% and in 4elsh bran Arth#r <CArthur &ro'D= is an alternati.e
name for the +hough <other'ise )no'n as bran goesgoch% Cred8legged &ro'D=G
+ham!ers further notes of the !ird that Arthur is said to ha.e !een
transformed into that a Cre&ent enAuirer 'as told !y a Dela!ole Auarryman
that it 'as a nath or uffin(D <+ham!ers% ,$"0; ""$=(
This strange &on&et of an undying Arthur 'ould seem to !e a relati.ely
late e>lanation of ArthurDs &urrent 'herea!outs in oular tradition <it
&learly !elongs to this=% gi.en that the &on&et is unre&orded !efore the
si>teenth8&entury% though the fa&t that 'ithout the &han&e re&ord of this
!elief !y 7ulian del +astillo and ?iguel de +er.antes Saa.edra 'e 'ould
ha.e no e.iden&e of it until the eighteenth or nineteenth &entury suggests
that a more an&ient origin is not imossi!le( The disagreement !et'een the
sour&es o.er the tye of !ird that Arthur 'as turned into is interesting; the
legend has !een atta&hed to the ra.en% the &ro'% the +hough% and the
uffin( All !ut the uffin% 'hi&h is only on&e asso&iated 'ith the legend% are
&or.ids and thus the disagreement must at least artly reresent a &onfusion
!et'een large !la&) !irds of the &ro' family( 4ith regards to the ra.en% this
is a !ird strongly asso&iated 'ith myth and legend and it is ro!a!ly
signifi&ant in the resent &onte>t that% in 4ales and the 4est +ountry% it
'as held to !e a royal !ird% and in Somerset men tied their hats to it as it
fle' !y(
4hilst the !elief that Arthur sur.i.es as a &or.id is not re&orded in the
medie.al eriod% &ertain ase&ts of the early Arthurian legend may hel
elu&idate it( Firstly% Arthur himself is asso&iated 'ith the ra.en or &ro' in
medie.al 4elsh literature <for e>amle in 2 Gododdin=( Se&ondly% his family
seem to ha.e !een% in early /rittoni& tradition% shae8shifters( For e>amle%
his father Mthyr Pendragon 'ould seem to ha.e !een a reno'ned en&hanter
and shae8shifter% 'ith Triad "- indi&ating that Mthyr taught his s)ills to
?en' son of Teirg'aedd% 'ho is one of ArthurDs men in the ele.enth8
&entury %#hwch ac 6wen and in this te>t transforms himself into a !ird <see
"25
Green "##0; ,13G /rom'i&h ,$0-; Triad "- and ( 2"#85=( Similarly
ArthurDs nehe'% Eli'lod m( ?ada'g m( Mthr% is transformed
osthumously into an eagle in the non8Galfridian <c( ,,2#B= 2+ddiddan
Arth#r a?r Eryr <'hi&h dislays )no'ledge of +orn'all=% in 'hi&h form he
no' li.es and tal)s to Arthur( 4hilst su&h referen&es &annot ro.e that the
idea of Arthur !eing transformed into a !ird 'as art of medie.al /rittoni&
fol)lore% they do ro.ide a &onte>t in 'hi&h su&h a situation 'ould !e
lausi!le(
$. Arthur in the Stars
The last &on&et of ArthurDs &urrent 'herea!outs &onsidered here e>lains
that his resent a!sen&e is due to the fa&t that he has !een !odily remo.ed
from the earth and la&ed in the s)y% se&ifi&ally in the &onstellation of
/ohtes( The only e>li&it referen&e to this o&&urs in 7ohn LydgateDs Fa of
Princes <,15#s=% 'here after the !attle of +amlann Arthur is transorted to
Arth#ris consteacio#n% CArthurDs &onstellationD </ohtes=% 'here he resides still
in a magnifi&ent &rystalline ala&e;
4her he sit &ro'nid in the heuenly mansioun
Amyd the aleis of stonis &ristallyne%
Told among +risten first of ie 'orthi nyne(
<D'yer ,$0-; ,2$=
Although this story is found no'here else% that there 'as indeed some sort
of &lose relationshi !et'een Arthur and this &onstellation in the medie.al
eriod is strongly indi&ated !y the fa&t that Arct#r#s% the name of a star in
the &onstellation of /ohtes% 'as a genuine medie.al form of ArthurDs name%
used aarently indeendently !y Ailred of Rie.aul> <(&ec##+ %haritatis% c(
,,1,= and Geoffrey of ?onmouth <;ita !erini% c( ,,2,= amongst others
</rom'i&h ,$0-; 21182=( In this light it is 'orth &onsidering 'hether this
&on&et of ArthurDs sur.i.al might ha.e !een more 'idesread than the
a.aila!le e.iden&e indi&ates( +ertainly% as has !een dis&ussed else'here% a
lin) !et'een Ar&turus and Arthur has the otential to !e .ery an&ient
indeed% and su&h a situation may additionally hel e>lain some .ery
u66ling &on&ets of Arthur that e>isted in the medie.al eriod <Green
"##0; ,--% ,$,81% "15G Anderson "##1G Green forth&oming=(
>. 'onclusion
The a!o.e erhas demonstrates something of the ri&hness and .itality of

"21
the legends surrounding ArthurDs sur.i.al( /y the t'elfth &entury the
&on&et of Arthur in 'hi&h he &ould not !e )illed E as found in the
Engynion y .edda# E had de.eloed into one of his return% and had
furthermore !egun to ta)e on &ertain se&ifi& forms in its attemts to
e>lain a'ay ArthurDs &urrent .ery8o!.ious a!sen&e( A&&ording to
some%Arthur 'as 'aiting on an island or su!terranean Other'orld% of
'hi&h he is sometimes lord( Other e>lanations% some later than others%
held that he resently led an Other'orldly hunt through the airG had !een
transformed into a &ro'% ra.en or +houghG 'as residing in the stars li)e the
&lassi&al heroes of oldG or 'as e.en &urrently resting in an under'ater
Other'orld <the last is referred to only !y Godfrey of Siter!o in c. ,,$# E
see Loomis ,$2$; 0#8,% &f( 4est'ood ,$-2; "-0=( One has to as) ho' many
more su&h &on&ets on&e e>isted% 'hether literary or fol)lori&B It is so!ering
to refle&t ho' fragile our )no'ledge of some of the a!o.e a&tually is(
C. Bibliography
Anderson% G( "##1% King Arth#r in Anti3#ity <London=
Ashe% G( ,$$3% C+a.e LegendD% in The ,ew Arth#rian Encyco&edia% ed( N(7(
La&y <Ne' Kor)=% ( 0380
Ashe% G( ,$$2% CThe Origins of the Arthurian LegendD% Arth#riana% 2(5% (,8
"1
/rom'i&h% R( <ed( and trans(= ,$0-% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads
se&ond edition <+ardiff=
/rom'i&h% R(% 7arman% A( O( H(% and Ro!erts% /( F( <edd(= ,$$,% The Arth#r
of the <esh. The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff=
/rom'i&h% R( and E.ans% D( S( <edd(= ,$$"% %#hwch and 6wen. An Edition
and (t#dy of the 6dest Arth#rian Tae <+ardiff=
/ru&e% 7( D( ,$,"% CArthurianaD% -o+anic -eview% 5% ( ,058,$5
/udgey% A( ,$$"% CPPreiddeu Ann'nQ and the 4elsh Tradition of ArthurD%
in %etic 9ang#ages and %etic Peo&e% edd( +( 7( /yrne et a <Halifa>% No.a
S&otia=% ( 5$,81#1
/ullo&)8Da.ies% +( ,$3$% CLan.al and A.alonD% .#etin of the .oard of %etic
"22
(t#dies% "5% ( ,"-81"
/ullo&)8Da.ies% +( ,$-#8"% CPE>se&tare ArthurumQ% Arthur and the
?essiani& HoeD% .#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% "$% ( 15"81#
+arley% 7( P( ,$$$% CArthur in English HistoryD% in The Arth#r of the Engish% ed(
4( R( 7( /arron <+ardiff=% ( 10820
+ham!ers% E( 9( ,$"0% Arth#r of .ritain <London=
+lar)e% /( <ed( and trans(= ,$05% 9ife of !erin: ;ita !erini <+ardiff=
+oe% 7( /( and Koung% S( <ed( and trans(= ,$$2% The %etic (o#rces For the
Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h=
D'yer% R( A( ,$0-% CArthurDs Stellifi&ation in the Fa of PrincesD% Phioogica
1#artery% 20% ( ,2280,
Ford% P( 9( ,$-5% COn the Signifi&an&e of some Arthurian Names in 4elshD%
.#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% 5#% ( "3-805
Green% T( "##0% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud=
Green% T( forth&oming% C9ing Arthur and the Ar&ti&D
Hunt% R( ,-32% Po&#ar -o+ances of the <est of Engand. The /ros, Traditions
and (#&erstitions of 6d %ornwa third edition% rerint <Felinfa&h=
7arman% A( O( H( ,$-5% CThe Arthurian Allusions in the /la&) /oo) of
+armarthenD% in The 9egend of Arth#r in the !idde Ages% edd( P( /( Grout et a
<+am!ridge=% ( $$8,,"
7ones% /( L( ,$01% CRe.ie' of Ar+es Prydein% ed( I( 4illiams : trans( R(
/rom'i&hD% !edi#+ Aev#+% 15% ( ,-,82
9ersha'% 9( "###% The 6ne'Eyed God: 6din and the 7@ndo'8Ger+anic
!annerb#nde <4ashington D(+(=
La&y% N( 7( <ed(= ,$$3% The ,ew Arth#rian Encyco&edia <Ne' Kor)=
Loomis% R( S( ,$1,% C9ing Arthur and the AntiodesD% !odern Phioogy% 5-(5%
( "-$85#1

"23
Loomis% R( S( ,$2-% CArthurian Tradition and Fol)loreD% Fokore% 3$% ( ,8"2
Loomis% R( S( ,$2$% CThe Legend of ArthurDs Sur.i.alD% in Arth#rian 9iterat#re
in the !idde Ages% ed( R( S( Loomis <O>ford=% ( 3180,
Padel% O( 7( ,$$,% CSome south8'estern sites 'ith Arthurian &onne&tionsD% in
The Arth#r of the <esh% edd( R( /rom'i&h et a <+ardiff=% ( ""$8"1-
Padel% O( 7( ,$$1% CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0%
( ,85,
Padel% O( 7( ,$$2% CRe&ent 4or) on the Origins of the Arthurian Legend; A
+ommentD% Arth#riana% 2(5% ( ,#58,1
Padel% O( 7( "###% Arth#r in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff=
Palmer% 9( ,$03% The Fokore of (o+erset <London=
Raht6% P( ,$$5% Engish Heritage .ook of Gastonb#ry <London=
Rees% A( : Rees% R( ,$3,% %etic Heritage. Ancient Tradition in @reand and <aes
<London=
Ross% A( ,$$2% CRitual and the DruidsD% in The %etic <ord% ed( ?( Green
<London=% ( 1"5811
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+entury LegendsD% Fokore% $0("% ( "#08$
Sims84illiams% P( ,$$,% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in The Arth#r of
the <esh% edd( R( /rom'i&h et a <+ardiff=% ( 5580,
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1#i4ote rerint <4are=
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Thomson% S( ,$228-% !otif'@nde4 of Fok 9iterat#re </loomington=
4est'ood% 7( ,$-2% Abion. A G#ide to 9egendary .ritain <London=
"20
A /i!liograhi& Guide to the +hara&ters of
the Pre8Galfridian Arthurian Legend
F
1. Arthur
/rom'i&h and E.ans ha.e re&ently 'ritten that the Arthur of re8
Galfridian literature 'as;
a!o.e all else((( a defender of his &ountry against e.ery )ind of
danger% !oth internal and e>ternal; a slayer of giants and 'it&hes% a
hunter of monstrous animals E giant !oars% a sa.age &at monster% a
'inged serent <or dragon= E and also% as it aears from %#hwch
and Preidde# Annwn% a releaser of risoners( This &on&et Nof
ArthurO is su!stantiated from all the early sour&es; the oems Pa
G#r and Priedde# Annwn% the Triads% the SaintDs Li.es% and the
!iribiia atta&hed to the Historia .ritton#+((( in early literature he
!elongs% li)e Fionn% to the realm of mythology rather than to that
of history( <R( /rom'i&h and D( Simon E.ans <edd(=% %#hwch and
6wen. An edition and st#dy of the odest Arth#rian tae <+ardiff% ,$$"=%
( >>.iii8>>i>=
Only in the Historia .ritton#+ of -"$J5#% the mid8,#th8&entury Annaes
%a+briae% and the ,"th8&entury Gesta -eg#+ is a non8Galfridian Chistori&alD
&on&et of Arthur as the .i&tor of /adon and defeater of the Sa>ons found%
and the latter t'o te>ts aear to !e related geneti&ally to the first and
&onseAuently &annot a&t as indeendent 'itnesses to this &on&et of Arthur(
The .ast maIority of the sour&es ma)e no referen&e 'hatsoe.er to this
notion% and this has !een seen as .ery signifi&ant 'hen it &omes to
determining the origins of Arthur <see further CThe Histori&ity and
Histori&isation of ArthurDG O( 7( Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurD, %a+brian
!edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,85,G T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r
<Stroud% "##0==(
F This !rief guide to the &hara&ters 'ho aear in the re8Galfridian Arthurian
legend 'as first la&ed online in ,$$- in mu&h the same form as it is resented
here( An u8to8date e>ansion% de.eloment and re.ision of all of the material
found !elo' is &ontained in my %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% arti&ularly
&hater four(

"2-
/y the ,"th &entury the Arthurian legend a&hie.es e>tensi.e 'ritten
form in 4elsh as narrati.es and allusions and Arthur is an imosing
&hara&ter% granted fantasti& titles and the lordshi of the 'hole of /ritain(
As a figure Arthur !e&omes too strong and too &learly esta!lished to !e
anything other than &entral in any &onte>t he aears in and% as a
&onseAuen&e% the Arthurian legend attra&ts figures and eisodes of unrelated
story8&y&les; CIn this lay the seeds of de&line as the story setting% the hero a
story8telling de.i&e% and the Arthurian s&ene an oortunity for arody(
Arthur% not integral in story8telling &onte>t% ne.er a&hie.es% in +ontinental
roman&e% the a&ti.e &entral role 'hi&h he has in the earliest 4elsh% and e.en
the later 4elsh te>ts fail to maintain his real re8eminen&e(D </( F( Ro!erts%
C+ulh'&h a& Ol'en% the Triads% SaintDs Li.esD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=%
The Arth#r of the <esh: The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re
<+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 058$2 at ( -2=(
2. 'ai and Bed0yr
Later medie.al reresentations of +ai <Y 9ay= ma)e !oastfulness and
mo&)ery his most rominent &hara&teristi&s and often use him as an e>&use
for a humorous or moralising interlude at his e>ense( This +ai is% ho'e.er%
.ery different to that attested !y the non8Galfridian e.iden&e( One
imortant early .ie' of +ai is ro.ided !y the oem Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5% in
'hi&h +ai is resented as one of the &hief &omanions of Arthur% a
magnifi&ent heroi& figure of ei& oetry;

Sain 'as a host
&omared 'ith +ai in !attle(
<Lines 2"825G P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian
PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=% The Arth#r of the <esh: The
Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580,
at ( 15=
+ai 'ould entreat them%
'hile he stru&) them three at a time(
4hen +elli 'as lost%
there 'as fury(
+ai 'ould entreat them
as he &ut them do'n( <Lines 5,853G Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 1,=
Hea.y 'as his .engean&e%
ainful 'as his fury(
"2$
4hen he 'ould drin) from a horn
he 'ould drin) enough for four(
4hen he &ame into !attle%
he 'ould slay enough for a hundred(
Mnless it 'ere God 'ho a&&omlished it%
+aiDs death 'ere unattaina!le( <Lines 3-802G Sims84illiams% ,$$,% (
15=
4hilst other figures do aear in this 'or)% +aiDs e>loits dominate; more
than a third of the oem is de.oted to the raise of +ai and to a &atalogue
of his feats( Other re8Galfridian materials% in&luding %#hwch ac 6wen and
the 9ife of (t %adog <!oth 'or)s data!le to c( ,,##=% e>tend our )no'ledge of
this figure% &onfirming him as one of ArthurDs main &omanions and a
heroi& figure ossessing suerhuman o'ers( Thus in %#hwch it is said that;
9ai had this e&uliarity% that his !reath lasted nine nights and nine
days under 'ater% and he &ould e>ist nine nights and nine days
'ithout slee( A 'ound from 9aiDs s'ord no hysi&ian &ould heal(
Sery su!tle 'as 9ai( 4hen it leased him he &ould render himself
as tall as the highest tree in the forest( And he had another
e&uliarity%Eso great 'as the heat of his nature% that% 'hen it rained
hardest% 'hate.er he &arried remained dry for a hand!readth a!o.e
and a hand!readth !elo' his handG and 'hen his &omanions 'ere
&oldest% it 'as to them as fuel 'ith 'hi&h to light their fire( <+(
Guest% The !abinogion <London% ,-00=% ( ""$=
These referen&es &an erhas oint us to the origins of this figure( Arthur
himself 'as ro!a!ly not originally a histori&al figure !ut rather a fol)lori&%
heroi& one% Cthe leader of a !and of heroes 'ho li.e outside so&iety% 'hose
main 'orld is one of magi&al animals% giants% and other 'onderful
haenings% lo&ated in the 'ild arts of the lands&aeD <see CThe Histori&ity
and Histori&isation of ArthurDG O( 7( Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian
!edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <Summer ,$$1=% ( ,85, at ( ,1G T( Green%
%once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0==( +ai 'ith his magi&al attri!utes% his heroi&
&hara&teristi&s% and his suerhuman o'ers E see further L( ?( Go'ans% %ei
and the Arth#rian 9egend <+am!ridge% ,$--= E 'ould fit .ery 'ell into su&h a
fol)lori& &y&le( ?oreo.er% his a!ility to &hange his height% and other
traditions 'hi&h ma)e it &lear that +ai 'as thought to !e a giant% is strongly
reminis&ent of fol)lori& suggestions that Arthur and his relati.es 'ere
giantsJ&ould alter their height <see Padel% ,$$1 and +( Grooms% The Giants of
<aes. %ewri %y+r# <Lameter% ,$$5= on this=( 4ith regards to the name +ai%
nothing &ertain &an !e said( Some fa.our deri.ing it from Latin %ai#s !ut
others 'ould instead see it as a nati.e name erhas meaning CathD or C'ayD

"3#
<see Ra&hel /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads
<+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( 5#581% 210G Go'ens% ,$--% ( "85=(
/ed'yr <Y /edi.ere= is also resented in early te>ts as one of the &hief
&omanions of Arthur and as a heroi& figure of ei& oetry% se&ond only to
+aiG in the early referen&es +ai and /ed'yr are nearly al'ays named in &lose
&onIun&tion% though /ed'yr is usually sho'n as su!ordinate in imortan&e
to +ai;

they fell !y the hundred
!efore /ed'yr the Perfe&t Nor Perfe&t8Sine'O(
On the shores of Tryfr'yd%
fighting 'ith Rough Grey Na 'ere'olfO%
furious 'as his nature
'ith s'ord and shield(
<Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5 lines 1382,; Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 1"=
Arthur &alled uon /ed'yr% 'ho ne.er shran) from an enterrise
uon 'hi&h +ei 'as !ound( It 'as thus 'ith /ed'yr% that none 'as
so handsome Nthe te>t in the Red /oo) of Hergest reads Cso s'iftDO
as he in this Island% sa.e Arthur and Dry&h son of +i!dar% and this
too; that though he 'as one8handed no three 'arriors dre' !lood
in the same field faster than he( Another strange Auality 'as his;
one thrust 'ould there !e of his sear% and nine &ounter8thrusts(
<%#hwch ac 6wen; G( 7ones and T( 7ones <trans(=% The !abinogion
<London% ,$1$=% ( ,#08-=
/ed'yr% as a great heroi& 'arrior 'ho 'ielded a magi& sear% 'ho fought a
reno'ned 'ere'olf and 'ho 'as% along 'ith +ai% the &lose &omanion of
Arthur% 'ould seem to lend himself also to the interretation suggested
a!o.e for +ai% that is that he 'as a heroi& figure of fol)lore asso&iated from
a .ery early date 'ith the Arthurian &y&le( Of arti&ular interest in this
&onte>t is the referen&e to C/ed'yrDs 4ellJSringD as a la&e8name in the
$th8 or ,#th8&entury oem !arwnat %adwaon a& %adfan% 'hi&h 'ould seem
to arallel ArthurDs early asso&iations 'ith su&h toograhi& features <see
Padel% ,$$1 and &hater t'o of %once&ts of Arth#r=( 4e &an also &ite here the
referen&e% in an Arthurian engyn% to Cthe gra.e of /ed'yr(((on Tryfan hillD
<Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 2#= in the mid8late $th8&entury /la&) /oo) of
+armarthen .ersion of Engynion y .edda# <for the date see 7( Ro'land% Eary
<esh (aga Poetry: a (t#dy and Edition of the Engynion <+am!ridge% ,$$#=% (
5-$=% the Engynion y .edda# !eing a se&ialised 4elsh re&ord of re8e>isting
antiAuarian toograhi& fol)lore 'hi&h 'as se&ifi&ally &on&erned 'ith the
suosed resting la&es of mythi&alJfol)lori& heroes( In the light of !oth of
these referen&es 'e &an feel &onfident in treating /ed'yr as a fol)lori& hero
"3,
of some &onsidera!le antiAuity and the same tye as Arthur( +ai similarly
seems to !e asso&iated from an early date 'ith toograhi& lore( Thus the
la&e8name gwryt kei is attested as early as the ,"th &entury and seems to
refer to a ass a&ross 'hi&h the giganti& +ai &ould stret&h his arms <see
Grooms% ,$$5% ( ,1-8,2#=( On /ed'yr see further L( ?( Go'ans% %ei and
the Arth#rian 9egend <+am!ridge% ,$--=% ( 5"853% and R( /rom'i&h <ed( and
trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( "0$8-#(
3. /0alch*ai *. /0yar
G'al&hmai m( G'yar aears to ha.e !een ArthurDs sisterDs son and a hero
in the mould of /ed'yr and +ai;
Arthur &alled on G'al&hmei son of G'yr% !e&ause he ne.er &ame
home 'ithout the Auest he had gone to see)( He 'as the !est of
'al)ers% and the !est of riders( He 'as ArthurDs nehe'% his sisterDs
son% and his first &ousin( <%#hwch ac 6wen; R( /rom'i&h <ed( and
trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( 53$=
This G'al&hmai is the same erson as Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs
G#ag#7i8n#s <G#agwin#s, <awan7i8#s=% ArthurDs nehe' !y his sister Anna
<Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae IH% $=% the Ga#vains of Fren&h roman&e <English
Gawain=% and the <awen mentioned !y 4illiam of ?almes!uy in ,,"2 <see
/rom'i&h% ,$0-% ( 53$8502=;
At this time <,#338-0= 'as found in the ro.in&e of 4ales &alled
-7h8os the tom! of 4al'en% 'ho 'as the not degenerate nehe' of
Arthur !y his sister( He reigned in that art of /ritain 'hi&h is still
&alled 4al'eitha((( /ut the tom! of Arthur is no'here !eheld%
'hen&e an&ient ditties fa!le that he is yet to &ome( The tom! of the
other% ho'e.er% as I ha.e said% 'as found in the time of 9ing
4illiam uon the sea shore% fourteen feet in lengthG and here some
say he 'as 'ounded !y his foes and &ast out in a shi're&)% !ut
a&&ording to others he 'as )illed !y his fello'8&iti6ens at a u!li&
!anAuet( 9no'ledge of the truth therefore remains dou!tful%
although neither story 'ould !e in&onsistent 'ith the defen&e of
his fame( <E( 9( +ham!ers% Arth#r of .ritain <London% ,$"0=% ( ,0=
The Chistori&alD details in the a!o.e% su&h as the &laim that 4al'en ruled in
<aweitha <Gallo'ay= &an !e safely dismissed as later antiAuarian se&ulation
<for e>amle% the la&ing of 4al'en in Gallo'ay is &learly due to a later
&omarison of the t'o names% not any real asso&iation=( Our main interest

"3"
in the assage stems from the fa&t that 4illiamDs a&&ount &learly reser.es a
fol) e>lanation of a remar)a!le feature in the natural lands&ae% in this &ase
an enormous tom!( Su&h toograhi& fol)tales <see arti&ularly O( 7( Padel%
CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,85,=
are a distinguishing feature of the earliest Arthurian material and% indeed%
the ,1 feet long gra.e is strongly reminis&ent of the .aria!le and great length
of the gra.e of ArthurDs son% A+r E re&orded in &hater 05 of the early $th8
&entury Historia .ritton#+ E and the numerous referen&es 'hi&h suggest that
Arthur and his &hief &omanions 'ere !elie.ed to ha.e !een giants <see
Padel% ,$$1G L( ?( Go'ans% %ei and the Arth#rian 9egend <+am!ridge% ,$--=G
Grooms% in his Giants of <aes. %ewri %y+r# <Lameter% ,$$5=% ( "5#%
&onsiders G'al&hmai to ha.e !een a giant and notes that he aears as su&h
in lo&al fol)lore=( Mnfortunately% the se&tion already Auoted from %#hwch is
G'al&hmaiDs only signifi&ant aearan&e in that tale and he entirely a!sent
from the <admittedly in&omlete= oem Pa G#r5( Ho'e.er he is resent in
the /la&) /oo) of +armarthen .ersion of Engynion 2 .edda#% dated to the
mid8late $th &entury !y Ro'land <in 7( Ro'land% Eary <esh (aga Poetry: a
(t#dy and Edition of the Engynion <+am!ridge% ,$$#=% ( 5-$=% indi&ating that
toograhi& fol)lore 'as atta&hed to his name !y this oint% the Engynion
!eing a se&ialised re&ord of su&h re8e>isting fol)lore( He is also to !e
found in the re8Galfridian Early Sersion of Trioedd 2nys Prydein% No( 1%
CThree 4ell8Endo'ed ?en of the Island of /ritainD% alongside ArthurDs son
Lla&heu% and he is used !y +ynddel' in the ,"th &entury as a aragon of
heroi& Aualities( Gi.en all of this it seems &lear that G'al&hmai 'as a
fol)lori& hero of some antiAuity and the same tye as Arthur% !ut also that
he erhas o&&uied a lesser role in the non8Galfridian Arthurian tradition
than did either /ed'yr or +ai(
4ith regards to G'al&hmaiDs arentage it should !e noted that there is
some &onfusion as Geoffrey ma)es him ArthurDs nehe' !y Anna and Lot
of Lothian% !ut in %#hwch and the Early Sersion of the Triads he is
CG'al&hmai son of G'yarD( It seems safe to assume that the 4elsh tradition
is the earlier one% 'ith later 4elsh 'riters !eing seen to struggle 'ith the
differing a&&ounts gi.en !y Geoffrey and the nati.e tradition% !ut the
su!stitution of AnnaDs name 'ith that of G'yar in the ,1th8&entury .irth of
Arth#r raises the ossi!ility that G'yar &ould !e a matronymi&% a rare !ut
not un)no'n situation <see /rom'i&h% ,$0-% ( 50"85=( In +ulh'&h he is
gi.en a !rother% G'alhauet ma! G'yar% 'ho is also referred to in a +arwnad
!y the ,5th8&entury oet Llygad G'r% suggesting that this !rother might
ha.e !een a traditional rather than an in.ented &hara&ter( The name
G'al&hmai may mean something li)e CThe Ha') of the Plain<sB=D or CHa')8
/ea)D 'ith G'yar literally meaning C!loodD </rom'i&h% ,$0-% ( 22"G
/rom'i&h reIe&ts &omletely LoomisD deri.ation of the forms Ga#vains et&(
from Gwrvan gvat a#vyan rather than Gwach+ai% see ( 50#80,=% although
9o&h has suggested that it &ould !e from an early =<ocos !agesos% C4olfD or
"35
CErrant 4arrior of the PlainD <CThe +elti& LandsD% in N( 7( La&y <ed(=% !edieva
Arth#rian 9iterat#re: A G#ide to -ecent -esearch <Ne' Kor)% ,$$3=% ( "5$85""
at ( "30=(

. /0enh0yfar
G'enh'yfar <Y Guine.ere= is first named as ArthurDs Aueen in %#hwch ac
6wen <c. ,,##= !ut a fuller a&&ount of her role in the re8Galfridian tradition
is to !e had from +aradog of Llan&arfanDs ;ita Gidae% 'ritten in the ,,"#s
or ,,5#s for the mon)s of Glaston!ury;
Glaston!ury(((('as !esieged !y the tyrant Arthur 'ith an
innumera!le host !e&ause of his 'ife G'enh'yfar% 'hom the
aforesaid )ing ?el'as had .iolated and &arried off !ringing her
there for safety% !e&ause of the in.ulnera!le ositionDs rote&tion%
ro.ided !y the thi&)eted fortifi&ations of reed% ri.ers and marshes(
The 'ar8li)e )ing had sear&hed for the Aueen throughout the &y&le
of one year% and at last heard that she resided there( Thereuon he
&alled u the armies of the 'hole of +orn'all and De.on and 'ar
'as reared !et'een the enemies(
4hen the a!!ot of Glaston!ury E attended !y the &lergy and
Gildas the 4ise E sa' this% he steed in !et'een the &ontending
armies% and ea&efully ad.ised his )ing ?el'as% that he should
restore the )idnaed lady( And so% she 'ho 'as to !e restored 'as
restored in ea&e and good 'ill( 4hen these things had !een done%
the t'o )ings ga.e to the a!!ot many territoriesG and they &ame to
.isit the &hur&h of St ?ary to rayG the a!!ot san&tioning the dear
fraternity in return for the ea&e they enIoyed and the !enefits
'hi&h they had !esto'ed and 'hi&h they 'ere a!out to !esto' yet
more lentifully( Then% re&on&iled% the )ings left% s'earing
re.erently to o!ey the most .enera!le a!!ot of Glaston!ury% and
not to .iolate the holiest art nor e.en the lands !ordering on the
land of its o.erseer( <7( /( +oe and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The
%etic (o#rces for the Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( "280=
There are se.eral su!seAuent referen&es to this tale of the a!du&tion of
G'enh'yfar !y ?el'as% for e>amle in +hrWtien de TroyesDs 9e %hevaier de
a %harette% in 'hi&h a &ertain ?eleagant a!du&ts ArthurDs Aueen Guenig.re%
'ounding 9eu in the ro&ess% and ta)es her to the Other'orldly )ingdom
of Go7i8rre <OFr( voirre% CglassDG 4elsh gwydr% CglassD=G on the ?odena ar&hi.olt%
'here there aears to !e a reresentation of some .ersion of this storyG in
the ,1th8&entury oetry of Dafydd a G'ilymG and in the non8Galfridian

"31
2+ddiddan !ewas ac Gwenhwyfar% a dialogue oem 'hi&h aears to !e
!et'een ArthurDs Aueen and ?el'as Cfrom 2nys <ydrin <Isle of Glass=D <+ai
may also ha.e a art at the end=( 4hile this latter 'or) only sur.i.es in
ost8medie.al manus&rits% the original oem should ro!a!ly !e regarded
as .ery mu&h older <i.e. ,"th &entury; R( /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd
2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( 5-5=( It has !een
&on.in&ingly suggested that !ehind these tales lies a re8Galfridian 4elsh
story &on&erned 'ith the res&ue of G'enh'yfar from an Other'orld Island
of Glass &ontrolled !y ?el'as <'ho aears in other 'or)s as a magi&ian
'ho 'ent to the Cend of the 'orldD=% similar to Preide# Annwfyn and its
analogues( The .ersion resented in ;ita Gidae 'ould seem to !e !eing an
adatation of this story 'ith the Isle of Glass !eing identified E suriously E
as Glaston!ury !y +aradog <the name a&tually means Cisland% or fortress% of
the GlastingsD% not CIsle of GlassD as +aradog asserts% though he may not
ha.e !een the first to ma)e the identifi&ation= thus allo'ing him to
introdu&e the a!!ot of Glaston!ury as ea&ema)er and !enefi&iary of Cmany
landsD from Arthur and ?el'as <see P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh
Arthurian PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=% The Arth#r of the <esh: The
Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at (
2-83,=(
The a!o.e a!du&tion theme remains at the &entre of the tales &on&erning
G'enh'yfar% though the a!du&tor &hanges; in Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs
H-. the a!du&tor is ArthurDs nehe' ?ordredG in Mlri&hDs 9an:eet it is
SalerinG in /i# %rone it is Gaso6ein and% finally% in the Sulgate roman&es it
!e&omes Lan&elot( It should of &ourse !e noted that some of these may not
!e &hanges !ut rather .ariant .ersions of the a!du&tion tale( The
resem!lan&es !et'een the Fenian and Arthurian &y&les ha.e often !een
noted <for e>amle% A( G( San Hamel CAse&ts of +elti& ?ythologyD%
Proceedings of the .ritish Acade+y% "# <,$51=% ( "#081-= and% as su&h%
GeoffreyDs a&&ount of ?ordredDs a!du&tion of G'enh'yfar &ould reresent
an early tradition sin&e it is &losely aralleled !y the a!du&tion of FionnDs
'ife Grainne !y his nehe' Diarmaid( That said ho'e.er% this reAuires us
to identify ?ordred as ArthurDs nehe'% an identifi&ation not &onfirmed !y
te>ts indeendent of Geoffrey of ?onmouth% 'hose authority in this matter
is to !e dou!ted <see note on ?edrautG on the re&urrent idea that
G'enh'yfar 'as someho' in.ol.ed in the /attle of +amlann% see the
dis&ussion in &hater four of T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0==(
4ith se&ifi& regard to G'enh'yfar herself% a num!er of oints need to
!e made( First% her name is generally agreed to mean C'hiteJsa&red
fairyJen&hantressD <see ?( Ri&hards% CArthurian Onomasti&sD% The Transactions
of the Hono#rabe (ociety of %y++rodorion <,$3$=% ( "2#831 at ( "20=% and as
Ford has sho'n% the first element of this name% gwen C'hite% holyD% oints
&learly to her Other'orldly origins <P( 9( Ford% COn the Signifi&an&e of
"32
some Arthurian Names in 4elshD% The .#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% 5#
<,$-5=% ( "3-8"05=( This name% G'enh'yfar% is &ognate 'ith the Irish
Finnabhair and Ri&hards has ointed out that the di.ision in the Triads into
Gwenhwy b fawr% CgreatD% in &ontrast 'ith her suosed sister Gwenhwy b fach%
ClittleD% is a transarent fol) etymology( Se&ond% Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs
forms of her name in&lude G7#8anh#+ara and the 8+8 here is !est e>lained
as deri.ing from a misreading of a 'ritten Old 4elsh <$th8,,th &entury=
sour&e </rom'i&h% ,$0-% ( 5-,=% 'hi&h is o!.iously of interest( Third% in
early 4elsh tradition <for e>amle% in .r#t y .renhinedd and Trioedd 2nys
Prydein= G'enh'yfarDs father is Ogfran Gawr <Cthe GiantD= and she herself
aears as a giantess <understanda!ly% gi.en her arentage= in /ritish
fol)lore E thus Sir 7ohn Rhys re&ords the follo'ing oular rhyme;
Gwenhwyfar, ferch 6grfan Gawr ) /rwg yn fechan, gwaeth yn fawr% CG'enh'yfar
daughter of Ogfran the Giant% !ad 'hen little% 'orse 'hen !igD <(t#dies in the
Arth#rian 9egend <O>ford% ,$#,=% ( 1$=(
". ;ancelot du ;ac
Lan&elot du La& is a non8insular figure E his name is &learly a foreign
imortation and he 'as un)no'n to the Gogynfeirdd% the referen&es to him
!y 4elsh oets of the ,2th and later &enturies o'ing their origin to a
)no'ledge of the Fren&h ;#gate %yce( Lan&elot first aears in the late
,"th8&entury oems 9e %hevaier de a %harette !y +hrWtien de Troyes and
9an:eot !y Mlri&h .on \at6i)hofen( /oth of these oems &ontain elements
of mythology and fol)lore 'hi&h are o!.iously C+elti&D in origin% !ut there is
no reason to thin) that Lan&elot is one of these elements( As a maIor
Arthurian hero Lan&elot is late on the s&ene% finally suerseding the earlier
hero Ga'ain <Y G'al&hmai% see note= as the eer of ArthurDs )nights in the
,5th8&entury Sulgate roman&es <see R( /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd
2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( 1,18,3% 'ho reIe&ts
&omletely any asso&iation !et'een Lan&elot and the god Lug% arguing
instead that the name 9anceot is most ro!a!ly a .ariant of the /reton
9ancein% re&orded in ,,th &entury% 'ith an altered suffi>=(
$. ;lacheu *. Arthur
Lla&heu features freAuently in the early oetry% although he is only
mentioned on&e in the Early Sersion of the Triads% 'hi&h 'ere originally
&omiled in the ,,th or ,"th &entury; Triad 1 CThree 4ell8Endo'ed ?en of
the Island of /ritain;(( Lla&heu son of Arthur(((D( In the /la&) /oo) of
+armarthen there are t'o imortant referen&es to him( The first &omes

"33
from the erhas ,#th8&entury oem 2+ddiddan Gwyddno Garanhir ac Gwyn
fab ,#dd% the last se&tion of 'hi&h &ontains a &atalogue of earlier heroi&
'arriors at 'hose deaths the sea)er &laims to ha.e !een resent;
I ha.e !een 'here Lla&heu 'as slain
the son of Arthur% a'ful NJmar.ellousO in songs
'hen ra.ens &roa)ed o.er !lood(
<7( /( +oe and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The %etic (o#rces for the
Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2=% ( ,"2=
The Cmar.ellous songsD ro!a!ly refer to Lla&heu% not Arthur <see A( O( H(
7arman% CThe Delineation of Arthur in Early 4elsh SerseD% in 9( Sarty <ed(=%
An Arth#rian Ta&estry: Essays in !e+ory of 9ewis Thor&e <Glasgo' ,$-,=% ( ,8
", at ( ,-% n("3=( The se&ond is in the early oem Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5% 'here
Lla&heu aears alongside +ai in the list of 'arriors and their deeds that
Arthur narrates;
+ai the fair and Lla&hau%
they erformed !attles
!efore the ain of of !lue sears <ended the &onfli&t=(
<Lines 038-; P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD%
in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh: The Arth#rian
9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at ( 15=
There are &ontinuing referen&es to him in later 4elsh .erse <i.e. after c(
,,2#=% in 'hi&h he is used as a standard of heroi& &omarison <for e>amle%
+ynddel' refers to 9ache# #ar% CLla&heuDs fero&ityD=% and he is mentioned in
.re#ddwyd -honabwy( As /rom'i&h says% CThese allusions in oetry indi&ate
that Lla&heu 'as a figure of &onsidera!le imortan&e in the early Arthurian
saga% and that li)e 9ei and /ed'yr he !elonged to the oldest stratum of
Arthurian tradition(((D <R( /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The
<esh Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( 1,3=( +ertainly he 'ould aear to !e resent
in lo&al toograhi& fol)lore% li)e Arthur et a% if the e.iden&e of a ,5th8
&entury elegy &an !e trusted <see Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 11=(
It is 'orth noting that early Arthurian tradition ga.e Arthur more than
one son( In the early $th8&entury Historia .ritton#+ Arthur is said to ha.e
slain his son Amr( This Amr failed% ho'e.er% to a&hie.e later fame !eyond a
mention of CAmhar son of ArthurD in Geraint <he aears as one of ArthurDs
four &ham!erlains along 'ith /ed'yrDs son% Amhren E see G( 7ones and T(
7ones <trans(=% The !abinogion <Dent% ,$1$=% ( "5,=( Another son% one
Loholt% is mentioned in the &ontinental roman&es( 2 (eint Greal identifies
Lla&heu 'ith this Loholt% thus ha.ing +ai slay Lla&heu rather than Loholt as
he does in the Peresva#s( There is% ho'e.er% no reason to !elie.e in any early
"30
asso&iation !et'een Lla&heu and Loholt <or indeed% in a traditional origin
for Loholt E he first aears in +hrWtienDs Erec and the name is /reton8
Fren&h= and thus no reason to thin) that there 'as a tradition of +ai slaying
ArthurDs son 'hi&h is not re&orded in the 4elsh sour&es( Rather the
eAuation of Lla&heu 'ith Loholt is !est .ie'ed as the result of the
translation of the &ontinental material into 4elsh and the &onseAuent
su!stitution of 4elsh traditional material for the unfamiliar &ontinental
names <see /rom'i&h% ,$0-% ( 1,08,-G +( Lloyd8?organ% C/rudd'yd
Rhona!'y and Later Arthurian LiteratureD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=% The
Arth#r of the <esh: The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff%
,$$,=% ( ,-58"#- at ( ,$0=( Other sons granted to Arthur in 4elsh
materials in&lude G'ydre% named in %#hwch ac 6wen as ha.ing !een )illed
!y the giant !oar Trwyd at %w+ Kerwyn in the Preselly mountains% and Duran%
'ho aears in an engyn and rose fragment from ?S ?ostyn ,5,% ( 00#%
'hi&h% though late <erhas ,2th &enturyB=% is &learly 'or)ing in the nati.e
non8Galfridian tradition of Arthur(
>. (adog *. 5thyr
In the CDialogue of Arthur and the EagleD <2+ddiddan Arth#r a?r Eryr=% a
'or) dra'ing on traditions earlier than Geoffrey of ?onmouth though the
te>t itself &annot !e dated !efore c. ,,2#% the eagle re.eals himself as
ArthurDs de&eased nehe' Eiwat vab !adawc vab Nthyr <this genealogy is
reeated in the mid8,2th8&entury Pedwar !archog ar H#gain 9ys Arth#r=% thus
ma)ing ?ada'g and Arthur !rothers( This ?adog son of Mthyr is )no'n
from another re8Galfridian te>t% !adawg dr#t ac Erof in the /oo) of
Taliesin;

!adawc +#r +enwyt.
!adawc kyn b# bed,
.# dinas edryssed
o ga+& a chy+wed.
!ab vthyr kyn eas
6e aw dywystas.
?adog% the ramart of reIoi&ing(
?adog% !efore he 'as in the gra.e%
he 'as a fortress of generosity
N&onsistingO of feat<s= and lay(
The son of Mthyr% !efore death
he handed o.er ledges(
<P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in R(

"3-
/rom'i&h et a <edd(=% The Arth#r of the <esh: The Arth#rian 9egend in
!edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 5580, at ( 2581=
and from a late ,"th8&entury religious oem% 'here he is mentioned
ironi&ally in a list of former 'orthies;
?adog% famous leader% 'as falseG
he had great rofit; 'ret&hed sorro'V <Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 21=
From these referen&es it is e.ident that there 'ere stories &urrent in early
4elsh tradition regarding ArthurDs C!rotherD% !ut unfortunately nothing
more sur.i.es of these than the a!o.e and Geoffrey made no use of su&h
traditions(
C. (edraut
?edraut <Y ?odred= ma)es his first aearan&e in the Annaes %a+briae% in
an annal of ro!a!ly mid8,#th8&entury origin <see CThe Histori&ity and
Histori&isation of ArthurDG T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0==;
The /attle of +amlann% in 'hi&h Arthur and ?edraut fell; and there
'as lague in /ritain and Ireland <s.a. 250=
This annal ma)es it &lear that% !y the ,#th &entury% ?edraut 'as seen as
laying an imortant art in the re8Galfridian 4elsh tales% and this
&on&lusion is &onfirmed E if &onfirmation is needed E !y the referen&es
made to him !y the ,"th &entury and later !ards( For e>amle% ?eilyr
/rydydd% in a lament for the death of Gruffudd a +ynan <d( ,,50=% raises
his su!Ie&t for ha.ing ?edrautDs .alour in !attle% and ?eilyrDs son
G'al&hmai lauds ?adog a ?aredudd <d( ,,3#= for ossessing the Cgood
nature of ?edra'dD( Going !eyond this simle statement of fa&t is%
ho'e.er% diffi&ult% as no sour&e uninfluen&ed !y Geoffrey of ?onmouth or
the .r#ts ma)es ?edraut ArthurDs nehe' or his !etrayerJoonent E in
fa&t they seem rather to &ontradi&t these &laims( Thus the referen&es to him
!y the ,"th8&entury 4elsh &ourt oets% in&luding those noted a!o.e% seem
to indi&ate that ?edraut 'as thought of as a aragon of .alour% &ourage and
good nature to 'hom their atrons &ould !e fa.oura!ly &omared <see R(
/rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd 2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads <+ardiff%
,$0-=% ( 121822G O( 7( Padel Arth#r in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff%
"###=% ( ,,58,2=% and the nati.e 4elsh tradition on this oint seems to
ha.e remained remar)a!ly .igorous to a .ery late date E no referen&es to
any &onfli&ts or a&ts of trea&hery !et'een Arthur and ?edraut are made !y
"3$
the 4elsh oets until the early ,3th &entury% 'hen they first aear in the
'or) of Tudur Aled( Similarly% on the matter of arentage% no non8
Galfridian a&&ount suorts GeoffreyDs &laims and 'e ha.e to re&ognise
that the arents attri!uted to ?edraut !y Geoffrey are the same as those
gi.en !y him to G'al&hmai E sour&es earlier than Geoffrey ma)e it &lear
that this arentage is false for G'al&hmai at least% and ost8Galfridian
authors 'ho do ma)e use of Geoffrey aear to indi&ate that the arentage
gi.en in his Historia to !oth G'al&hmai and ?edraut 'as at .arian&e 'ith
that found in the traditional materials( As su&h it is no' generally a&&eted
that there is no reason to !elie.e that either notion is any older than the
Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae itself <see for e>amle /rom'i&h% ,$0- and Padel%
"###=(
In the later Sulgate !ort Art#% ?orguase E ArthurDs suosed half8sister
E is made to !e ?edrautDs mother and this in&est motif is reser.ed in the
roman&es !ased uon the !ort Art# <for e>amle% ?aloryDs !orte /arth#r=(
/oth this arentage and the in&est motif are% ho'e.er% &learly in.entions of
the !ort Art#% desite their modern oularity% and in all unrelated a&&ounts
the ortrayal of ?edraut is solidly Galfridian( GeoffreyDs form of the name%
!ordred#s% 'as deri.ed from a +ornish or /reton sour&e and the name is
)no'n from the +ornish /o+esday returns and in the /odmin
manumissions of A(D( $3#8,### </rom'i&h% ,$0-% ( 122=(
I. 5thyr 1endragon
Mthyr is% of &ourse% famous as the father of Arthur in Geoffrey of
?onmouthDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae <c. ,,5-=% !ut he 'as )no'n to 4elsh
tradition rior to the u!li&ation of this 'or) <&ace Geoffrey Ashe; see
A(O(H( 7arman CEmrys 4ledigG Amla'dd 4ledigG Mthr /endragonD% in 9"n
%y+r# " <,$2"==( So% for e>amle% in the early oem Pa g#r yv y &ortha#r5 from
the /la&) /oo) of +armarthen one of ArthurDs !and of men is named as;

?a!on son of ?yrdon%
Mthr PendragonDs ser.antG
<Lines ,58,1; P( Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian
PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=% The Arth#r of the <esh: The
Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( 558
0, at ( 1#=
One of the most interesting Auestions is% naturally% 'hether Mthyr 'as
.ie'ed as ArthurDs father re.ious to Geoffrey( The ans'er to this is
ro!a!ly CyesD( In the CDialogue of Arthur and the EagleD <2+ddiddan Arth#r
a?r Eryr=% 'hi&h is indeendent of GeoffreyDs 'or)% the eagle re.eals itself to

"0#
!e ArthurDs de&eased nehe'% Eli'lod son of ?ada'g son of Mthyr
<stan6as 08$=% i.e. Arthur and ?adog are !oth sons of Mthyr <the a!o.e
relationshi !et'een Mthyr and ?adog is &onfirmed !y another referen&e in
the /oo) of Taliesin E see note on ?adog=( In addition to this% in the /oo)
of Taliesin oem !arwnat vthyr &enAdragonB <another ie&e of e.iden&e%
in&identally% for a re8Galfridian Mthyr= the sea)er% 'ho 'ould aear to
!e Mthyr% !oasts CI ha.e shared my refuge% a ninth share in ArthurDs .alourD%
that is% erhas% that he has assed on his Aualities <or his )ingdom= to
Arthur% and later that CThe 'orld Nor C!attleDO 'ould not e>ist if it 'ere not
for my rogenyD <see Sims84illiams% ,$$,% ( 25=(
A&&eting the a!o.e% it must therefore !e as)ed 'hat 'as the nature of
this Mthyr !eyond !eing er&ei.ed as ArthurDs fatherB The &ru&ial ie&e of
e.iden&e is ro.ided !y Triad "-% 'hi&h tells us that Mthyr 'as a great and
reno'ned en&hanterJmagi&ian 'ho tea&hes one of the CThree Great
En&hantments of the Island of /ritainD to ?en' son of Teirg'aedd% a
&hara&ter 'ho is one of ArthurDs men and has the a!ility to shae8shift and
to !e&ome in.isi!le in %#hwch ac 6wen( This fits% of &ourse% .ery ni&ely 'ith
the eisode in GeoffreyDs te>t in 'hi&h Mthyr shae8shifts in order to lie
'ith GorloisD 'ife% and /rom'i&hDs suggestion that Geoffrey 'as here
dra'ing on a nati.e tradition% Iust as he did in ma)ing Mthyr ArthurDs father%
aears to ha.e !een a&&eted <see R( /rom'i&h <ed( and trans(=% Trioedd
2nys Prydein. The <esh Triads <+ardiff% ,$0-=% ( 23% and Sims84illiams% ,$$,%
( 25G it is generally agreed that /ritish traditions and stories lie !ehind many
elements of GeoffreyDs 'or)% though the Arthurian se&tions ta)en as a
'hole are GeoffreyDs alone and o'e little to rior narrati.e; see /( F(
Ro!erts% CGeoffrey of ?onmouth% Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae and .r#t y
.renhineddD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(=% The Arth#r of the <esh: The Arth#rian
9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=% ( $08,,3=( As su&h%
Mthyr 'as ro!a!ly originally er&ei.ed as a magi&ian and shae8shifter 'ho
'asJ!e&ame )no'n as ArthurDs fatherG for the .ie' that Mthyr 'as
originally a C+elti&D god% see 9( ?alone% CThe Histori&ity of ArthurD% Jo#rna of
Engish and Ger+anic Phioogy% "5 <,$"1=% ( 1358$,(
4ith regards to the name% #thr &an !e !oth an adIe&ti.e <Cterri!leD= or a
roer name% a fa&t 'hi&h has &aused some &onfusion in the ast( Ho'e.er%
in the light of the e.iden&e for re8Galfridian traditions a!out this figure%
and the fa&t that Mthyr aears as a ersonal name in 4elsh and Irish
sour&es% there is no reason to loo) for the origins of the name Mthyr
Pendragon E or his asso&iation 'ith Arthur E in an early gloss on the name
Arthur <see 7arman% ,$2" and /rom'i&h% ,$0-% ( 2",8""=( Pendragon
means literally C+hief DragonD !ut dragon o&&urs in the oldest oetry <for
e>amle% in 2 Gododdin= as a euhemism for 'arriorsG thus Pendragon should
!e ta)en as something li)e Cforemost leaderD or C&hief of 'arriorsD <see
/rom'i&h% ,$0-% ( 2"#8"5=(
"0,
A Guide to Arthurian Ar&haeology
F
1. <uodeci*u* fuit bellu* in *onte Badonis
CThe t'elfth !attle 'as on /adon hillD <Historia .ritton#+% &hater 23=( The
!attle of /adon is ro!a!ly the most famous of ArthurDs alleged !attles%
largely !e&ause it is also re&orded !y Gildas in his /e E4cidio .ritanniae R"3(,
<obsessio .adonici +ontis=% 'here it is des&ri!ed as the &ulmination of the
/ritish &ounter8atta&) against the Sa>ons% thus ma)ing its histori&ity &ertain(
The !attle is undated in the Historia .ritton#+ and the date that Gildas gi.es
to this e.ent is o!s&ure also% deending to a great e>tent uon the dating of
GildasD te>t% though some'here around A(D( 2## is generally agreed to !e
li)ely <the e.iden&e of the mid8,#th8&entury Annaes %a+briae is of no real
.alue in determining the date of the !attle% for the reasons dis&ussed in T(
Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% &hater one% and CThe Histori&ity
and Histori&isation of ArthurD=(
/efore going any further it must !e ointed out that the asso&iation of
this !attle 'ith Arthur &an !e e.iden&ed no earlier than the $th &entury%
'ith re&ent resear&h into the earliest manus&rit of GildasD /E. </ritish
Li!rary% +otton Sitellius A(.i= &on&luding that% rather than not identifying
the !attle 'ith any arti&ular /ritish leader% Gildas in fa&t identifies the
.i&tor of /adon as Am!rosius Aurelianus <O( 7( Padel% CThe Nature of
ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,85, at ( ,38,-G ?(
4ood% @n (earch of Engand: Jo#rneys @nto the Engish Past <London% ,$$$=% (
5185-=( This &onfusion o.er the .i&tor fits into the i&ture des&ri!ed
else'here of a ro&ess !y 'hi&h a non8histori&al fol)lori& figure named
CArthurD 'as histori&ised% artly 'ith great !attles from the ast fought !y
genuine leaders of the CHeroi& AgeD <see Green% "##0% &hater si>G Padel%
,$$1=( This does not% of &ourse% lessen the desire to identify the site of this
!attle% and this Auestion has long !een a sour&e of &ontro.ersy(
F This !rief guide to the .arious lo&ations 'hi&h ha.e !een &onne&ted 'ith the
re8Galfridian Arthurian legend 'as first la&ed online in ,$$- in mu&h the
same form as it is resented here( An u8to8date dis&ussion of /adon and its
attri!ution to Arthur &an !e found in T( Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=%
&haters one and si>( The notes on the other lo&ations are in need of some
re.ision% arti&ularly to ta)e full a&&ount of re&ent e>&a.ations% !ut it is hoed
that they nonetheless &ontinue to ro.ide a useful dis&ussion of the Arthurian
asso&iations of these sites(

"0"
One ossi!le lo&ation for /adon might !e at one of the many
C/ad!urysD% as these la&e8names may deri.e from .adon lus Old English
byrig)b#rh% Cfortifi&ation% fortified la&eD <see ?( Gelling% CTo'ards a
&hronology for English la&e8namesD% in D( Hoo)e <ed(= Ango'(a4on
(ette+ents <O>ford% ,$--=% ( 2$803 at ( 3#83,G 9(H( 7a&)son% CThe site of
?ount /adonD% Jo#rna of %etic (t#dies% "(" <,$2-=% ( ,2"822=( Another
ossi!le lo&ation is /ath% if this 'as earlier )no'n as /adon <see T( /ur)itt
and A( /ur)itt% CThe frontier 6one and the siege of ?ount /adon; a re.ie'
of the e.iden&e for their lo&ationD% Proceedings of the (o+erset Archaeoogica and
,at#ra History (ociety% ,51 <,$$#=% ( -,8$5G L( Al&o&) Arth#r?s .ritain
<Harmonds'orth% ,$0,==( The ro!lem is that the hilologi&al arguments
&an ta)e us no further than this E one &an a&&et a /ritish origin for the
name of /ath or one for the name /ad!ury% !ut it is a su!Ie&ti.e Iudgement
'ith nothing to argue &on&lusi.ely for either side( Indeed% if the /ad!ury
suggestion is adoted% then there is the further ro!lem of C'hi&h /ad!ury
'as /adonBD% as there are many /ad!urys and related names lo&ated a&ross
southern /ritain from Dorset through to Lin&olnshire(
Mnfortunately the other a.aila!le e.iden&e for the lo&ation of /adon
<!oth histori&al and ar&haeologi&al= is similarly su!Ie&ti.e and in&on&lusi.e
<see S( Hirst and P( Raht6% CLiddington +astle and the /attle of /adon;
E>&a.ation and Resear&h ,$03D% The Archaeoogica Jo#rna% ,25 <,$$3=% ( ,8
2$ at ( -8,$ for a good summary of the Csear&hD for /adon=( O.erall% the
'eight of ar&haeologi&al e.iden&e oints to some'here in southern or
eastern /ritain as the area 'here su&h a !attle is li)ely to ha.e !een fought E
as this is 'here the Anglo8Sa>ons 'ere in the fifth and earlier si>th &enturies
E !ut !eyond this it is diffi&ult to rogress( There is simly insuffi&ient
e.iden&e to allo' us to de&ide !et'een the &ometing &ases; Cthe site of
!ons .adonic#s in the a!sen&e of any early toograhi&al information(((
remains anyoneDs guessD <7( N( L( ?yres% in The Anti3#aries Jo#rna% "2 <,$12=%
( -1=(
2. 'astle 3illibury8 'orn0all
The Arthurian asso&iations of +astle 9illi!ury stem from attemts to
dis&o.er the lo&ation of Kei wic% the name gi.en in !oth %#hwch ac 6wen
and Trioedd 2nys Prydein to ArthurDs residen&e in +orn'all( In ,$## +astle
9illi!ury 'as suggested as Kei wic for three main reasons; firstly that a hill8
fort 'ould !e the most aroriate identifi&ationG se&ondly that the names
Kei wic and 9illi!ury are similarG and thirdly !e&ause it 'as near Tregeare
Rounds( This last argument is the one that tied the !alan&e in fa.our of
this site% 'hen the name alone ga.e it no !etter &ase to !e Kei wic than% say%
+allington and +alli'ith( This argument is% ho'e.er% false( Its origins lie in
"05
attemts to dis&o.er the Dimilio& that Geoffrey of ?onmouth has Gorlois%
Du)e of +orn'all% !eing !esieged at 'hilst Mther 'as fathering Arthur at
Tintagel( GeoffreyDs Dimilio& is o!.iously the hill8fort &lose !y Domelli&)%
!ut eighteenth8&entury antiAuarians% reading GeoffreyDs te>t% !elie.ed that
Dimilio& had to !e 'ithin a nightDs ride of Tintagel <Domelli&) is t'enty
miles a'ay=% though Geoffrey ne.er states this( They thus loo)ed for a hill8
fort near Tintagel 'hi&h might !e Dimilio& instead% and they settled on
Tregeare Rounds% leading to the in.alid argument E 'hi&h seemed &ogent at
the time E that 9illi!ury 'as near to Tregeare Rounds and 'as thus li)ely to
!e Kei wic( Ho'e.er% Cin the light of the re8identifi&ation of Dimilio&% there
is no' no reason for maintaining the suggestion Nthat 9illi!ury Y Kei wicO%
other than the .ague similarity of the namesD <O( 7( Padel% CSome south8
'estern sites 'ith Arthurian asso&iationsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The
Arth#r of the <esh. The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff%
,$$,=% ( ""$81- at ( "53=(
The Auestion thus !e&omes% 'here 'as Kei wic if it 'as not +astle
9illi!uryB Gi.en the testimony of %#hwch ac 6wen and Trioedd 2nys Prydein%
it seems &lear that the early medie.al 4elsh &onsidered it to ha.e !een
lo&ated in the +orn'all or the south8'est( There is some additional
e.iden&e 'hi&h may hel in the attemt to further narro' do'n the area
meant% su&h as the referen&e in ,5#" to a Tho+as de Keewik from the far
'est of +orn'all% !ut !eyond this it is diffi&ult to say( It is% ho'e.er% 'orth
ointing out that the name Kei wic itself 'ould seem to mean Cforest gro.eD%
and there is thus no ressing reason to !elie.e that ArthurDs Kei wic 'as
!ased on any real la&e( Indeed% as Ford oints out% it may ha.e originally
!een en.isaged as some'here Other'orldly <sa&red gro.es !eing &ommon
in +elti& myth= and only later might a se&ifi& lo&ation ha.e !een as&ri!ed to
it <see O( 7( Padel% CThe Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0
<,$$1=% ( ,85, at ( ,"8,5G P( 9( Ford% COn the Signifi&an&e of Some
Arthurian Names in 4elshD% .#etin of the .oard of %etic (t#dies% 5# <,$-5=% (
"3-805=(
3. /lastonbury8 So*erset
There are t'o areas of interest in Glaston!ury% namely the A!!ey <ST
2##5--= and the Tor <ST 2,"5-3=( Ralegh RadfordDs e>&a.ations at the
A!!ey in the ,$3#s aimed to dis&o.er the earliest religious a&ti.ity on the
site% and they un&o.ered an an&ient &emetery of stone8lined gra.es near
tra&es of a small tim!er stru&ture thought to !e the original &hur&h of St
?ary <+( A( Ralegh Radford% CGlaston!ury A!!eyD% in G( Ashe <ed(= The
1#est for Arth#r?s .ritain <London% ,$0,=% ( $08,,#=( Along 'ith this
!uilding 'ere found ost8holes interreted as tra&es of 'attled oratories and

"01
all of this 'as !ounded on the east !y a great !an) and dit&h interreted as
a monasti& va#+( 4hile there 'as no dating e.iden&e these features% all lay
!elo' later Anglo8Sa>on features and thus it seemed li)ely that they 'ere
C+elti&D in date( ?ore re&ent e>&a.ations on the re&in&t dit&h un&o.ered
'ooden sta)es 'hi&h yielded radio&ar!on dates &entred on the late si>th
and se.enth &enturies( Also found in this area 'as an eastern ?editerranean
&oer &enser% again of late si>th8 or se.enth8&entury date% 'hi&h has !een
ta)en to suggest that Glaston!ury 'as a /ritish +hristian site 'hi&h
maintained /y6antine e&&lesiasti&al &onta&ts <+( Snyder% CA Ga6etteer of
Su!8Roman /ritain <AD 1##83##=; The /ritish sitesD% @nternet Archaeoogy% 5
<,$$0==(
Phili Raht6Ds e>&a.ations on the Tor ha.e un&o.ered mu&h more
e.iden&e of ost8Roman a&ti.ity <dating from the late fifth &entury on'ards
E there is no sign of earlier a&ti.ity=; stru&tures 'ere found on the summit of
the Tor and on the terra&e latforms% and there 'ere &ertainly 'ooden
!uildings uon these% although little remained of them( Asso&iated 'ith
these !uildings 'ere &har&oal% !urnt stones and large Auantities of food
remains% mainly animal !ones( These 'ere not the remains of animals
slaughtered on the sot% !ut rather of meat !rought to the Tor as Ioints <P(
Raht6% CGlaston!ury TorD% in G( Ashe <ed(= The 1#est for Arth#r?s .ritain
<London% ,$0,=% ( ,,,8"" at ( ,,3=( Se.eral ost8holes around an eastern
hollo' ha.e !een interreted as some sort of fen&e or rote&ti.e !arrier%
and in the the hollo' there 'as a .ariety of e.iden&e% in&luding an iron
lam8holder% suggesti.e of the resen&e of a !uilding( Also found in this
area 'as a mysterious stone &airn 'hi&h defies solid interretation !ut might
!e seen as !uilding foundations% a !en&h or e.en an alter( The most
imortant area 'as the south latform% an artifi&ially &ut latform 'hi&h has
!een artly destroyed !y erosion% 'here tra&es of a large tim!er !uilding
'ere found along 'ith t'o hearths% &ru&i!les and other e.iden&e of metal
'or)ingG a do6en ie&es of imorted ost8Roman ?editerranean amhorae
<ro.iding dating e.iden&e=G and a &ar.ed !ron6e head <stylisti&ally C+elti&D=
'hi&h may ha.e !een enameled( The e>a&t nature of the ost8Roman
a&ti.ity on the Tor is% ho'e.er% diffi&ult to assess( The e>&a.ator fa.oured
the e>lanation of the Tor as a se&ular fortress of a lesser /ritish &hieftain
<he ruled out the idea that the Tor may ha.e !een a signalling station as art
of a defensi.e net'or)=% due to the large num!ers of animal !ones% the
e.iden&e for metal8'or)ing and the resen&e of imorted ?editerranean
ottery( Ho'e.er% the Tor &ould Iust as easily ha.e !een a e&&lesiasti&al site
E the main argument against this 'as that the large num!ers of animal
!ones 'ere &ontrary to the as&eti& lifestyle of mon)s of this eriod% !ut
re&ent e>&a.ations at monasti& &entres su&h as 4hithorn ha.e re.ealed large
num!ers of animal !ones% thus negating this argument and ma)ing the
interretation of the Tor as an early hermiti& monasti& site eAually as .alid as
the interretation of this site as a se&ular fortifi&ation <see further P( Raht6%
"02
Engish Heritage .ook of Gastonb#ry <London% ,$$5=G +( Snyder% CA Ga6etteer
of Su!8Roman /ritain <AD 1##83##=; The /ritish sitesD% @nternet Archaeoogy% 5
<,$$0=G P( Hill% <hithorn and (t ,inian. The E4cavation of a !onastic Town
STGH'TS <Stroud% ,$$0==(
4hat then of the Arthurian asso&iationsB ArthurDs &onne&tion 'ith
Glaston!ury is first re&orded in the ;ita Gidae <CLife of St GildasD= !y
+arado& of Llan&arfan% 'hi&h 'as 'ritten in the ,,"#s or ,,5#s;
Glaston!ury((( 'as !esieged !y the tyrant Arthur 'ith an
innumera!le host !e&ause of his 'ife G'enh'yfar% 'hom the
aforesaid )ing ?el'as had .iolated and &arried off !ringing her
there for safety% !e&ause of the in.ulnera!le ositionDs rote&tion%
ro.ided !y the thi&)eted fortifi&ations of reed% ri.ers and marshes(
The 'ar8li)e )ing had sear&hed for the Aueen throughout the &y&le
of one year% and at last heard that she resided there( Thereuon he
&alled u the armies of the 'hole of +orn'all and De.on and 'ar
'as reared !et'een the enemies(
4hen the a!!ot of Glaston!ury E attended !y the &lergy and
Gildas the 4ise E sa' this% he steed in !et'een the &ontending
armies% and ea&efully ad.ised his )ing ?el'as% that he should
restore the )idnaed lady( And so% she 'ho 'as to !e restored 'as
restored in ea&e and good 'ill( 4hen these things had !een don%
the t'o )ings ga.e to the a!!ot many territoriesG and they &ame to
.isit the &hur&h of St ?ary to rayG the a!!ot san&tioning the dear
fraternity in return for the ea&e they enIoyed and the !enefits
'hi&h they had !esto'ed and 'hi&h they 'ere a!out to !esto' yet
more lentifully( Then% re&on&iled% the )ings left% s'earing
re.erently to o!ey the most .enera!le a!!ot of Glaston!ury% and
not to .iolate the holiest art nor e.en the lands !ordering on the
land of its o.erseer( <7( /( +oe and S( Koung <ed( and trans(=% The
%etic (o#rces for the Arth#rian 9egend <Felinfa&h% ,$$2= ( "28"0=
This story% desite its o!.ious aim of Iustifying the ri.ileges of
Glaston!ury A!!ey% 'ould aear to ha.e an&ient origins% as it is referred to
in a num!er of other sour&es( Ho'e.er% Glaston!ury 'as ro!a!ly not art
of the original tale 'hi&h% it has !een &on.in&ingly argued% 'as a story a!out
the res&ue of G'enh'yfar from an Other'orld CIsland of GlassD similar to
Preide# Annwfyn and its analogues( The .ersion resented in ;ita Gidae 'as
ro!a!ly an adatation of this story% 'ith the CIsle of GlassD !eing identified
suriously as Glaston!ury !y +arado& <the name a&tually means Cisland% or
fortress% of the GlastingsD% though he may not ha.e !een the first to ma)e
the identifi&ation= thus allo'ing him to introdu&e the a!!ot of Glaston!ury
E the Glaston!ury &ommunity !eing the re&iients of his 9ife E as ea&e8

"03
ma)er and !enefi&iary of Cmany landsD from Arthur and ?el'as <see P(
Sims84illiams% CThe Early 4elsh Arthurian PoemsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a
<edd(= The Arth#r of the <esh: The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re
<+ardiff ,$$,=% ( 5580, at ( 2-83,=(
A far more signifi&ant Arthurian &onne&tion emerged in the ,,$#s% 'ith
the e>&a.ation at the A!!ey of a gra.e &ontaining a lead &ross 'hi&h
ro&laimed that the mon)s had found the !urial8la&e of Arthur( This
eisode has !een mu&h dis&ussed !ut it is no' generally held to !e a late
t'elfth8&entury fraud on the art of the Glaston!ury mon)s% ossi!ly for
the !enefit of the )ing rather than themsel.es( The &ase against a fraud is
mainly !ased uon the resear&hes of +( A( Ralegh Radford <in G( Ashe <ed(=%
The 1#est for Arth#r?s .ritain <London% ,$0,==% 'ho demonstrated that the
mon)s did indeed CfindD a gra.e and 'ho !elie.ed that the Latin of the &ross
'as earlier than the t'elfth &entury% 'hi&h 'ould indi&ate that there 'as no
late t'elfth8&entury fraud( This latter suggestion has% ho'e.er% no' !een
'idely reIe&ted% and the &ross is seen instead as solidly t'elfth &entury in
originsG indeed% it has !een noted that the ins&rition deri.es in art from
Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae% a &oy of 'hi&h 'as
resent at Glaston!ury from the ,,0#s( As su&h% the fa&t that the mon)s did
find a gra.e only indi&ates that they &hose a sot to e>&a.ate 'hi&h they
)ne' to &ontain an an&ient gra.e% and the sot in Auestion does aear to
ha.e !een mar)ed in the gra.eyard as su&h re.ious to their e>&a.ations( It
might% of &ourse% !e roosed that 'hile the &ross is a rodu&t of the
t'elfth8&entury fraud% it 'as !ased on a genuine remem!ran&e of Arthur
!eing !uried in the A!!ey gra.eyard% !ut this &an !e nothing more than
'ishful thin)ing( It is 'orth ointing out that% re.ious to the Cdis&o.eryD of
ArthurDs Cgra.eD% it aears to ha.e !een generally held that no8one )ne'
'here ArthurDs gra.e 'as and% moreo.er% that he might still !e ali.e; see T(
Green% %once&ts of Arth#r <Stroud% "##0=% &hater t'o% and O( 7( Padel% CThe
Nature of ArthurD% %a+brian !edieva %etic (t#dies% "0 <,$$1=% ( ,85, at (
-8,"% for a full dis&ussion of the !elief that Arthur 'as not dead and 'ould
return(
In &onseAuen&e% it seems &lear that there is no reason to thin) that
anyone did a&tually !elie.e that Arthur 'as !uried at Glaston!ury !efore
the ,,$#s% and the Cdis&o.eryD of ArthurDs gra.e is thus almost &ertainly a
monasti& fraud of the tye 'ith 'hi&h historians are familiar E truly CearlyD
Arthurian asso&iations at Glaston!ury are only to !e found in +arado&Ds
a&&ount% for 'hat this is 'orth( See further P( Raht6% Engish Heritage .ook of
Gastonb#ry <London% ,$$5=G 7( +arey% CThe Finding of ArthurDs Gra.e; A
Story from +lonma&noiseBD% in 7( +arey et a <edd(= @dLnach @dMrech. A
Festschrift for Proinsias !ac %ana <Ando.er : A!eryst'yth% ,$$$=% ( ,8,1G 7(
P( +arley% CArthur in English HistoryD% in 4( R( 7( /arron <ed(= The Arth#r of
the Engish <+ardiff% ,$$$=% ( 10820G A( Gransden% CThe Gro'th of
"00
Glaston!ury Traditions and Legends in the T'elfth +enturyD% Jo#rna of
Eccesiastica History% "0 <,$03=% ( 55082-G and (o+erset and /orset ,otes 0
1#eries for ,$-1 for dis&ussion of this !urial and its status as a fraud(
. South 'adbury8 So*erset
This imortant Iron8Age hill8fort <ST 3"-"2"= 'as reo&&uied and
refortified in the late fifth or si>th &entury% !ut o&&uation &eased in the
se.enth &entury( The hill8fort itself is enormous and it has !een estimated
that around -0# men 'ould ha.e !een needed to defend it( The nature of
the e.iden&e for ost8Roman a&ti.ity &onsists of a massi.e re8fortifi&ation
of the defen&es% in&luding a tim!er gate8to'er <this re8fortifi&ation 'ould
ha.e reresented a formida!le underta)ing E it sans ,(" )m E and &ould
only ha.e !een &arried out !y someone in &ommand of e>tensi.e
resour&es=G ost8!uilt tim!er stru&tures in the interior of the hill8fort% one of
'hi&h is ,$ metres long !y ,# metres 'ide and is interreted as a feasting
hall% erhas modelled on the .illa &omle>es of Late Roman /ritainG and a
large Auantity of imorted ost8Roman ?editerranean ottery% 'hi&h is
asso&iated 'ith !oth the !uildings and the fortifi&ations( The s&ale of the
o&&uation and the large amounts of imorted ottery ma)e it &lear that this
'as a .ery high8status site% and the e>&a.ator <Leslie Al&o&)= 'ould see it as
an administrati.e &entre of a large /ritish territory(
The nature of the Arthurian &onne&tion of this site is diffi&ult to assess(
The first referen&e to su&h a &onne&tion o&&urs in the si>teenth &entury%
'hen 7ohn Leland E a noted aologist for a histori&al Arthur% 'riting c. ,21#
E 'rote that;
At the .ery southe ende of the &hir&h of South8+a!uyri standith
+amallate% sumtyme a famose toun or &astelle% aon a .ery torre or
hille% 'underfully enstrengtheid of nature((( The eole &an telle
nothing ther !ut that they ha.e hard say that Arture mu&h restorid
to +amalat(
Although another si>teenth8&entury sour&e is suggesti.e of a tradition that
Arthur 'as aslee under South +ad!ury hill8fort% these are .ery late
traditions indeed% from a eriod in 'hi&h many sites in !oth England and
4ales 'ere &laiming a lin) 'ith Arthur( As su&h% 'hilst this site 'as
undou!tedly .ery imortant in the ost8Roman eriod% there seems no
good reason to thin) that these Arthurian asso&iations are of mu&h greater
antiAuity than the si>teenth &entury% in the a!sen&e of e.iden&e to the
&ontrary( For the site and traditions see L( Al&o&)% ].y (o#th %adb#ry is that
%a+eot...?, The E4cavation of %adb#ry %aste STII'STKF <London% ,$0"=G L(

"0-
Al&o&)% C+ad!ury8+amelot; a Fifteen8year Perse&ti.eD% Proceedings of the
.ritish Acade+y% 3- <,$-"= ( 5228--G O( 7( Padel% CSome south8'estern sites
'ith Arthurian asso&iationsD% in R( /rom'i&h et a <edd(= The Arth#r of the
<esh. The Arth#rian 9egend in !edieva <esh 9iterat#re <+ardiff% ,$$,=% (
""$81- at ( "5-81#G and no' L( Al&o&)% %adb#ry %aste: (o+erset. The Eary
!edieva Archaeoogy <+ardiff% ,$$2=( See also CA Ga6etteer of Arthurian
Onomasti& and Toograhi& Fol)loreD(
". Tintagel8 'orn0all
Tintagel <SH #1$-$,= is first asso&iated 'ith the Arthurian legend in
Geoffrey of ?onmouthDs Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae <c. ,,5-=% 'here it features
as the site of ArthurDs &on&etion% and GeoffreyDs des&rition suggests that
he had seen the la&e himself( 4hilst there is no e.iden&e for re8Roman
o&&uation of the site% there is reason to !elie.e that Tintagel 'as a
reasona!ly imortant la&e in the Roman eriod( T'o ins&ri!ed Roman
milestones ha.e !een found in the Tintagel neigh!ourhood and it seems
li)ely that they reresent a late Roman <tradingB= route assing near
Tintagel( In addition +harles Thomas has suggested that Tintagel 'as the
=/#rocornovio <CFort of the %ornoviiD= of the -avenna %os+ogra&hy% something
'hi&h may !e suorted !y finds of Roman &oins <from Tetri&us I <"0#805=
to +onstantius II <55083,== and !oth &ommer&ial and lo&ally made ottery
of the third and fourth &enturies( The e>a&t nature of Late Roman Tintagel
is% ne.ertheless% elusi.e and the main fo&us of a&ti.ity for this site 'as in the
&enturies after the Romans left(
Sin&e the maIor e>&a.ations of the ,$5#s oinions as to the fun&tion of
ost8Roman Tintagel ha.e altered &onsidera!ly( The original e>&a.ator% +(
A( Ralegh Radford% &laimed that the site 'as an early +hristian monastery
from the fifth through to the eighth &entury( This interretation has%
ho'e.er% !een sho'n to !e in&orre&t% and as a result a ne' histori&al
e>lanation for the site is reAuired; Tintagel is no' usually seen as a .ery
imortant fifth8 to se.enth8&entury se&ular site <a fortress or royal seat=
!elonging to the ost8Roman )ings of Dumnonia( The o&&uation of this
site is li)ely to ha.e !een only seasonal gi.en the inhosita!le &limate in
'inter months% !ut this fits in .ery 'ell 'ith 'hat 'e )no' of early
medie.al )ingshi E this 'as itinerant and 'or)ed on the theory that it 'as
easier to ta)e the large royal household to the food than it 'as to maintain
them in one ermanent lo&ation <see T( +harles8Ed'ards% CEarly ?edie.al
9ingshis in the /ritish IslesD% in S( /asset <ed(= The 6rigins of Ango'(a4on
Kingdo+s <London% ,$-$=% ( "-85$=( As su&h% Tintagel 'as ro!a!ly .isited
!y the ost8Roman )ings of Dumnonia to re&ei.e tri!ute and ossi!ly also
for the in.estiture of a ne' )ing; C9ing ArthurDs FootrintD% an island8to
"0$
feature% may ha.e !een the site for su&h a &eremony( ?oreo.er% analysis
suggests that Tintagel 'as the leading &entre in +orn'all for trade 'ith the
eastern ?editerranean mer&hants% re&ei.ing tin from many la&es in
+orn'all as Ctri!uteD% 'ith this then !eing traded for lu>ury goods E
in&luding% erhas% fine sil)s and other su&h items 'hi&h are
ar&haeologi&ally in.isi!le E 'hi&h 'ere in turn redistri!uted out'ards% .ia
gifting !y the rulers% to fa.oured su!Ie&ts <see +( Thomas% Tintage: Arth#r
and Archaeoogy <London% ,$$5==( Gi.en this% it seems ossi!le that% 'hen
Tintagel E +ornish =din% CfortD <.ariant =tin=% lus =tage% C&onstri&tionD% that is
Cthe fort of the narro' ne&)D E is referred to as a royal residen&e or
defensi.e site in medie.al literature <9ing ?ar)Ds in the Tristan legendsG
GorloisD in the Historia -eg#+ .ritanniae=% this reresents a mu&h8distorted
Cfol)8memoryD of histori&al fa&t(
After GeoffreyDs Historia% Tintagel lays .ery little art in the Arthurian
&y&le and the earliest e.iden&e of the site !eing lo&ally )no'n as C9ing
ArthurDs +astleD dates from ,32# E indeed% it is usually seen in the medie.al
literature as the &astle of 9ing ?ar)% a )ing of Dumnonia% and Geoffrey
only la&es ArthurDs &on&etion here% ma)ing it &lear that Tintagel 'as the
roerty of a lo&al ruler <Gorlois=( It is thus ro!a!le that the Arthurian
asso&iations are ,"th &entury in origin and result from Geoffrey atta&hing
Arthur to re8e>isting fol)lori& material 'hi&h asso&iated Tintagel 'ith the
ost8Roman rulers of the region( See further +harles Thomas% Tintage:
Arth#r and Archaeoogy <London% ,$$5=% for a full dis&ussion of the site and its
Arthurian &onne&tionsG it should !e noted that the si>th8&entury ins&ri!ed
stone 'hi&h has re&ently !een found at Tintagel has nothing to do 'ith
9ing Arthur% desite media se&ulation to the &ontrary <see CThe Histori&ity
and Histori&isation of ArthurD% note t'o=(