Evaluating Psychosocial Programming

CHILDREN IN CRISIS:
GOOD PRACTICES IN
EVALUATING PSYCHOSOCIAL
PROGRAMMING
Joan Duncan, Ph.D. and Laura Arntson, Ph.D., MPH, for
The International Psychosocial Evaluation Committee and
Save the Children Federation, Inc.
With Support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation

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Good Practices In Laluating Psychosocial Programming

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In recent years, the deastating consequences o long term and iolent conlicts across the globe hae
generated tremendous interest in the psychosocial eects o complex emergencies on children,
amilies and communities. At the same time, as relie organizations hae deeloped projects to address
these critical issues, there hae been relatiely ew resources aailable to these implementing agencies
on how to measure the eectieness o their work. \hat concepts, methods and tools might be used
to ealuate psychosocial projects implemented during crisis situations low do we know i indiiduals
and communities are beneiting oer the short and long-term rom projects designed to acilitate
emotional healing, social reconciliation, and community building

1he deelopment o outcome and impact measures or psychosocial projects in crisis situations
presents a continual challenge or ield practitioners. 1he arious actors inluencing child
deelopment and psychosocial well-being are diicult to isolate, deine, and quantiy. In addition,
change takes time to eidence itsel, a luxury in any emergency response project. As a result, too oten
project practitioners must take a leap o aith that their projects are haing a measurable and positie
eect on the lies o children, amilies, and communities. \ithout indicators, howeer, practitioners
are let in the position o asserting that projects are helpul` in broad and oten uneriied ways.
1here clearly exists a need to deelop models o impact, share lessons learned, promote cross-
ertilization o strategies, and to build eectie interention practices based on sound measures o
project outcomes and impact.

1o pursue this broad objectie, Sae the Children lederation, Inc. ,Sae the Children USA,, with
support rom the Andrew \. Mellon loundation, initiated a collaboratie process among a number
o academic institutions, donor organizations, and ield-oriented non-goernmental organizations that
are operational in the broad area o psychosocial programming. Persons rom these organizations
with extensie experience in psychosocial programming participated in initial discussions regarding
the ocus o this document. A core committee o iteen members was organized based on these
initial discussions. 1he core committee has been responsible or the oerall conceptualization and
articulation o content area o this manual. In an eort to broaden the programmatic, cultural and
geographic expertise o the core committee, seeral colleagues with extensie experience in
psychosocial programming were asked to proide eedback at arious points throughout the
deelopment o preious drats o this document.

1he manual should be considered a working document.` \e anticipate that, through dissemination
o this document, colleagues, ield-based managers, and coordinators o psychosocial projects can
continue to proide critical reiew and urther input across a ariety o disciplines, cultural settings,
and regional perspecties.

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ii

Overview

1his manual attempts to articulate major principles o psychosocial project design and ealuation
practices in concise, user-riendly terms. It is intended or ield-based managers and coordinators o
psychosocial programming, as well as or managers o emergency relie programs who may want to
integrate psychosocial programming methods into more traditional relie eorts, such as ood
distribution, construction projects, and medical assistance. 1he manual also seeks to heighten critical
awareness o the cultural and ethical issues associated with psychosocial work. Since psychosocial
projects ary considerably in emphasis, there is much to be learned rom dierent experiences. lence,
the intention o this manual is to stimulate dialogue and the exchange o lessons learned` across
projects, organizations, theoretical perspecties, and ield-based experiences. 1hrough this dialogue,
we hope to help project managers build concepts and methods or planning, implementing, and
ealuating psychosocial projects using clear strategies.

Cbater Ove seres to orient the reader by briely summarizing the concept o psychosocial
deelopment. 1his chapter ocuses on the relationship between psychosocial deelopment and
culture, amily and peer relationships, risk and resiliency. 1he importance o social and cultural actors
in psychosocial deelopment and in working eectiely with children, amilies, and communities is
emphasized. 1he chapter concludes with a discussion o the limitations o an indiidualized approach
to psychosocial healing in complex emergencies and outlines the beneits o including community
members, especially children and adolescents themseles, in deeloping psychosocial interentions.

Cbater 1ro ocuses more speciically on psychosocial programming. It presents a deinition o
psychosocial programming and introduces major concepts and rationales underlying key principles o
sound psychosocial interentions. It oers a conceptual tool or understanding that dierent groups
within a community react dierently to a crisis and discusses the relationship between target group,
project content and project approaches. linally, it encourages the integration o psychosocial
programming principles into other types o relie interentions, such as health or ood distribution, in
an eort to address children`s needs within the context o amily, community and cultural resources.

Cbater. 1bree tbrovgb i address the topic o ealuating psychosocial projects using case examples.
Components essential to the deelopment o a solid ealuation strategy are presented including:
articulating a project logic model, deeloping objecties and indicators, and considering ealuation
design options.

Cbater erev uses a worksheet` ormat to reiew key concepts and to guide the project planner in a
step-wise ashion through the arious stages o project conceptualization and ealuation.

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1he Committee would like to acknowledge the inaluable contributions o many colleagues and to
express our appreciation to their organizations or supporting this eort.

\e extend a special thank you to: Llizabeth Jareg and Mike \essells whose work in writing the initial
concept paper helped crystallize the committee`s approach to ealuating psychosocial programs, Jan
\illiamson, Kirk lelsman, Gary Kose, Stan Phiri, and John \illiamson who critically reiewed earlier
drats o this document, Jason Schwartzman, our consultant or his work with the subcommittee on
redrating the irst drat o the document, and to Amy \achtel, Marie de la Soudiere, Alastair Ager,
and 1amara Jachimowicz or their work in ield testing the pilot document.

linally, the Committee would like to thank members who also sered on the Second Drat
Subcommittee-Alastair Ager, Neil Boothby, Marie de la Soudiere, Maryanne Loughry, Jason
Schwartzman, and Mike \essells-or their eorts in urther orienting the document toward
implementing organizations.

Our appreciation also goes to those who contributed in arious ways, including \akini Mack-\illiams
who identiied arious additional readings and resources, and many others who proided eedback
during ield-testing or upon reading drats o the document.

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37%4"8 Joan Duncan, Long Island Uniersity , Consultant to Sae the Children USA
Alastair Ager, Center or International lealth Studies, Queen Margaret Uniersity College, Ldinburgh
Laura Arntson, Sae the Children USA
Paul Bolton, Boston Uniersity School o Public lealth
Neil Boothby, Sae the Children USA , Program on lorced Migration, Columbia Uniersity Mailman
School o Public lealth
Marie de la Soudiere, 1he International Rescue Committee
Jennier Dec McLwan, Long Island Uniersity
Lehnart lalk, Sae the Children Denmark
Llizabeth Jareg, Sae the Children Norway
Maryanne Loughry, Oxord Uniersity Reugee Studies Programme
Jean Claude Legrand, UNICLl
Carlinda Monteiro, Christian Children`s lund, Angola
Mary Anne Schwalbe, \omen`s Commission or Reugee \omen and Children
Amy \achtel, 1he International Rescue Committee
Ronald \aldman, Program on lorced Migration, Columbia Uniersity Mailman School o Public
lealth
Mike \essells, Christian Children`s lund , Randolph-Macon College

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Preace___________________________________________________________________ i
Oeriew _________________________________________________________________ii
Acknowledgements ________________________________________________________ iii
Contributors _____________________________________________________________ iii
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A. Social and Cultural Nature o Child Deelopment _______________________________ 6
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B. Psychosocial Deelopment Deined__________________________________________
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C. Cross-Cultural Commonality and Diersity ____________________________________ 9
D. Resiliency and Protectie lactors ___________________________________________10
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L. Children`s Reactions to Violence ____________________________________________12
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A. Limitations o Indiidualized Approaches _____________________________________14
B. Moing rom Indiiduals to Communities _____________________________________15
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A. 1arget Population _______________________________________________________18
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B. Project Content _________________________________________________________19

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C. Project Approach________________________________________________________20
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A. 1he Primacy o lamily ___________________________________________________22
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B. Lducation _____________________________________________________________23
C. Lconomic Security_______________________________________________________24
D. Lngaging Actiities ______________________________________________________24
L. Community and Cultural Connections________________________________________24
l. Reconciliation and Restoration o Justice ______________________________________25
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A. Proince-Based \ar 1rauma 1eam__________________________________________31
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B. Consolacao Lnrichment Project_____________________________________________34
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A. Input _________________________________________________________________36
B. Output________________________________________________________________36
C. Outcome ______________________________________________________________36
D. Impact________________________________________________________________3
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A. SMAR1` Objecties ____________________________________________________39
B. Making Objecties SMAR1er ______________________________________________40
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A. Quantitatie and Qualitatie Indicators _______________________________________44
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A. Consolacao Lnrichment Project ____________________________________________48
B. Sample Input,Output Matrix_______________________________________________49
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A. 1he Dierence between Project Outcome and Impact ___________________________51
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B. Indicators as Measures o Status or Outcome __________________________________52
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C. An Laluation Matrix: Objecties, Outcomes, Indicators, and Data Sources __________53
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D. Proxy Indicators________________________________________________________55
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A. Qualitatie Data Sources o Consolacao Lnrichment Project ,CLP, _________________59
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A. Open-ended Interiews and locus Group Interiews ____________________________60
B. Lthnographic 1echniques _________________________________________________63
C. Direct Obseration 1echniques _____________________________________________64
D. Back-1ranslation o Scales ________________________________________________65
L. 1riangulation ___________________________________________________________65
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A. Attributing Outcome_____________________________________________________68
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B. Reasonable Assurance o Project Impact _____________________________________69
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A. Major 1ypes o Comparison Groups _________________________________________0
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A. Partial Coerage Projects __________________________________________________2
B. lull Coerage Projects ____________________________________________________3

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A. Probability Sampling _____________________________________________________5
B. Nonprobability Sampling__________________________________________________6
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A. Outcome Laluation _____________________________________________________93
B. Impact Laluation ______________________________________________________98
C. Reporting ____________________________________________________________103
D. Next Steps ___________________________________________________________104
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Good Practices in Evaluating Psychosocial Programming

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In many parts o the world, war, epidemics, natural disasters, and other humanitarian crises hae
resulted in complex emergencies
1
causing wide-ranging, multiaceted, sustained negatie impact on
children, amilies, and communities. Such emergencies impose heay emotional, social, and spiritual
burdens on children and their amilies that are associated with death, separation and loss o parents and
caregiers, disruption o organized patterns o liing and meaning, attack and ictimization, destruction
o homes, and economic ruin. In these situations, children`s deelopment is disrupted, security and trust
in humankind threatened, and a sense o hope or the uture undermined.

Goernmental and nongoernmental organizations across the world hae grown in their understanding
o appropriate response to such circumstances. 1he United Nations Children`s lund ,UNICLl,, or
example, was created in the atermath o the Second \orld \ar. Reichenberg and lriedman
2
,1996,, in
their examination o the eolution o this organization`s approach to working with war-aected
children, amilies, and communities, create a historical ramework that anchors current day psychosocial
programming and strategies. \hile UNICLl originally and primarily ocused on short-term material
assistance through the distribution o ood, clothing, and medicine, the organization increasingly
realized that projects needed to be longer-term and to consider the whole child within the context o his
or her community and culture i the desired beneits were to be obtained.

Adopted in 1989, the Conention on the Rights o the Child ,CRC, established a legal and ethical
ramework to guide the international community in working with children during times o stability as
well as during emergencies. Conention articles address, or example, amily separation and
reuniication eorts and the protection and care o children aected by armed conlict ,see Inset 1,.
Collectiely, the articles establish an interention standard that encompasses, as stated in Article 39,
measures to promote physical and psychological recoery and social re-integration o a child.` in
the atermath o complex emergencies.

1
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees defines a complex emergency as a humanitarian crisis in a
country, region, or society where there is a total or considerable breakdown of authority caused by international or
external conflict, which requires an international response that goes beyond the mandate of any single agency and/or
the ongoing United Nations country program.
2
D. Reichenberg and S. Friedman, Traumatized Children: Healing the invisible wounds of children in war: A rights
approach. In International Responses to Traumatic Stress, edited by Yael Danieli, Nigel S. Rodley, & Lars Weisaeth
(New York: Baywood Publishing Company, 1996), 307 326.

2
B*2#1 ;8 3+*@#*14+* +* 17# D4/712 +$ 17# 374-.

1he ollowing are articles most releant to complex emergencies.
3

("14&-# R8 Parties shall ensure that a child shall not be separated rom his or her parents against their will, except when
competent authorities subject to judicial reiew determine, in accordance with applicable law and procedures, that such
separation is necessary or the best interests o the child.

("14&-# ;P8 .Applications by a child or his or her parents to enter or leae a State Party or the purpose o amily
reuniication shall be dealt with by States Parties in a positie, humane and expeditious manner. States Parties shall
urther ensure that the submission o such a request shall entail no aderse consequences or the applicants and or the
members o their amily.

("14&-# ;R8 Parties shall take all appropriate legislatie, administratie, social and educational measures to protect the
child rom all orms o physical or mental iolence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or
exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care o parent,s,, legal guardian,s, or any other person who has the care
o the child.

("14&-# EP8 A child temporarily or permanently depried o his or her amily enironment. shall be entitled to special
protection and assistance...

("14&-# EE8 Parties shall take appropriate measures to ensure that a child who is seeking reugee status or who is
considered a reugee in accordance with applicable international or domestic law and procedures shall, whether
unaccompanied or accompanied by his or her parents or by any other person, receie appropriate protection and
humanitarian assistance in the enjoyment o applicable rights set orth in the present Conention and in other
international human rights or humanitarian instruments to which the said States are Parties.

lor this purpose, States Parties shall proide, as they consider appropriate, co-operation in any eorts by the United
Nations and other competent intergoernmental organizations or non-goernmental organizations co-operating with the
United Nations to protect and assist such a child and to trace the parents or other members o the amily o any reugee
child in order to obtain inormation necessary or reuniication with his or her amily. In cases where no parents or other
members o the amily can be ound, the child shall be accorded the same protection as any other child permanently or
temporarily depried o his or her amily enironment or any reason, as set orth in the present Conention.

("14&-# EO8 Parties recognize the right o the child to education, and with a iew to achieing this right progressiely and
on the basis o equal opportunity...

("14&-# GI8 Parties undertake to protect the child rom all orms o sexual exploitation and sexual abuse...

("14&-# GO8 Parties shall take all easible measures to ensure that persons who hae not attained the age o iteen years
do not take a direct part in hostilities...

In accordance with their obligations under international humanitarian law to protect the ciilian population in armed
conlict, State Parties shall take all easible measures to ensure protection and care o children who are aectedby an
armed conlict.

("14&-# GR8 Parties shall take all appropriate measures to promote physical and psychological recoery and social
reintegration o a child ictim o: any orm o neglect, exploitation, or abuse, torture or any other orm o cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, or armed conlicts. Such recoery and reintegration shall take place in
an enironment that osters the health, sel-respect, and dignity o the child.

Consistent with the CRC, many international and national goernmental and nongoernmental
organizations now consider the psychological and social aspects o humanitarian assistance to children

3
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Convention on the Rights of the Child,
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/k2crc.htm.

3
and their amilies as necessary components in responding to the oerall deelopmental needs o
children in complex emergency situations. 1he undamental aim o psychosocial programming is to
improe children`s well-being by:

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As parents,caregiers, communities, goernments, nongoernmental organizations, and donors hae
recognized the importance o addressing the psychological and social needs o children and their
amilies, there has been an increased desire to make aailable the programming concepts and tools
that support this work. Key questions include, low do we conceptualize the psychosocial needs o
children` low do we understand the impact o complex emergencies on amilies and
communities` \hat are key components o psychosocial interentions` and low do we know i
interentions are eectiely addressing these needs` 1here is little inormation aailable on the long-
term consequences o the multiple and continuous eects o war and other complex emergencies on
children, amilies, and communities - especially in the context o poerty and displacement. Gien the
lack o research in this area, this manual is an attempt to put orth one perspectie o responding to
children`s needs in crisis situations based on the contributors` ield and academic experience. 1his
manual begins by proiding a brie orientation to psychosocial deelopment. Key project
interentions are outlined, emphasizing ethical, cultural, and social issues associated with this kind o
work. 1he main ocus o this manual is on measuring the eectieness o psychosocial projects and
proiding practitioners with tools and a ramework or the monitoring and ealuation process.

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In 1988 our team at larard Uniersity, with the support o the \orld lederation or Mental lealth, sent a psychiatric
team to Site 2, the largest Cambodian reugee camp on the 1hai-Cambodian border. \e interiewed 993 camp residents,
who recounted a total o 15,000 distinct traumatic eents, such as kidnapping, imprisonment, torture, and rape. \et the
international authorities charged with protecting and proiding or the camp had made no proisions whatsoeer or
mental health serices. Similar lapses aected other reugee operations the world oer. Oer time the reason became
clear: the mental health eects o mass iolence are inisible. Put simply, it is easier to count dead bodies and lost limbs
than shattered minds. 1he bottom line is that although only a small percentage o suriors o mass iolence suer
serious mental illness requiring acute psychiatric care, the ast majority experience low-grade but long-lasting mental
health problems. lor a society to recoer eectiely, this majority cannot be oerlooked. Perasie physical exhaustion,
hatred, and lack o trust can persist long ater the war ends. Like chronic diseases such as malaria, mental illness can
weigh down the economic deelopment o a country.
4

1he social abric that binds indiiduals can and does unrael during times o conlict. \hile the
degree o deastation wrought and its ultimate eect on indiiduals aries, children and amilies will
always work to rebuild their lies to surie, endure, and lourish. 1he way people eel, the way they
react to the world, and the way they relate to one another are tremendously inluenced by the series o
crises they hae endured. As Inset 2 illustrates, mental health serices are as critical and lie-saing as
other emergency interentions. \hen rebuilding communities, the eects o extreme horror, ear,

4
R. Mollica, Invisible Wounds, Scientific American 2000: 46.

4
mistrust, rage, and engence experienced by most community members, including children, cannot be
ignored any more than the eects o amine, epidemics, and homelessness.

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lollowing centuries o \estern Colonial domination, Last 1imorese hae lied the past 24 years in a climate o
perpetual ear characterized by systematic oppression by the Indonesian Goernment. One o the century`s worst
genocides took place at the time o the Indonesian take-oer o Last 1imor. An estimated 200,000 people were
massacred or allowed to die o staration. Violent repression, demonstrated by the repeated arrest, torture, and
disappearance o people inoled or thought to be inoled in the liberation struggle, continued throughout the period.

1hese 24 years o repression culminated in the recent crisis ollowing the August 30, 1999 reerendum. On a large scale,
people experienced the burning o homes and towns, attacks on themseles and their amilies, light in the ace o armed
assaults by militias, orced displacement, destruction o businesses, and loss o agricultural means and production. As
people led or were orcibly displaced, large numbers were separated rom each other, and many children were separated
rom their amilies. Many people led to the mountains. Others were orced by militias into \est 1imor, where they
lied in orced exile and constant ear, or were deported to more distant islands, their whereabouts unknown. Large
numbers o people hae disappeared and remain unaccounted or. Nearly eery amily lies with uncertainties about the
location and saety o one or more amily members.

1he returning population ound their land deastated, property looted, homes burned, liestock stolen or killed, and
inrastructure, including schools, destroyed. lousing deastation has been particularly seere, nearly 80 o all homes
were destroyed or damaged.

As people returned home, tensions and outbreaks o iolence hae increased in returnee communities. Returnees rom
\est 1imor include pro-integrationist adults and adolescents-a sub-set o whom had participated in militia-promoted
iolence. 1hus there was an urgent need to address the immediate care and protection needs o children, amilies, and
youth and to promote tolerance, restraint, and reconciliation eorts in returnee communities.
5

A child`s well-being and healthy deelopment require strong and responsie social support systems,
rom the amily to the societal leels. lor example, the illness or death o a child`s caretaker denies the
child the many deelopmental beneits o parenting. Similarly, children who are drien into armed
banditry and crime by circumstances o extreme poerty may contribute to political or ethnic turmoil
in the wider society. In contexts where children's lies are already threatened by malnutrition and ill
health, the eruption o war prookes generational cycles o poerty, iolence, and insecurity.

1he social consequences o iolence can be ound at the community leel in terms o its relatie
cohesion or disintegration. Violence aects eery aspect o social lie, traditional community
structures are broken down, authority igures are weakened, cultural norms and coping mechanisms
are disintegrated, relationships and networks, which traditionally proide support during crises, are
destroyed. As a result, traditional coping mechanisms may disappear. As iolence increases, distrust
and isolation out o ear may become the norm, making children more ulnerable to psychosocial
harm. Psychosocial interentions may operate at the dual leels o ocusing on indiidual health as
well as community reconciliation and peace-building. In act, breaking the cycle o iolence is one
undamental aim o such projects.
In emergency situations, the rights o children are continually iolated, ignored, and unulilled. 1he
objecties o psychosocial interentions, whether in the context o a stand-alone project speciically
aimed at improing the psychosocial well-being o children, or in the context o more traditional

5
Child Protection and Psychosocial Programs Consortium, Care and Protection of Children, Youth and Families in
East Timor. Proposal submitted to the U.S. State Department, Bureau of Population, Refugees and Migration (2000).

5
health, education or other deelopment project, should it within a human rights ramework as
deined by the United Nations ,UN, Conention on the Rights o the Child.

lield experience has shown that it is desirable to take a holistic approach to humanitarian eorts such
that the psychological and social deelopment and needs o children are an integrated part o
programming rom the outset o an emergency situation. As described in Inset 3, the context o
emerency programming is complex and multi-layered. 1he concept o psychosocial recoery is an
attempt to describe a process o coming to terms with the wide range o emotionally traumatic eents,
losses, isolation, destruction o social norms and codes o behaior most children will ace in
emergency situations. Lach indiidual child goes through this process in his or her own unique way
depending on multiple actors, including the nature o the child`s amily enironment, peer
relationships, age, experiences and amily and peer group reactions. It is the position here that
addressing these actors as part o a relie project enhances the oerall eectieness o the project and
also promotes the psychosocial recoery process. lor example, the identiication o women-headed
households and their registration or ood rations can preent women haing to render sexual serices
to be able to eed their children. Consultations with women and children on their special needs or
saety can inluence the placing o water supplies, lighting in the camps, locks or doors, and many
other issues.

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1he prolonged repression and terror, coupled with the recent outburst o iolence and loss, hae had proound eects
on the Last 1imorese population, particularly children and adolescents. 1he damaging consequences are dierse and are
both social and psychological. Socially prominent are changes in attitudes and belies, including entrenched hatred or
the other` and loss o trust. Psychologically, many children hae experienced multiple losses, ear, hopelessness, and a
diminished sense o sel-worth and competence. Lidence rom situation analyses indicates that signiicant numbers o
children were experiencing problems such as nightmares, concentration loss, and social isolation. 1he oerall impact is
disruption o normal deelopment.

1o rebuild education and to enable healthy deelopment, it is ital to promote healing, social integration, and recoery.
An essential irst step is to proide structured actiities that normalize lie, aid emotional and social integration, and
reduce the current idleness o many children and youth. Properly designed, these actiities enable the recoery o most
children, although a small number o seerely traumatized children will need special assistance. 1he actiities take place
in sae spaces where parents can participate, support each other, and engage in planning around meeting children`s
needs. Conducted communally, these actiities can help to rebuild the social trust, protection, and tolerance that had
been badly damaged by the recent eents. In addition, structured actiities can proide positie engagement o youth
who hae lied through disturbing and conusing eents, seen amilies and communities torn apart by suspicion and
iolence, and missed important educational opportunities. \outh are signiicant actors who can contribute either to
peace or to continued iolence. Structured actiities promote youth leadership and engage them in proiding assistance
to younger children.
6

Since complex emergencies hae multiple eects on children and communities, it is useul to draw
rom psychological and social theories that hae linked the deelopment o children to the wider
social circles that surround them-their amily, community, and culture. An understanding o the
psychosocial deelopment o children, and interentions that are designed to support this
deelopment, is intertwined with broader concepts o child deelopment. \e turn to these concepts
next.

6
Ibid.

6
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Children`s deelopment is inextricably connected to the social and cultural inluences that surround
them, particularly the amilies and communities that are children`s lie-support systems.` In all
societies, amilies try to protect and meet the basic needs o children. Beyond the amily, children`s
deelopment is inluenced by interaction with peers, teachers, community members, and, increasingly
throughout the world, by mass media. 1hrough social interaction, children acquire gender and ethnic
identities and internalize culturally constructed norms, alues, and belies, including modes o
expressing emotion and acceptable social behaior. Children usually participate in ormal or non-
ormal education and other social institutions, and learn to become unctional members o their
societies. Children`s deelopment must be considered holistically in order to include this process o
social integration and o becoming connected within their wider social world.

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A social and cultural approach to child deelopment emphasizes the importance o the wider social context that
surrounds us all. 1hese social or ecological` approaches ocus not on the indiidual child but rather on the child
interacting with the nested social systems o amily ,including clan and kinship group, and wider society ,including
community institutions, and potentially, religious and ethnic networks,. A child`s well-being and healthy deelopment
require strong and responsie social support systems, rom the amily to the societal leels.
1his has been represented

graphically in Diagram 1.

7
Adapted from Bronfenbrenner, as cited in: Donahue-Colletta, Understanding Cross-Cultural Child Development and
Designing Programs For Children (PACT, 1992).

7

B. Psychosocial Development Defined

Most broadly, psychosocial deelopment o children is deined as the gradual psychological and social
changes that children make as they mature. Psychosocial deelopment consists o the .,cbotogicat
aspects o human deelopment - the capacity to perceie, analyze and learn rom experiences,
understand onesel and others, and experience emotion and .ociat aeretovevt - the ability to orm
attachments, especially to caregiers and peers, maintain satisying reciprocal social relationships, and
to learn and ollow the social codes o behaior o one`s own culture.

1he term psychosocial` implies a ery close relationship between psychological and social actors. \hen
applied to child deelopment, the term underlines the cto.e, ovgoivg covvectiov. between a child`s eelings,
thoughts, perceptions and understanding, and the deelopment o that child as a .ociat being in interaction
with his or her social enironment. Put slightly dierently, psychosocial deelopment is inluenced
throughout childhood by the dynamic interplay o the child`s personality, genetic make-up, and
enironmental actors.

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1he child`s deeloping understanding o the world is shaped by his or her own indiidual experience, as well as by
experience that is shaped and interpreted ,or mediated`, by the amily and broader social and community institutions.
\hen interacting with the world, much o what one learns as a child is not simply trial and error.` Parents, uncles,
grandmothers, siblings, riends, neighbors, school, church, mosque, or temple all likely play a part in making sense` o
the world -oering rules, ideas, explanations, and principles to guide behaior. In this sense the process o growing
up` is ery much a social process because we assimilate the understandings shared and interpreted to us by these aried
inluential igures and institutions. 1he role o the social world in indiidual deelopment can also be represented
graphically, as portrayed in Diagram 2 ,below,.
Child
Risk
Factors
Social
Emotional
Development
Cognitive & Language
Development
Physical
Development
Protective
Factors
Culture/Society
Family
Community

Diagram 1. Social Ecology of the Child


8

Diagram 2. The Social World in Individual Development
O

8
Alistair Ager, Children, war, and psychological intervention. In Psychology and the Developing World edited by
S. Carr and J. Schumaker (New York: Praeger, 1996).

The Experienced World
!"#"$%&'()
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Socially
Mediated
Experience
Family
Mediated
Experience
Direct
Personal
Experience Action
Within
the World

9
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\hile we seek what is common to human deelopment across cultures so that we might better design
projects, we also recognize that cultures dier. 1he ariation among cultures is ound in the orm,
timing, content, and meaning o social actions and behaiors. As discussed aboe, a child`s
deelopment as a social being aries according to the belies, practices, and alues embedded in a
child`s culture. Primary agents o socialization, such as the amily,` ary in deinition across cultures.
lor example, in one cultural system, amily` may mean only the immediate or nuclear amily, while
in a dierent culture, it may mean the clan or extended amily. Likewise, in some cultures the role o
peer groups can be as important as the amily or socialization. In secularized, \estern contexts,
spiritual deelopment is peripheral and ariable, but in some other cultures, spiritual deelopment
constitutes the core o indiidual and group lie.

1o design culturally appropriate interentions, one must understand and truly respect releant belies
and practices in a gien local setting. 1his is no easy task since donors and sta in leadership positions
are oten not members o the culture in which assistance is proided. O necessity, outsiders must
start rom what they know, that is, their own cultural assumptions and practices. loweer, it is
important to realize that these assumptions and practices may not apply to other cultures. A alue or
belie rom one culture-or example, the importance o building a strong sense o indiiduality-
should not be imposed on another culture as truth. Rather, it should be a basis or discussion and
seeking cross-cultural understanding. lurther, in emergencies, chaos, suering, and time pressures all
act against learning about local belies and practices. 1his tension has oten resulted in the iew that
culture and local communities are problems to be soled or obstacles to project deelopment and
implementation. Such attitudes encourage the marginalization o local people.

Ineitably, when designing psychosocial projects cross-culturally, a mixture o opportunities and
potential problems arise. I the setting is iewed as an occasion or mutual learning and using the
insights rom dierent cultures, there will likely be a rich exchange, a sense o partnership, and joint
construction o comprehensie assistance to children. On the other hand, when humanitarian
agencies disregard or minimize local belies and practices, important and inormatie opportunities or
intercultural exchange and enrichment are lost and the likelihood o imposing culturally discordant
programming is signiicantly increased. An important guiding principle is that, within each culture are
aluable insights toward proiding comprehensie assistance to its children.

1he participation o the people, including children, in the planning, implementing, monitoring, and
ealuation o the actiities that make up a psychosocial project is essential to generate ownership-o
both problems and successes-and to ensure cultural appropriateness and sustainability. Aboe all,
empowering people to take their lies into their own hands and to deelop conidence and the will to
do so is central to oercoming the deep pain and humiliation o traumatic experiences. 1his means
that time must be taken to ensure real participation. 1he participatory process o deeloping
psychosocial projects itsel can hae a proound eect on the well-being o the participants. A
participatory process will always reeal that in eery community there are local people who hae a
special interest in and an understanding o children`s needs and experiences.


10
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Resilient children are those who hae endured and lourished despite extremely challenging and
stressul amily and social circumstances including, or example, emotionally incapacitated parents and
extreme poerty.

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9

Strong attachment to caring adults and,or peer groups
Lncouraging role models
Socially competent at interacting with adults and children
Independent and requests help when necessary
Curious and explores the enironment
Plays actiely
Adapts to change
Likely to think beore acting
Conident he or she can control some parts o his or her lie
Inoled in hobbies, actiities, and has multiple talents

As discussed preiously, children`s responses to extreme eents ary as a unction o indiidual
characteristics and enironmental actors. Children`s deelopment and resiliency will proceed as a
result o the interplay between their needs and capacities, and the risk and protectie actors within
their enironment. Resiliency can be enhanced by age-appropriate interentions that promote some o
the characteristics outlined in Inset . 1his interplay will always relect and be shaped by the culture
and local circumstances. As discussed aboe, some elements o psychosocial deelopment are speciic
to a particular culture, meaning that there is not a one size its all` approach to psychosocial
programming. A key challenge acing project designers is how cultural actors minimize or increase
risk, and promote or impede resiliency.

loweer, child deelopment theory and research does point to a set o concepts that are useul
building blocks or psychosocial projects regardless o where they are established. 1hese include
understanding what makes children resilient and the role that protectie actors play throughout
deelopment. Identiying the ways these concepts are expressed within a particular culture should
guide psychosocial project deelopment and implementation. 1hrough the study o children who
hae grown up under diicult circumstances, we hae learned that some hae certain characteristics
and social supports that hae enabled them to oercome adersity. Similarly, eatures o the social
world hae been identiied that buer the consequences o negatie experiences on children. 1hese
eatures are oten reerred to as protectie actors.
10

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las a close, nurturing connection to primary caregier who proides consistent and competent care
las connections to competent caring members o one`s own cultural group outside o the extended amily
Participates in amiliar cultural practices and routines
las access to community resources, including eectie educational and economic opportunities
las connections to aith and religious groups

9
Adapted from Donahue-Colletta, Understanding Cross-Cultural Child Development and Designing Programs For
Children, (PACT, 1992).
10
Ibid.

11
1he concept o resiliency is extremely powerul or at least two reasons. lirst, it directs our attention to
the act that all children hae assets and strengths. \e are challenged to ully appreciate the depth o
these assets and to design interentions that tap into, build on, and urther augment them. Second, the
concept o resiliency proides us with a hopeul perspectie rom which to work with children and
youth. Many times we are so ocused on the problems, deicits, and trauma that people hae endured
that it oershadows the act that children, amilies, and communities hae strengths and competencies.
Ater all, being ree` o problems` is not the same as being capable and healthy.

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\hat has been learned about resiliency and protectie actors that might be o alue in working with children and
amilies in complex emergencies 1he ollowing are nine lessons learned.
11

Provotivg healthy deelopment and competence, vot ;v.t treativg robtev., is an important strategy or protecting
child deelopment and preenting psychosocial problems rom appearing in the irst place.
1here are potential risks, ulnerabilities, assets, and protectie actors in att people, amilies, communities, and
societies.
1he greate.t tbreat. to human deelopment are those that damage or compromise key resources and protectie
systems. 1he corollary is also true: f /e, re.ovrce. ava rotectire .,.tev. are re.errea or re.torea, cbitarev are caabte of
revar/abte re.itievce.
Resilience is typically made o ordinary processes and not extraordinary magic`-it i. a reacbabte goat.
Children who make it through adersity or recoer will bare vore human and social capital in the uture, that is
they will be in a better position to address uture problems. loweer, vo cbita i. ivrvtverabte. As risk and threat
leels rise, the relatie proportion o resilience among children will all. 1here are conditions under which no
child can thrie.
.avtt bebarior ta,. a cevtrat rote in the deelopment o all protectie systems or children.
As children grow up, they become more able to inluence their own leel o risk and degree o resiliency.
Assessments o children need to include covetevce, a..et., .trevgtb., ava rotectire factor. along with symptoms,
problems, risks, deiciencies, and ulnerabilities.
Interentions can ocus on aecrea.ivg an indiidual`s exposure to risk or adersity, ivcrea.ivg the indiidual`s
internal resources, and vobitiivg protectie processes in the social world that surrounds indiiduals.

In addition to some indiiduals exhibiting resilient qualities, communities can also be resilient. By
addressing community resilience, a more holistic approach is promoted and local resources are alued.
Inset 10 points out characteristics o resilient communities.

11
A. Masten, Resilience in Children Exposed to Severe Adversity: Models for Research and Action. Paper
presented at Children in Adversity Consultation, Oxford, 2000.

12
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12

1here is a strong sense o community characterized by open relationships between people and good
communication.
Leadership is shared, or leaders genuinely represent the people and both men and women are able to exercise
leadership unctions.
Supportie structures exist such as schools and pre-schools, health serices, community groups, and religious
organizations.
1here is a commitment to community deelopment. Community members take responsibility and action to
enhance community lie.
Problems such as the eects o conlict and displacement are widely acknowledged and shared rather than
indiidual problems, psychological understandings are diused broadly in the community, and there is a
commitment to deeloping collectie responses.
People see themseles as resourceul, and their communities as haing potential to meet the needs o their
people in a culturally appropriate manner, relying on external resources only when necessary.

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I there is a powerul connection between the social world and indiidual deelopment, what happens
to children when their social world is disrupted By deinition, complex emergencies are high-risk
enironments, but certain eatures are especially important because o their potential impact on the
psychosocial deelopment o children.

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leatures o the social enironment that may place children in iolent circumstances at particular risk.
Lack o adequate ood, shelter, and medical care
Injury or death o a amily member
Separation rom caregiers
Injury to sel
Degree o persecution and exposure to iolence
lorced displacement rom home
Separation rom riends and community
Inadequate substitute care
Lack o economic security
Denial o educational opportunities
Lxploitation, physical or sexual abuse

1he cumulatie aect o these risk actors is to disrupt normal patterns o liing and traditional practices that proide a
powerul sense o continuity and meaning to daily lie.
13

Research and anecdotal eidence suggest that children all oer the world maniest emotional distress
ater exposure to oerwhelming, lie-threatening eents through some orm o behaioral change,
deelopmental delay or disturbance, or, at times, dramatic symptoms.` Reactions to extreme
emergencies ary because indiiduals draw on their own internal resources ,resiliencies,, as well as
resources in the enironment ,protectie actors,. Children exhibit a wide range o reactions to
iolence. Children`s reactions to traumatic eents depend on a range o risk and protectie actors, in
the child`s amily, community, and culture. A child`s reaction also depends on the depth and strength

12
D. Tolfree, Restoring Playfulness: Different approaches to assisting children who are psychologically affected by
war or displacemen (Stockholm: Radda Barnen, 1996), 87.
13
Adapted from Donahue-Colletta (1992) op cit.

13
o his or her own experiences and ability to cope with them. It is diicult thereore to state how any
single child will respond oer the short-term or long-term to complex emergencies. \hile on the one
hand we need to be sensitie to the unique reactions o each child, amily, and community, we also
want to help build insights into what are children`s likely reactions to iolence.

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Based on experience, the ollowing are examples o reactions children may typically hae to iolence.
14

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lear
Clinging to parents
Mistrust and suspicion
Nightmares and night terrors
Physical complaints
Regression to deelopmentally younger orms o behaior
Sadness or depression
Restlessness, deiance, disobedience
Aggression
Disturbed relations with adults and peers

=<%0:-#2 +$ 374-."#*U2 S+*/#"\9#"0 D#%&14+*2 1+ T4+-#*&#
Preoccupation with traumatic memories
Nightmares related to the trauma and disturbances in sleep
Re-enacting trauma in play behaior
1rouble concentrating
Lack o interest in actiities
Showing o ew emotions
\ithdrawal rom others, social isolation
Constant alertness to possible danger
Guilt about suriing
Poorly deeloped moral sense o right and wrong
Loss o optimistic iewpoint toward lie

1he actual orm o expression o reactions to iolence again relates to cultural norms and belies, as
well as to the age and maturity o a child. A useul approach to these distress signals` is to
understand them as a language` whereby the child is struggling to communicate eelings and
experiences or which she or he has no adequate words, or which are connected with extreme shame
and ear and, hence, are unspeakable.` 1he challenge or those trying to support children is to
interpret` and understand this language` or behaioral expression o eelings - keeping the ocus
on establishing communication and ostering the child`s own understanding o what he or she is
experiencing. Caution needs to be taken in treating characteristic reactions as i they were all
symptoms o seere mental illness instead o normal reactions to extraordinarily negatie eents,
howeer, the potential or children to hae major mental health needs should not be ignored.

14
Donahue-Colletta (1992) op cit.

14
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Much o the irst generation o psychosocial projects assisting children in crisis situations ocused on
stress, trauma, and emotional deelopment. Although potentially useul, this emphasis ultimately proed
too narrow. As recognized in the May 199 UNICLl workshop in Nairobi, psychosocial projects
should aect emotions, behaior, thoughts, memory, learning ability, perceptions, and understanding.`
Lmotional deelopment is important, but it occurs in a wider context in interaction with cognitie,
social, and spiritual deelopment. lurther, disproportionate emphasis on emotional deelopment has
oten contributed to the adoption o indiidualized approaches that ail to take into account the
powerul role o the social and cultural context o children`s deelopment. 1he use o the trauma
paradigm` to express and assess the degree o human suering caused by complex emergencies may be
limited in its ability to capture the diersity and magnitude o the eects o gross human rights
iolations.

A ocus on trauma is usually discussed in terms o post-traumatic stress reactions ,sometimes reerred
to as P1SS or P1SD-Post 1raumatic Stress Syndrome or Disorder,. 1his is deined as a delayed or
protracted response to an exceptionally stressul eent. Key symptoms include, intrusie lashbacks o
the stress eent, iid memories and dreams, and the re-experience o the original distress when the
person is exposed to similar situations.
15
Although important in some contexts, it is generally not an
eectie point o departure or psychosocial programming in situations where multiple on-going
traumatic eents are inluencing psychosocial well-being. lor example, such an approach may not take
into account concurrent distress caused by multiple losses such as loss o community, loss o
educational opportunities, uncertainty, poerty, and destruction o hope. In an emergency situation,
lie threatening or traumatic eents may change a child`s lie pathway dramatically, and this change
may hae more damaging consequences or the indiidual`s well-being than the traumatic eent itsel.
lor example, a study by Basoglu et al. ,1994,
16
looked at 1urkish actiists with a history o torture and
ound that the secondary consequences on amily, social, and economic lie were more important
predictors o outcome than the torture per se. Also, a study on Iraqi asylum-seekers in London
showed that poor social support had a closer relationship to depression than did a history o torture.
1

Additionally, a trauma orientation potentially leads to a ocus on an indiidual`s problematic reactions,
and directs attention away rom the person`s strengths, resources and the current context o his or her
lie, an essential perspectie in achieing the broader goal o enhancing psychosocial well-being. 1oo
oten such a ocus obscures sources o resilience and coping, traditional belies that color
interpretations o one`s war experiences, and local resources or healing and proiding assistance to
children. As such, taken out o context, a \estern` approach can be potentially damaging.

15
As defined by WHO in: John Orley, Health Activities Across Traumatized Populations: WHOs Role Regarding
Traumatic Stress. In International Responses to Traumatic Stress, edited by Yael Danieli, Nigel S. Rodley, and Lars
Weisaeth (Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing Company,1996), 388.
16
M. Basoglu,, M. Parker, E. Ozmen, O. Tasdemir, and D. Sahin, Factors related to long-term traumatic stress in
survivors of torture in Turkey, Journal of the American Medical Association 272 (1994): 357-63.
17
C. Gorst-Unsworth and E. Goldenberg, Psychological sequelae of torture and organized violence suffered by
refugees from Iraq; Trauma-related factors compared to social factors in exile, British Journal of Psychiatry 172
(1998): 90-4.

15
\hile recognizing that there is a dearth o research on the relationship between experienced trauma
and mental illness, especially or children, caution should be used when using a \estern trauma
paradigm` that potentially leads to an indiidualized approach. Such an approach can be stigmatizing.
1here may be a role or more intensie` interentions or those most aected, howeer, they should
be culturally appropriate and based on indiidual`s strengths and resources. Perhaps the most eident
drawback o an indiidual approach is that the model may not explore the most pernicious and long-
lasting eects o bitter ciil wars-the destruction o relationships between and among people o the
kind necessary to sustain surial, meaning, alues, and hope.

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Complex emergencies disrupt both indiidual and community unctioning in that the weakening o
either will likely hae a negatie impact on the other. At the community leel, psychosocial eects o
complex emergencies are oten seen when neighbors no longer trust each other, no longer relate to
one another, and in some instances are hostile to each other. 1he breakdown o cohesion can be
ound in the disruption o normal patterns o liing and traditional practices that proide a sense o
continuity and meaning. 1he rupture o trust and riendship has serious generational consequences
or the unctioning o community lie and the iability o societies as a whole. It is with these
combined eects that children and their amilies struggle to cope.

It is thus ital to connect work on psychosocial healing with eorts to build tolerance and
reconciliation. Psychosocial projects with a \estern model o mental health oten strongly encourage
emotional expression as a means o aiding emotional healing. But in an ethnically diided context,
such emotional expression and enting typically occurs among members o one's own group. In such
circumstances there is risk that expressions o suering can be a way to inappropriately alorize
suering. \hen traumatic memories become badges o honor, they can sere as warrants or reenge
that can contribute to ongoing cycles o iolence and belies that iolence is justiied. In Kosoa, or
example, the strengthening o one`s cultural identity can become a justiication or mistreating the
other groups. Groups that eel assaulted on cultural grounds, whether Albanian or Serbian, hae a
powerul need to adance, express, and reclaim their own culture. 1o preent additional iolence,
howeer, this reclamation must be integrated with wider eorts o building tolerance and peace.
1hese experiences underscore the act that healing must be social as well as indiidual, and it needs to
occur across the lines o conlict. In a war zone, healing cannot be approached eectiely as a singular
endeaor, it must be holistic and include actiities that build tolerance and reconciliation.


16

37%:1#" V*# L600%">

1here is a need to broaden the deinition o psychosocial to recognize the holistic, integrated
nature o child deelopment and to situate it within an ecological perspectie.

At its core, psychosocial programming is about emotional healing, social reconciliation, and
community building. 1o do this, eorts must moe beyond indiidual well-being and seek to
oster community rebuilding and reconciliation.

A positie deelopmental enironment is one that consistently proides children with
opportunities and challenges to deelop as competent social beings. Many actors such as
adequate nutrition, good health, and reedom rom disability will play a role in the rate and quality
o a child`s psychosocial deelopment and well-being.

\hen designing psychosocial projects, the participation o communities is important so that
protectie actors and resiliencies may be recognized and harnessed in culturally appropriate and
sustainable ways. 1he capacity to respond in an integrated way to the ull range o children`s and
community`s needs is a continuing challenge to practitioners, especially under emergency
conditions.


17
Chapter Two

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covctvae. ritb a brief ovttive of va;or ro;ect area. ava tbeir ivortavce for rovotivg tbe .,cbo.ociat rettbeivg of
cbitarev, favitie., ava covvvvitie..

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Child-ocused psychosocial projects are those that promote the psychological and social well-being
and deelopment o children. 1he orientation here is that child deelopment is promoted most
eectiely in the context o the amily, community, and culture. At its most undamental leel,
psychosocial programming consists o actiities designed to adance children's psychological and
social deelopment, to strengthen protectie and preentie actors that can limit the negatie
consequences o complex emergencies, and to promote peace-building processes and reduce tensions
between groups. Inset 13 identiies undamental goals o psychosocial programming.

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Secure attachments with caregiers
Meaningul peer relationships, riendships, and social ties, social competence
A sense o belonging
A sense o sel-worth and alue, sel-esteem and well-being
1rust in others
Access to opportunities or cognitie and spiritual deelopment
Physical and economic security
lope, optimism, and belie in the uture

Many dierent types o projects may be implemented to support these undamental goals. 1he
diersity is illustrated by the ollowing sample interentions:

1racing and reuniication o unaccompanied children with their amilies
lood aid and distribution projects
Projects to address the psychosocial eects o armed conlict
Projects or the social reintegration o ormer child soldiers
Violence preention and peace education projects
Larly stimulation projects or inants
Larly child deelopment projects
lealth projects or children and parents
Positie parenting projects
Vocational training projects or adolescents and adult caregiers
Lducational and cultural projects
Awareness training on children`s needs and rights
Adocacy or greater protection and implementation o children`s rights

18
1he promotion o psychosocial well-being may be accomplished through a ariety o approaches. It
may be the main ocus o a discrete or stand-alone project, or it can be integrated with other projects,
such as ood security, health, or shelter. As stated in Chapter One, the alue o integrating
psychosocial dimensions into other emergency interentions should not be underestimated. lor
example, a child health project will hae limited success i caregiers are oerwhelmed and unable to
make eectie decisions about amily health management. A holistic approach, which addresses
immediate health concerns while acknowledging the importance o the amily system, is more likely to
result in desired project impact because it addresses caregiers` needs as well.

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1o better understand the host o project strategies that can be designed, it is useul to organize them
along three dimensions, according to the ovtatiov beivg targetea, tbe covtevt of tbe ro;ect itsel, and the
ro;ect aroacb being implemented. 1hese three dimensions are described below.

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Children and amilies who are part o the same community and hae endured the same sequence o
eents will neertheless hae dierent experiences and responses. \e distinguish between three
groups, according to the degree o risk:

1. ereret, .ffectea Crov
1he psychological and social unctioning o some children and adults may be seerely compromised.
\hile generally a small percentage o the oerall population
18
,represented in the diagram below as
10,, this group requires intensie psychological attention because they are unable to manage on their
own. Children orced to iew and,or commit iolent acts, such as child soldiers, are likely to all into
this group. More time-intensie, indiidualized approaches are likely to be the most appropriate
responses, where social and cultural resources permit. Len i bolstered by project support, most
community-based attempts are inadequate to rebuild psychological unctioning unless coupled with an
eectie identiication and reerral system or more indiidualized support. 1his group is in need o
one-on-one attention in order to address the more seere traumatic and,or depression disorders, or
example. lor the small percentage o children who require special assistance, one-on-one attention
can be proided in the orm o traditional rituals or other local cultural practices, and should not be
limited to \estern-deried responses such as psychological counseling. 1here is little research
aailable on how to best address these more seere needs in emergencies, and, because o the high
cost per beneiciary required to address the needs o this proportionally smaller group, most
international relie organizations must by necessity ocus on reaching larger numbers o children
aected-the at-risk and more generally aected groups-through community-based interentions.

2. .tRi./ Crov
A second segment o the community ,represented at 20 in the diagram below, consists o those
who hae experienced seere losses and disruption, are signiicantly distressed, and may be
experiencing despair and hopelessness, but whose social and psychological capacity to unction has
not yet been oerwhelmed. Children and adults in this category may be suering rom acute stress
disorder ,the most extreme, or exaggerated normal reaction to iolence and trauma,. 1hey may hae
lost amily members in the iolence, they may hae witnessed deaths, or they may be ictims o
iolence. 1his group is at particular risk or psychological and social deterioration i their

18
E. Cairns, Children and Political Violence (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996).

19
psychological, social, cognitie, and deelopment needs are not addressed through timely community
and social support mechanisms.

. Ceveratt, .ffectea Crov
1he third and broadest segment o the population consists o indiiduals who may not hae been
directly aected by crisis eents and whose amilies may be largely intact. Children and adults in this
group may be suering rom physical and mental exhaustion, or example, but are not experiencing
the leel o distress elt by those in the seerely aected or at-risk groups. It is estimated that the
physiological arousal that represents normal surial and stress responses to iolence and,or trauma
will abate oer time or 60 to 80 o this group without direct interention. Community-based
interentions that include not only normalization actiities but also theme- and body-based actiities
can presere and augment positie coping strategies among this population in a shorter time-rame
and contribute eectiely and more immediately to children`s and youths` social, cognitie, and
emotional deelopment.

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0%
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100%
Children & adolescents affected by conflict
10% Severely Affected
20% At-Risk Group
70% Generally Affected

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Since children and adults experience and react to complex emergencies in unique ways, the types o
projects designed to address their needs will also dier. Projects range and include those that are
cvratire, rerevtire, and those that rovote psychosocial well-being. Curatie projects address the
diagnosed

psychological eects o complex emergencies on children and amilies, such as treatment o
trauma. Preentie projects seek to preent urther psychosocial deterioration and may ocus on a
particular group or social enironment. An example includes protecting women and children rom
physical assault in a reugee camp by integrating their saety concerns into camp management and
acilitating the organization o a women`s support group.


20
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One o the most basic psychosocial interentions is to support and oster the connection that exists between the well-
being o caregiers and that o their children. 1oward this end, in a guide to establishing projects or unaccompanied
children, \illiamson and Moser ,1988, suggested the ollowing interentions:
19

I parents or primary caregiers are not aailable, secure a caretaker who will hae ongoing responsibility or
the child. 1his indiidual needs to be able to proide emotional warmth, stability, and consistent care
Use a consistent daily schedule to begin to reestablish a sense o order and security.
Return the child to amiliar actiities: play, school, participation in household chores.
Make sure children know what changes will happen in their daily lies and what is planned or them. A child as
young as two years old needs to know that he or she will be moed, cared or by a new person, or returned to
his or her amily.

Lastly, projects may seek to rovote healthy psychosocial deelopment through, or example,
opportunities to engage in educational, social, and spiritual actiities that support the deelopment o
children.

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1he eects o the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the continued insurgent attacks hae let deep social scars among the
Rwandan population. According to a USCR report, 1he existence o ethnic grieances and the sense o mutual
ictimization keep Rwandan society on edge, een in regions that are largely ree o iolence. Although lutu and 1utsi
lie among each other again, a huge gap exists in their perceptions. Physical reintegration has occurred ar more readily
than psychological integration.` One international NGO attempted to address the issue o basic trust in its projects
targeting ulnerable children and their amilies by encouraging the creation o community associations to unction as
community resources. In addition to the associations` work with children, the positie impact that associations had on
the quality o lie or caretakers was substantial. 1he timeliness o the project illed an emotional, social and moral need
at a time when most international aid was being directed towards material assistance. By bringing indiiduals together,
hope was restored through group solidarity. As one participant stated, lollowing the war, we did not hae a peaceul
heart. By working as a group, we were able to proide each other moral support at a time where we were all aected by
the war.`
20

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1here are dierent approaches to psychosocial programming, depending on the population being
targeted and the project to be implemented. It is possible to identiy three major groupings:

1. P.,cbotogicat: Some projects ocus more on psychological actors than on social actors. lor
example, some projects may proide indiidual counseling to children who hae had traumatic
experiences or proide training to key community members to identiy, reer, or counsel children.
1hese projects will most likely target children and caregiers who hae been most seerely impacted
by crisis eents and require a higher leel o indiidualized attention than community-based
interentions can proide.
2. Preaovivatet, P.,cbo.ociat: Some psychosocial projects are predominately or exclusiely psychosocial
in ocus. 1he project is sel-contained and not integrated into other projects with dierent oci ,e.g.,

19
Donahue-Colletta (1992) op. cit.
20
The US Committee for Refugees, Life After Death: Suspicion and Reintegration in Post Genocide Rwanda
(Washington DC: Immigration and Refugee Services of America, 1998).

21
health, ood security, shelter, that may co-exist and are co-located. Lxamples include stand-alone
recreation projects, art therapy, or arious community-based interentions that promote positie
cognitie, emotional, and educational deelopment and unctioning. Sta working in these
psychosocial projects may hae only minimal contact with sta working on other projects.
Predominately psychosocial projects are likely to target their actiities toward generally aected and
at-risk populations, and proide screening and reerral ,to indiidualized mental health serices or
counseling programs, or those more seerely aected by conlict or iolence.

. vtegratea,oti.tic: In some cases psychosocial interentions are integrated into a holistic and total
response to the needs o a community. In this case, the psychosocial` elements may not be as
isible. lor example, income generation or ocational training projects are not typically thought to be
psychosocial. \et, addressing the economic lielihood o amilies is undamental to psychosocial
health both in terms o reducing the daily stress o how a amily will eed itsel, and in terms o
proiding a pathway to stability and hope or the uture. Similarily, such an interention may hae an
educational component that supports cognitie deelopment and at the same time osters good peer
relationships and social skills. An income generation project or ocational training project may be a
conduit or improed sel-esteem and sel-worth and the establishment o peer riendships. 1he
position here is that projects that are based on such a holistic approach are to be preerred since they
maximize a mutually reinorcing eect when responding to dierent aspects o child deelopment
simultaneously. 1hese projects are most likely to ocus on those in the at-risk or generally aected
group.

1he design o psychosocial project interentions-including content, beneiciary reach, and
implementation-can draw on arious principles that hae been identiied, as in Inset 16.


22
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In their ealuation o a group o psychosocial projects unded by the Norwegian Ministry o loreign Aairs,
Agger and team recommended a number o principles or uture project design.
21
1hese include:

ocv. ov vvav Rigbt.: Policies that guide psychosocial projects should be anchored in the UN Uniersal
Declaration on luman Rights and the Conention on the Rights o the Child.

ocv. ov vtegratea .roacb: Projects should promote human rights, reconciliation, and psychosocial well-being
by being integrated into a comprehensie approach to address the range o people`s needs in complex
emergencies.

ocv. ov Re.ovrce. of eveficiarie.: Interentions should be carried out with the participation o members o the
aected community, recognizing the personal and proessional resources that exist. loweer, caution should
be used to ensure that some groups are not singled out or more or less assistance-which may stigmatize,
cause jealous reactions, or create new conlicts. Aoid pathologizing` indiiduals by ocusing on their
trauma and problems, and work with them rather as clients` or suriors o human rights iolations.

ocv. ov êea. of tbe !bote Covvvvit,: Interentions should be preentie while also proiding support to
those who hae been exposed to seere human rights iolations.

ocv. ov ererat eret. of P.,cbo.ociat vterrevtiov: 1here are a wide range o interentions that potentially eect
the psychological and social well-being o people, rom community deelopment to mutual support building,
to counseling. 1hese may be implemented at the same time, and their collectie purpose should include the
acilitation o peace-building processes, the reduction o tensions between groups, and the diminishing social
marginalization o human rights suriors.

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Psychosocial projects can proide actiities that oster social connection and reintegration, address
educational needs, build economic surial skills, teach lie skills and coping mechanisms, adocate
or justice, and address recoery rom traumatic experiences. In these projects, the emphasis is on
strengthening social enironments that nurture children's healthy deelopment as a whole through
close cooperation with the caretakers, peers, community members, and, ery importantly, the children
themseles. Children, particularly adolescents, are oten oerlooked as spokespersons or themseles.
It is useul to organize projects into six broad areas that encompass the dierse social and
psychological needs o children during and ater a crisis: 1he Primacy o lamily, Lducation, Lngaging
Actiities, Lconomic Security, Community Connections, and Reconciliation and Restoration o
Justice.

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As discussed in Chapter One, children`s well-being is inextricably interconnected with amily and
community. 1he most basic leel is that o amilies where there is a clear connection between the
well-being o children and that o their primary caregiers. I caregiers can maintain a strong
attachment to their children and hae access to the basic needs o shelter, ood, and medical care,

21
I. Agger, E. Jareg, A. Herzberg, J. Mimica, and C. Rebien, Evaluation of Norwegian Support to Psycho-Social
Projects in Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Caucasus (Norway: The Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1999).

23
then children will cope better with diicult enironments.
22
It is or this reason that amily tracing and
reuniication is a priority in emergency situations. As primary caretakers become oerwhelmed by the
demands o the emergency, their capacity to proide care and nurturance to their children decreases.
1hus, it is important to mobilize the resources o the community to proide consistent social support
to caretakers.

\hen children are separated rom their amily, interentions may be designed that build on protectie
actors to enhance the child`s internal resources as they cope with this separation. One common
response has been to create residential centers where unaccompanied children may lie, and which
may eole into orphanages oer time. Unortunately, these institutions are oten oerwhelmed and
lack suicient human or inancial resources. 1hey are, thereore, unable to proide an attentie,
stimulating, and nurturing enironment, which is so important in promoting healthy deelopment.
Practitioners hae pointed out that requently the long-term negatie consequence to a child is not the
experience o liing through an actual emergency, but rather the act that the child`s lie path has been
permanently thwarted when he,she is placed in inadequate institutional care.

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Children are best when they are an integral part o a amily unit. 1hereore, institutionalization is not a desirable
solution, een as a last resort. lollowing the Rwandan genocide, the creation o unaccompanied children centers was a
short-term response that was not intended to be a long-term solution. Many NGOs and international organizations
opened new unaccompanied children centers and orphanages without suicient attention to long-term planning and
coordination. In general the quality o childcare in these centers was inadequate. Children were commonly crammed
into oercrowded buildings and oten superised by inexperienced caretakers. Unortunately, the establishment o
centers also proided a lielihood to many people and could not be easily discontinued. According to UNICLl, between
December 1994 and March 1995, 2,324 new children were placed in institutions. 1he continued trend towards
institutionalizing children is in direct contradiction to goernment policy to close existing centers and integrate care into
the community and to the CRC.

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O particular psychosocial importance is the re-establishment or maintenance o ormal and non-
ormal education opportunities. School is a major source o intellectual and psychosocial
deelopment. Children not only expand their cognitie capacities, but they also learn about sharing,
ollowing rules, controlling impulses, and becoming social beings. School oers structure and
predictability, which contribute to a child`s eeling o saety and emotional security. Lstablishing
educational projects or children should take into account the act that many children may hae
diiculty concentrating and learning due to the psychological consequences o war experiences.
23

1hereore, curricula, as well as teaching methodologies, may need to be adjusted or created to suit the
special needs o children who hae oten witnessed and experienced extraordinarily negatie eents
and who may be physically wounded or grieing the loss o amily members.

1he beneits o educational projects can extend to the wider community. In addition to addressing
children`s deelopmental and psychosocial needs, educational actiities can be a orum or adolescents
and adult community members to come together in a ariety o ways to protect children and rebuild
their community. lor example, some community members may participate in training opportunities,

22
Y.A. Al-Eissa, The impact of the Gulf armed conflict on the health and behavior of Kuwaiti children, Social
Science and Medicine 41 (1995): 1033-1037.
23
J.D. Osofsky, The effects of exposure to violence on young children, American Psychologist 50 (1995): 782-788.

24
while others may mobilize local resources or construction or material support. Participation o
community members in educational programming can oster a sense o sel-eicacy and proide
opportunities or community support.

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Lconomic security contributes greatly to eelings o saety and well-being or both adults and
children. In addition to being a necessity or surial, being able to proide economically or the
amily increases a caregier`s sense o worth and in turn, positiely inluences the caregier`s ability to
support their own child`s deelopment. Adults who eel they are not instrumental or hae no control
oer lie eents become emotionally oerwhelmed and gradually less responsie to the needs o their
children.

Older children and adolescents oten want to make genuine contributions to their amilies. 1hey
recognize when caretakers ear or the amily`s economic surial, and oten are emotionally upset
about their own limitations in relieing this economic stress. Project strategies that enable older
children and adolescents to become actie and meaningul participants in addressing economic
ulnerabilities, support their healthy psychosocial deelopment, and promote a sense o sel-worth
and alue. Projects may prioritize amilies that may be particularly ulnerable to economic stresses,
including households headed by single-mothers or by children and adolescents.

?C =*/%/4*/ (&14@414#2

Play is the ror/ o childhood and is a cornerstone o healthy psychosocial deelopment. Play is an
actie learning method that proides manipulation and acilitates mastery, sel-worth, and the
deelopment o basic competencies - including social competencies. Children are curious, and play
proides a sae way to explore and learn about the enironment. Indiidual and cooperatie play
acilitates neurological growth, osters the deelopment o physical strength and coordination,
proides relaxation, encourages planning, acilitates processing symbols, allows practice o lie skills,
unites body, mind, and spirit, and allows a child to learn about learning.
24

1raditional games, dances, songs, and stories proide a sense o stability during crises, and also help to
strengthen youths` sense o cultural identity. lorced displacement may scatter communities and make
it diicult or children to learn songs, proerbs, dances, and art orms that link generations and
proide continuity. Participation in these types o group actiities can rebuild a sense o solidarity and
community, while also enabling pro-social behaiors such as cooperation, communication, and skills
in settling conlict non-iolently. It is important to note that during times o conlict, actiities that
promote cultural identity may play into political tensions. Project planners should build in ways to
address these issues and seek ways to oster tolerance and reconciliation among groups.

=C 3+006*41> %*. 36-16"%- 3+**#&14+*2

lriendships with peers and relationships with adults outside o the amily play a ital part in social and
emotional deelopment throughout childhood. 1he ability to orm social relationships and to
maintain ongoing contact and support o close riends are central to resiliency in children and youth.
Conersely, children and adolescents who are isolated or marginalized, especially through rejection

24
D. Mann, Serious play, Teachers College Record 97 (1996): 446-467.

25
and stigmatization, are at risk o deeloping psychosocial problems that tend to push them een
urther into isolation.

I one`s cultural group has been assaulted, oppressed, or made to eel inerior, the reassertion o
cultural alues and identity is part o the healing process and essential or the deelopment o positie
sel-esteem. Since, increasingly, youth are actors who can contribute positiely or negatiely to make
or break a peace accord, it is ital to engage them in actiities that strengthen their cultural identity in
ways that are positie and supportie o eorts toward building tolerance, peace, and reconciliation.

Recognizing the centrality o culture is key in deeloping culturally grounded and sustainable
interentions that are in tune with local socialization practices. 1o deelop meaningul, sustainable
projects, international organizations must seek ways o recognizing and ully integrating releant
cultural belies, alues, and practices. Local communities contain a wealth o indigenous psychosocial
resources that embody local culture. Communities hae constructed these cultural resources oer
centuries in response not only to daily challenges such as parenting, but also to the exceptional
challenges posed by wars, and the cyclical challenges o amines, droughts, and other natural disasters.
1hese cultural resources may include traditional patterns o child rearing, rites o mourning, rituals or
healing, norms o caring or children in extended amilies and by community members outside o the
extended amily, and cleansing or orgieness` ceremonies or soldiers returning to society, among
many others. luman resources, too, are o great importance. Lery community contains people who
care about children, know the local culture and situation, and hae a culturally grounded
understanding o children`s needs and experiences. Lectie psychosocial programming should
identiy and support appropriate local leaders, resources, and traditions, which disasters and wars
requently disrupt. Signiicant psychosocial beneits may occur through the strengthening o
traditions, which proide social support, a sense o continuity, and positie social identiy.
25

At the same time, all cultures, communities, and local resources should be iewed critically. lor
example, local communities may hae established patterns o hierarchy that tend to become more
pronounced during crisis. As occurred in the atermath o the 1994 Rwandan genocide, particular
groups in a reugee camp may distribute aid resources unequally and use aid to augment their own
power. In many communities, women and children ordinarily hae less access to resources, and their
access may decrease during crises. Lectie psychosocial work requires respect or local cultures and
communities tempered by ethical sensitiity, and a programmatic commitment to the principles o the
Conention on the Rights o the Child.

QC D#&+*&4-4%14+* %*. D#21+"%14+* +$ h6214&#

lorgieness, i easible, is key in reconciliation processes and oten takes the orm o a cleansing
ceremony, which proides a child with a chance or a new beginning. \here indiidual and
community orgieness are not attainable, tolerance may be a more realistic goal. 1his may be
particularly releant or children who hae been engaged in particularly horriic eents, such as rape or
murder. Projects ocusing speciically on orgieness may acilitate reconciliation and peace among
warring parties. Adocacy addressing issues o justice are important to promote reconciliation and
peace. In addition to human rights iolations and war criminals, other issues such as land tenure and

25
See, for example: Mike Wessells and Carlinda Monteiro, Psychosocial interventions and post-war reconstruction
in Angola: Interweaving Western and traditional approaches. In Peace, Conflict, and Violence: Peace Psychology for
the 21
st
Century, edited by D. Christie, R.V. Wagner, and D. Winter (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2001),
262-75; and Alcinda Honwana, Okusiakala Ondalo Yokalye, Let Us Light a New Fire (Luanda: Christian Children's
Fund/Angola, 1998).

26
property rights may be a ery important piece o the healing process. Projects can also include
awareness on the special needs o certain populations such as child-headed households,
unaccompanied minors, widows, disabled children and adults, etc.

37%:1#" 9,+ L600%">

Complex emergencies disrupt both indiidual and community unctioning. 1o address children`s
psychosocial risk and protectie actors, it is desirable or projects to be designed in holistic and
integrated ways that take children`s amily, community, and cultural resources into consideration.

Major psychosocial project areas include those that promote amily unity, education and economic
opportunities, proide opportunities or children and youth to engage in actiities that promote
cognitie, emotional, and spiritual growth, and oster connections that create or re-create a sense o
community.

1hese projects may be ree-standing, but they may also be designed as part o an oerarching
emergency response. In order to be eectie, projects must relect - but on occasion take a critical
stance towards - local cultural belies systems and resources.

Community-based projects that are respectul and supportie o local capacities to assist children are
more likely to be accepted and hae positie impact. 1he best orientation in programming is one o
partnership, that is, truly shared decision-making with children in age appropriate ways, amilies and
communities, along with lexibility and openness in learning how to strengthen amily and
community supports or children.

Ultimately, psychosocial interentions should adance and protect human rights, particularly
children`s rights.


27
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Psychosocial projects in the context o complex emergencies, whether in the midst o war or in the
atermath o enironmental or other disasters, are designed to address compelling human problems
and conditions. 1hereore, getting a project up and running is urgent while the ealuation o that
project is comparatiely less urgent. 1ime pressures and the oten chaotic setting o a complex
emergency make ealuation diicult. Sometimes ealuation is iewed as a burdensome requirement o
the donor or an unnecessary luxury that takes too much time and preparation and dierts resources
that would be better spent on running the project. I not done eiciently, ealuation can cause delays
in proiding assistance and heighten expectations beyond the scope o the project.

loweer, without ongoing monitoring and ealuation, interention actiities can be misdirected.
Indeed, experience has shown that eorts to launch emergency interentions hae sometimes
inadertently or unintentionally resulted in the implementation o projects that actually undermine the
indiidual and social beneits that the interention is intended to accomplish. lor example,
sometimes this happens when outsider` tools and concepts are brought in while local opinions and
ideas are relegated to the sidelines. A good monitoring and ealuation plan alerts us to problems early
in the course o the project and can also point to gaps in programming. 1hese problems or gaps can
then be addressed in a timely manner.

As illustrated in Inset 18 below, monitoring how a project is implemented as well as listening to
eedback rom project recipients can play an important role in meeting project goals or making mid-
course changes in the project.


28
B*2#1 ;O8 97# F##. $+" 36-16"%- L#*2414@41> 4* !"+/"%004*/

In Albania ollowing the exodus o hundreds o thousands o Kosoar in April 1999 into reugee camps, many
organizations gae ood to Kosoars. In one camp, the elders said they elt demeaned by being ed Albanian ood and
treated as i their own culture did not matter. 1he ood handouts were unintentionally haing a negatie impact. 1hey
wanted to eat Kosoar ood, not Albanian ood. Accordingly, they gae nongoernmental organizations a list o the
ingredients they wanted. laing taken oer a building or a kitchen, they began cooking and sering their own meals and
working 12 hours each day. \outh in the camp helped to organize people in shits in order to aoid long lines. Both the
cooks and the recipients reported that they elt much better about the ood, elt more in control oer their
circumstances, and experienced pride in what they had accomplished. 1hrough their demand or more control oer
their circumstances, what had been a straightorward ood distribution project integrated a psychosocial component to
address social and emotional well-being.

BBC Q+6" V@#"%"&74*/ !"4*&4:-#2 +$ =@%-6%14*/ !2>&7+2+&4%- !"+Y#&12

Culturally Grounded , Participatory
Inormed Consent and leedback
Conidentiality
Sensitiity to Consequences

1. Cvttvratt, Crovvaea , Particiator,
Project ealuation should be guided by sound oerarching principles. 1he perspectie oered here is
that standard \estern project ealuation practices can oer important guidance but are enhanced
when integrated with local alues, practices, and ways o understanding the eects o a project on a
local culture and society. Just as project deelopment must be in tune with culture, methods o
monitoring and ealuating projects should also be culturally grounded and respectul o dierent ways
o knowing.` 1he participation o communities helps to increase the likelihood that methodologies
will be culturally grounded and appropriate to the speciic setting. An ealuation methodology that
capitalizes on both the strengths o \estern approaches and local community insights and alues will
result in a more meaningul understanding o the interention and its outcomes. 1he sustainability o
programs also depends on the ability o communities to sel-monitor, critically reiew, and reine their
own initiaties. Just as local participation is necessary or the design o eectie psychosocial
interentions, working with communities and local cultures to design and carry out project ealuations
builds local capacity and ownership o the interention, and is necessary to the deelopment o
ealuation tools and strategies that adequately capture project results or outcomes.

laing said this, it is also clear that many communities do not yet possess some o the skills necessary
to systematically ealuate and reine interentions. Communities need assistance. loweer, bor help
is proided is as important as rbat help is proided. lor example, it is not appropriate to do an
ealuation on` a community, it is better practice to do an ealuation with` a community. 1arget
populations are not only a rich source o insights about problems and workable solutions, but also in
inding sources o inormation on what an interention is achieing. An ealuation should be
inclusie o local partners and create a dialogue to capture local experience and insight, as opposed to
a team composed solely o outside experts` with little insider knowledge o the culture, who attempt
to objectiely` ealuate the project using instruments that hae originated and been standardized
outside o that culture. Standard measures can be utilized in the process o deeloping culturally
appropriate measures ,i.e., measures such as surey questionnaires,, but care must be taken with
interpreting the results. Standard measures should be used in conjunction with qualitatie studies as
well as locally deried measures. Ideally, eery measurement tool should itsel be assessed or alidity,

29
sensitiity, and reliability beore making policy or programming decisions based on the results. In the
process o working ritb a community, its traditional specialists, local healers, educators, and others,
project implementers can strengthen the sense o local ownership and empowerment, and in so doing
promote the success o the project, including its sustainability.

2. vforvea Cov.evt ava eeabac/
1here are special consent issues that arise when interiewing and conducting ealuations with
children. Children and minors hae perhaps the least say in actions that aect them and routinely the
rights o ealuation participants are iolated. Laluations that collect sensitie and personal
inormation must be especially sensitie to this. Inormed consent is undamental to conducting an
ethical ealuation. Clearly, in many instances, obtaining the inormed consent o project participants is
challenging. 1his is particularly the case with children whose parents or caregiers may not be
aailable. Nonetheless, participants hae an absolute right to know about the risks and beneits o an
ealuation in which they are being asked to participate - een i they are children and require more
eort or explanation. Real eorts must be made to obtain the consent o a child`s parents, caregiers,
or local authority. Participants should understand that whether they decide to participate or not has
no impact on their continued receipt o project serices. Participants should receie speciic
inormation on how the inormation will be used, what the process will entail, what leel o
conidentiality will exist, and what kind o reports will be written based on this data.

Another point to keep in mind in designing an ealuation methodology is i and how eedback will be
proided to participants. Participants oten hae questions about the purpose o the ealuation, use o
the data, and results o the ealuation. It is wise to consider beorehand the arious mechanisms
needed to proide eedback.

. ev.itirit, to Cov.eqvevce.
1here can be negatie consequences or the participant in being asked probing questions about
emotionally sensitie eents. 1he ollowing questions act as guides in attempting to minimize stress
that an interiew may induce.
Does the interiewer hae experience in interiewing children
Is enough time allowed or the discussion o issues that may be raised during the interiew
Is the interiew going to occur in a place that is priate
\ill the identity o the child ,or adult, be protected, particularly i the material is politically
sensitie \ill anonymity be maintained throughout data collation
I deep wounds are brought to the surace during the ealuation process, how will this be
handled Is an appropriate resource aailable to help the participant

Since the questions asked may make participants uncomortable and,or may cause distress, adance
planning as to how such situations will be handled in a culturally appropriate manner is necessary. lor
example, you may want to arrange a reerral serice with a trusted community member or
proessional` so that participants are not abandoned with their distress ollowing the interiew. 1he
point is not to leae children and others een more emotionally ulnerable. It is better not to ask
questions than to ask them irresponsibly. Len though inormed consent carries with it the option to
discontinue an interiew at any time, children and ulnerable adults may not eel empowered to stop
an interiew when distressed, so interiewers must be sensitized in order to recognize the signs and
needs o children as well as adults. In addition, in emergency situations communities are ulnerable to
inquiry rom journalists, political delegations, and others who are seeking inormation that is oten
ery sensitie and eocatie o painul memories and eelings. 1he process o collecting such

30
inormation is oten intrusie, act-inding in tone, and done in a short time rame. Mechanisms and
policies that can address these kinds o issues need to be put in place to protect children beore a
situation presents itsel.

1. Covfiaevtiatit,
Data o a conidential nature should be saeguarded and accessible only to designated sta. 1his
means that iles should be locked and access limited to authorized persons only. 1his procedure will
also preent the loss o data. It is good practice to use identiication numbers on data collection
orms rather than the actual names o participants. A conidential list o names and identiication
numbers can be kept by a senior sta person at some o site location. Once the data are grouped or
summarized it may not be necessary to keep data that can be associated with an indiidual. I it is not
necessary to keep such records, they should be destroyed. It is adisable to treat the data as i it were
inormation collected about yoursel and to consider how you personally would want it to be
saeguarded.

In ealuations and other inormation gathering actiities, issues such as these must be ully considered
in deeloping ethical policies aimed at protecting children as well as adult participants.

BBBC !"+Y#&1 ]S+/4& Z+.#-2^

1he strategy or monitoring and ealuating any project is based on the building blocks o project
rationale or concept, planning and implementation. In this section we begin by ocusing on the
reasoning behind project planning and the project logic model.`

Inset 19: A Project Logic Model

A project logic model is a graphic representation o the assumptions behind the design o a project. 1he aim
is to illustrate the relationships between all the dierent steps in the project. \e need to be explicit about all
the links between actiities ,and other inputs, and their outputs, between outputs and intermediate results,
and between intermediate results and the ultimate project outcomes, which are stated as project objecties.

A logic model is essentially the implicit made explicit. 1he irst step is to identiy the key inputs and outputs
and their relationships to desired outcomes or results. 1he next step is to use graphics, such as lowcharts or
lines that connect interentions and outcomes ,sometimes reerred to as spiders` because they can resemble
a spider web o relationships, to illustrate these pathways and relationships. 1he process o creating the logic
model will help to articulate the assumptions behind the model as well as the intended project results.
26

1he graphic representation o a logic model may ary, depending on the leel o detail, emphasis, and its
utilization. 1he examples that appear in this chapter relect only two options. 1he irst takes on a low-chart
style, while the Consolacao example resembles building blocks.

A logic model relects an understanding or assumptions about how project actiities or inputs aect
internal and external actors that in turn, aect the psychological unctioning o children and amilies.
1he design o any project, including psychosocial projects, is based on a logic model or assumptions,

26
A very useful guide to developing Logic Models is available from the W.K. Kellogg Foundation; (Kellogg
Foundation, 2001). Available in PDF format from: http://www.wkkf.org/Programming/Overview.aspx?CID=281

31
whether explicitly stated or implicitly held, o how project actiities should aect a target population.
A project`s logic model can change as important new inormation comes to light. 1he important thing
is to start with some explicit ideas about how a project is attempting to assist its beneiciaries. Again,
the process o building a logic model should be participatory and culturally grounded.

1o illustrate logic models, let us turn to two psychosocial projects that hae been implemented in
Angola and Mozambique, respectiely. ,\e will come back to these case examples to illustrate
concepts throughout the document.,

(C !"+@4*&#\_%2#. M%" 9"%60% 9#%0

1he Angolan project, named the Proince-Based \ar 1rauma 1eam ,PB\11,
2
project, was
designed to address the eects o ciil war on children and amilies. In Angola, war has continued or
nearly orty years, and both children, who comprise nearly hal the population, and caregiers hae
been aected by poerty, hunger, displacement, homelessness, death o loed ones, landmines, and
iolence at multiple leels. lrom 1995-98 the project sought to support the Lusaka Peace Process
through community-based healing aimed at alleiating suering and breaking cycles o iolence
,including the intergenerational cycles associated with iolence,.

Initially, the PB\11 logic model was based on the concept o 1"%60%. It assumed that the horriic
experiences associated with attack, displacement, and related actors led to war trauma which
increased caregiers` stress, reduced their ability to proide eectie care or children, and let some
eeling oerwhelmed and hopeless. It also assumed that trauma led to social disorganization and made
it diicult or adults to engage in eectie planning and communal actiities to support children`s
healthy deelopment. 1he project sought to enable adults to come to terms with their own
experiences o war and iolence, to understand the impact o iolence and trauma on children, to
organize themseles to assist children emotionally, and to plan community actiities to promote
children`s well-being.

1he project strategy was to select community leaders or children through a participatory process,
train them to understand how they and their children had been aected, help the adults to come to
terms with their experiences, and support community-based actiities inoling expressie arts
,drawing, dance, song, etc., and actiities such as team sports that would increase social integration.
1o build local capacities, the project used a training-o-trainers methodology in which a national team
o Angolan trainers selected and trained three-person training teams in seen o the most seerely
war-aected proinces. In turn, the proince-based teams trained inluential local adults who then
implemented actiities on behal o children in open, communal spaces, conducted wider community
dialogues about children`s needs, and worked through networks o local groups to support children.
1he trainers also trained teachers, workers in dierent NGOs, and policy leaders to understand how
children had been aected and to organize actiities and policies to support children`s healthy
deelopment.

\hat are the assumptions behind the design o the project and how do the actiities o the project
relate to the desired outcomes and the impact or participants 1hat is, gien certain inputs, ,e.g.,

27
Information on the Angola Province-Based War Trauma Team Project was provided by Dr. Carlinda Monteiro,
Christian Childrens Fund/Angola and Dr. Mike Wessells, Randolph-Macon College and Christian Childrens Fund.
See also: Mike G. Wessells and Carlinda Monteiro, Healing wounds of war in Angola: A community-based
approach, in Addressing Childhood Adversity, edited by D. Donald, A. Dawes, and J. Louw (Capetown: David
Philip, 2000), 176-201.

32
training materials and training workshops,, that result in certain outputs, ,e.g., numbers o community
olunteers and counselors trained, and number o children or amilies counseled,, what kind o results
or outcomes do we expect to see In order to make explicit what is implicit in our project planning
and implementation, we need to be clear about what we expect to see as a result o haing trained
olunteers and counselors, and haing them counsel children and amilies. 1hus, the outcome relates
to the ery purpose o the actiity-what does counseling result in Once we hae clearly deined the
project result, we then need to identiy an "indicator" that will measure the achieement o that result.
In the next chapter we will discuss the process o identiying indicators.

Returning to the multiaceted PB\11 project: \hat is the reasoning behind this project`s logic
model and how could we actually draw a spider` representing the logic model 1he logic behind the
project might be represented as ollows:

?4%/"%0 I8 B*414%- !_M99 !"+Y#&1 S+/4& Z+.#-

4$ #$$#&14@#

4$ 4*#$$#&14@#

As the PB\11 was implemented, new learning led to a reision o the initial logic model.
Constructed in \estern cultures, the conceptualization o trauma was quite indiidualized, and it shed
little light on spiritual issues that local people identiied as the primary war-related sources o stress.
lor example, an 11-year-old girl reported that she led ater her home had been attacked and
destroyed, and her parents had been killed. ler greatest sel-reported stress, howeer, was not the
attack or loss o her home and amily but the act that she had had to run away without haing
perormed the appropriate burial ritual or her parents. According to local belies, her parents` spirits
were unable to transit to the realm o the ancestors and the lingering spirits would cause community
misortune as well as indiidual problems. 1he problem was not iewed as an indiidual problem but
as a rupture between the liing and the ancestors. 1he way to repair the rupture and reduce the stress
Experiences
of war and
violence
Trauma
Relatively Functional
Behavior
Outcomes
Improved child-child and child-adult relationships
Reductions in sleep problems
Diminished isolation behavior
Reductions in aggressive behavior
Diminished violence between children
Decrease in excessive watchfulness for danger
Improved school attendance, concentration, behavior
& cooperation
Reduction in playing of war games
Increased hope & positive attitude toward the future
Levels of stress may slowly
decrease over time;
Little improvement in:
social reintegration
behavior
developing peer relationships
Coping Responses
Community-based
Intervention
No Intervention

Outputs
Sensitization provided on effects of
violence
Emotional support for adults
Expressive activities for children
Recreational activities that promote
social integration

33
would be through conducting an appropriate burial ritual that would restore spiritual harmony. 1he
recognition o this led the team to moe away rom a trauma model and talk about iolence-related
sources o stress, including communal and spiritual sources o stress. Increasingly, the country team,
which included highly educated Angolan, urban intellectuals, realized it had been imposing an
outsider` psychology, and thus marginalizing local oices and belies while not taking adantage o
centuries-old practices that might beneit war-aected children.

1o correct this problem, the country team changed its orientation and methodology, and made the
interweaing o \estern and local approaches to assisting war-aected children and adults a key
objectie. 1he team began to learn more systematically rom local healers about local belies regarding
illness, healing, lie, and death. 1hese topics were integrated into the training seminars, which
increasingly became problem-soling spaces in which community members discussed how to combine
\estern and local methods or supporting children. Since the team knew relatiely little about the
local approaches, which hae always been transmitted erbally or orally, they embarked on
ethnographic research aimed at documenting traditional belies and local practices. 1he ormerly
colonized local people, who had internalized a sense o ineriority about their own cultural belies and
practices, reported that the respect demonstrated or their local traditions had a powerul eect. In
particular, they gained increased conidence in their own ability to plan and to shape their own uture.
lurthermore, the traditions increased emotional and spiritual support by proiding a sense o
continuity amidst diicult circumstances.

Another important insight was the relation between material improements and healing. Since local
people said they needed tangible improements in their enironments to eel better, the team adopted
a schools reconstruction approach in which the agency supplied the materials, and the community
donated the labor. In designing and building, planning processes that had been disrupted were
restarted and people began reasserting control oer circumstances in their lies. In addition, they
reported eeling more hopeul toward the uture and encouraged to initiate other actiities to assist
children. A reised logic model is as ollows:


34
?4%/"%0 J8 D#@42#. !_M99 !"+Y#&1 S+/4& Z+.#-

_C 3+*2+-%&`+ =*"4&70#*1 !"+Y#&1

A second case study example comes rom a project implemented in Mozambique. Approximately 1.1
million Mozambican reugees led their country during Mozambique`s 15-year internal war. In the
neighboring country o Malawi, there were an estimated 950,000 reugees, o which about 50 were
children. Recognizing the psychosocial risks that war poses or children and amilies,
nongoernmental organization sta began discussions with reugee community leaders ,teachers and
health proessionals, or example, to explore the need to help amilies address the emotional eects
o the war on children liing within reugee camps. 1he Consolacao Lnrichment Project
28
deeloped
out o these discussions. 1he goal o the project was to proide a creatie, emotionally supportie,
and culturally appropriate context in which the psychosocial deelopment o children aected by war
would be acilitated.

In the Consolacao Lnrichment Project ,CLP,, actiity groups were ormed and sta was trained in
conducting a airly wide range o actiities. Actiities were chosen according to the logic model and
with the participation o children. Project sta consisted o Mozambican adults rom the reugee

28
The case study of Consolaco: A community-based enrichment project for war-affected Mozambican refugee
children was written by Joan Duncan, Ph.D., Consultant to Save the Children. Consolaco is a Portuguese word
meaning to comfort or console.
Experiences
of War and
Violence
Childs understanding of
own experiences
Cultural & spiritual stresses
Social disorganization
Excessive emotional stress
(children & adults)
Community-based
Intervention
Relatively Functional Behavior
Outcomes
Improved child-child, child-adult relationships
Diminished isolation behavior
Reductions in aggressive/violent behavior
Decrease in excessive watchfulness for danger
Improved school attendance
Improved classroom behavior & cooperation
Reduction in concentration problems
Reduction in playing of war games
Increased hope & positive attitude toward
future
Levels of stress may slowly decrease
over time, with little improvement in:
social reintegration
behavior
developing peer relationships
fewer trauma symptoms, etc.
No Intervention
Outputs
Sensitization re: effects of violence
Emotional support for adults
Expressive activities for children
Recreational activities that promote
social integration
Ident. traditional healing practices
Rebuild schools & community huts
Ineffective
Coping Response
Effective Coping
Response

35
community - called Actiistas. Actiities engaged children in quiet creatie actiities ,such as drawing
or toy making,, physical actiities ,e.g., drama, dance, song, sports, and lie-skills building actiities
,e.g., knitting, gardening, carpentry,. 1hroughout the project, actiities were reiewed and reined to
allow children to increase their participation and expression o thoughts and eelings, as desired. lor
example, as children became more comortable and more engaged in the storytelling actiity,
Actiistas encouraged children to tell their own stories about personally releant issues. 1hemes that
emerged were related to war experiences ,e.g., separation and loss, oercoming adersity,, camp
experiences ,e.g., diorce in the amily, conlict resolution, sharing o resources,, and general
deelopment issues ,e.g., riendship, honesty, helping others,. In the process, children were able to
urther deelop their own strategies or coping with past traumatic experiences and adersity. One
possible illustration o this logic model utilizes building blocks. lere, the assumption was that haing
children engage in arious actiities would lead to the desired outcomes. In other words, gien the
project inputs o opportunities or creatie and personal expression and sharing, physical actiities,
and lie-skills training, etc., which resulted in outputs such as haing creatiely expressed their
emotions, shared eeling, learned to employ alternatie skills or coping, etc., children will hae an
increased sense o security, will deelop creatie coping strategies, and will achiee other anticipated
outcomes. 1he building blocks were: 1, expressing thoughts and eelings through stories, drawing,
dance, song, etc. 2, sharing experiences, 3, interacting in a group, and 4, inding adult and peer
support.

?4%/"%0 K8 3+*2+-%&`+ =*"4&70#*1 !"+Y#&1 S+/4& Z+.#-

Creatie actiities
Lxpressie actiities

Physical actiities
Lie-skills actiities

Expressing
feelings
Expressing
feelings
Sharing
experiences
Group
interaction
Peer/adult
Support
Expressing
feelings
Sharing
experiences
Group
interaction
Support
peer/adult
Outcomes
Sense of security increased
Creative coping strategies
developed
Sense of control over own
life increased
Peer friendships encouraged
Trust in adults re-established

36
BTC ?#$4*4*/ a#> 9#"02

\e hae used a number o terms in our discussion already. It is useul to reiew these terms and go
oer their deinitions beore we moe on to the next chapter.

(C B*:61

\hat the organization puts into` the project includes resources and actiities, such as inancial
support, materials, technical assistance, sta, and training. 1hese inputs are what the organization
brings to the interention and might include things like materials or a temporary shelter, toys or
games or children, training modules, or a person to proide technical assistance o some kind. \hen
we 0+*41+" 17# 40:-#0#*1%14+* +$ 17# :"+Y#&1, we record the date o deliery and receipt or
completion o materials, the number o locations that hae receied the materials, number o training
sessions scheduled, etc. By monitoring the input we can answer the question whether or not the
resources or actiities hae been implemented eiciently. \hen we monitor the implementation o
our project, we are not asking whether or not the project was actually helpul to the target population
because we cannot assess this until we know that we hae implemented the project as planned. lor
example, our personnel records proide a data source or project ivvt ,i.e., number o sta we hae
hired,. 1his does not tell us about the results o haing hired and trained sta or the results o their
haing counseled traumatized children, but it does help us monitor our implementation o the project.

_C V61:61

Project Output reers to the immediate accomplishment o project input. \hen monitoring output,
we are concerned with whether or not the inputs - actiities or serices the project is proiding-are
actually reaching the target group. lor example, we would want to know whether the training
materials designated or the project are being deliered to our trainers in a timely ashion, how many
beneiciaries are receiing training, that the timeline or implementation is being ollowed, etc. Again,
our ongoing documentation o each input and output, such as sta records o completed training
sessions, is used to help us monitor and assess project outputs. In setting up our monitoring system,
we will want to deise quick checklists and worksheets that document: the date and location o
training sessions and the number o community olunteers trained by project sta, etc. \ith this
inormation, the project manager or project documentation specialist can quickly extract the releant
inormation that shows i the project is being implemented.

3C V61&+0#

In the next chapter we will proide an in-depth discussion o strategies or ealuating project
outcome. lor now, it is important to keep in mind that output and outcome are dierent. lor
example, actiities such as drama, singing, dancing, or story-telling encourage emotional expression
and group integration. 1he scheduling o such actiities and children`s attendance in them are ovtvt.,
while the ovtcove. would be results such as decreased eelings o isolation and,or other symptoms
related to experiences o war-related iolence.

Project OUTCOME is what we are able to measure or observe with respect to our
stated project objectives following implementation of the project.

37
?C B0:%&1

Impact is a term used to reer both to tovg terv ovtcove. ,ound at the Goal leel or Strategic
Objectie` leel, and to attribvtabte ovtcove, that is what we can attribvte directly to our project and not
to other interentions or enironmental,contextual actors experienced by our project participants.
Interentions o less than 4 or 5 years are less likely to show ivact in the sense o high leel, long-
term goals such as reduced mortality or increased agricultural production, but we may speak o impact
at the leel o our project objecties where we hae statistical conidence or reasonable assurance that
we can attribute outcome directly to speciic implementation actiities. A demonstration o
attributable outcome may be required i, or example, a project manager needs to justiy the scaling up
or replication o a project. In this sense, project impact is equialent to a treatment eect` directly
brought about by our interention.

1here are dierent ealuation designs that we can employ in order to carry out an ealuation o
project impact. Some o these will be discussed in Chapter Six. But irst we need to turn to the
measurement o outcome and impact. In the next chapter, Chapter lour, we will discuss strategies
or deining measurable objecties and identiying indicators to measure the achieement o those
objecties.

37%:1#" 97"## L600%">

1he purpose o ealuation is to improe projects by identiying their strengths and weaknesses.
\ithout ongoing monitoring and ealuation, well-intentioned projects can be misdirected and
undermine cultural strengths and traditions.

lie important recommendations or conducting ealuations o psychosocial projects are that they
be culturally grounded, obtain the inormed consent o participants - een children, ensure
conidentiality, be sensitie to the possible negatie consequences o participants sharing painul
memories, and proide eedback.

Logic models are a graphic representation o the implicit assumptions that guide the design o a
project. By drawing a logic model, these implicit assumptions are made explicit, and the causal
relationships or links between project actiities, inputs, outputs, and desired outcomes can be clearly
identiied.

Project IMPACT is the change in status or behavior related to our stated project
objectives that we can say is a direct result of our project or intervention.

38
Chapter Four

37%:1#" I8 Q6*.%0#*1%- X+%-2 +$ !2>&7+2+&4%- !"+/"%004*/ %*.
?#$4*4*/ V5Y#&14@#2 %*. B*.4&%1+"2

1bi. cbater roriae. av orerrier of tbe fvvaavevtat goat. of .,cbo.ociat rogravvivg ava tbe criteria for aefivivg
.ovva ob;ectire. a. rett a. tbe ivaicator. or vea.vre. ritb rbicb re cav eratvate ovr .vcce.. iv veetivg ovr ro;ect
ob;ectire.. Pro;ect ovtcove eratvatiov i. ivtroavcea. Cviaetive. for ivaicator aeretovevt ava aata .ovrce. are roriaea.

BC Q6*.%0#*1%- X+%-2 +$ !2>&7+2+&4%- !"+/"%004*/

As stated in Chapter 1wo, undamental goals o psychosocial programming include the establishment
or re-establishment o:

L#&6"# %11%&70#*12 ,417 &%"#/4@#"2 - Child eels sae and cared or by supportie adult
caregiers.

Z#%*4*/$6- :##" "#-%14+*2 +" 2+&4%- &+0:#1#*&# - Child has the capacity to create and
maintain relationships with peers and adults. leels he,she is able to eectiely naigate his or
her social world.

L#*2# +$ _#-+*/4*/ - Child is socially connected to a community and eels he,she is part o a
larger social whole. Child adopts the alues, norms and traditions o his,her community.

L#*2# +$ 2#-$\,+"17 %*. @%-6#b 2#-$\#21##0b ,#--\5#4*/ - Child thinks o him,hersel as
worthy and capable o achieing desired goals. Child has a sense o empowerment and a sense
o being alued. Child participates in larger community and eels in harmony with norms o
his,her society. Child has the capacity and,or possibility to participate in decisions aecting
his,her own lie and to orm independent opinions.

9"621 4* +17#"2 - Child has a belie that he,she can rely on others or nurturance, help, and
adice. Child eels that he,she will not be hurt by others.

(&&#22 1+ +::+"16*414#2 - Child has a sense o being in a supportie enironment. Child has
access to opportunities or cognitie, emotional, and spiritual deelopment and economic
security.

!7>24&%- %*. #&+*+04& 2#&6"41> - Child`s physical health, lielihood,economic security and
enironment are supportie and do not pose threats to the child`s emotional or physical well-
being.

c+:#$6-*#22 +" +:140420 %5+61 17# $616"# - Childs eels conident that the world oers
positie outcomes and a hopeul uture.

As a project is conceptualized, these major goals gie rise to speciic project responses and actiities.
Psychosocial projects can be geared toward meeting any number o project objecties that build

39
protection and support mechanisms with these oerarching goals in mind. Strategies or building
psychosocial support or children in crisis situations should strengthen appropriate traditional
protection and support mechanisms as well as draw on local norms, alues, and worldiews.
Community participation and mobilization strategies should be at the core o our response to
psychosocial needs and support.

One way to engage and mobilize communities is to bring them into the process o deining project
objecties and identiying measures ,indicators, o achieement o those objecties. 1he ery process
o community engagement and mobilization may be a psychosocial interention in itsel. It is
important to work through a logic model or a model o project impact, as discussed in Chapter 1hree,
with input rom the target community.

BBC ?#$4*4*/ !"+Y#&1 V5Y#&14@#2

Project objecties may be conceptualized as a chain o results, rom intermediate or proximal results
,also called benchmarks, to anticipated end outcomes, as identiied in the impact or logic model. In
order to be able to ealuate project success and the achieement o objecties, these objecties need
to be deined in such a way that they can be measured,` either quantitatiely ,i.e., with numbers, or
qualitatiely ,i.e., through rich, non-numeric description,.

(C ]LZ(D9^ V5Y#&14@#2

In the process o articulating a project logic model, project objecties should be clearly deined. \ell-
deined objecties strie to meet ie criteria that can be easily remembered by their acronym,
LZ(D9.`

Strie to Make Objecties LZ(D98 Lpeciic
Zeasurable
(ppropriate
Dealistic
9ime-bound

LZ(D9 Objecties are:

Lpeciic: 1hey are particular to a gien project and guide as precisely as
possible the content and actiities o the project. Objecties that are too
ague or general do not help guide project planning and ealuation.

Zeasurable: 1hey can be measured using quantitatie ,numeric or
categorical, or qualitatie ,non-numeric or descriptie, data, and the method
and source o measurement can be identiied.

(ppropriate: 1hey it the goal, logic model, and time rame o the project,
needs o the aected population, and politico-cultural context.

Dealistic: 1hey are attainable under the preailing situation. 1hey are not
idealistic, impractical, or out o the project`s reach gien the context.


40

9ime-bound: 1hey are limited to a speciied timerame. 1ime periods or
reaching objecties should be speciied.

Consider the ollowing project`s initial objectie and how it might be made smarter.

_C Z%)4*/ V5Y#&14@#2 LZ(D9#"

\e can start with an example o a psychosocial project objectie:

1. Proide access to community-based educational and recreational projects and acilities or
IDP ,internally displaced persons, and host community children, and oster sel-reliance.

1his objectie can be made SMAR1er:

1.a. Proide 1200 IDP and host community children o preschool age access to Larly Childhood
Lducation projects through community-based eorts during the course o the project year.

1.b. Decrease the drop-out rate o youth aged 8 to1 by:
Promoting integration o IDP youth with host community youth through
structured ater-school recreational actiities
Promoting inormal interactions between teachers and students outside the
classroom through structured ater-school recreational actiities
Proiding sae and productie enironments or social interaction among IDP and
host community youth

1he components o the initial objectie hae been separated and clariied. By reining the initial
statement, we are able to identiy realistic, desirable results that we can measure. A time rame has also
been determined. In this way, we hae a much clearer idea o what it is the project intends to
accomplish within the means at the project`s disposal. \ith greater reinement, it becomes clearer that
access to the education interentions will not inole proiding transportation, since the project`s
budget in this case did not include transportation. 1he objectie has been linked to the project
actiities or outputs. 1he rationale behind recreational actiities led to articulating the objectie as
decreasing the drop out rate.` 1his objectie was made more precise and measurable and is more
clearly linked to project actiities. I the timerame o a project is too short to be able to measure
change in the drop-out rate, we can back up to one o the intermediate steps in the pathway toward
achieing a lower drop-out rate, such as identiying a target proportion o IDP youth and host
community youth who participate in structured ater-school recreational actiities. 1his can be
measured with accurate monitoring records o attendance or participation.

By bringing more speciicity to the objecties and linking project outputs to appropriate and realistic
anticipated outcomes, the resulting objecties become easier to ealuate and can better guide actiities
and the monitoring o those actiities. Lxamine Inset 20, although the changes made to the objecties
appear minor, they proe key to articulating the objecties in such a way that they inorm an
ealuation strategy. 1hey suggest particular behaiors or maniestations o behaior to be improed
and measured. As we will coer later in the chapter, the indicators deeloped as a result will likely
include both qvatitatire and qvavtitatire indicators.


41
B*2#1 EP8 V5Y#&14@#2 +$ 17# 3+*2+-%&`+ =*"4&70#*1 !"+Y#&1

1he initial objecties o the Cov.otacao Pro;ect were:
Reduce children`s eelings o isolation through the ormation o attachments and riendships with peers
Rebuild children`s trust by orming supportie attachments with adult role models within the community
Assist children in understanding and in learning adaptie ways o coping with past traumatic experiences and
the eelings resulting rom such experiences
Assist children in deeloping a sense o mastery and control oer their lies through creatie and recreational
actiities

1hese objecties could be made ]LZ(D9#"^ with the ollowing changes:
Reduce children`s eelings o isolation by 4*&"#%24*/ 17# *605#" %*. i6%-41> o peer riendships and
attachments to supportie adults
B*&"#%2# children`s trust and thus the *605#" %*. i6%-41> +$ %11%&70#*12 with supportie adult role models
rom the community
B*&"#%2# &74-."#*U2 62# %*. "#&+/*414+* +$ 17# @%-6# o creatie and adaptie coping strategies ,that is,
strategies to cope with past traumatic experiences and eelings resulting rom such experiences,
B*&"#%2# &74-."#*U2 2#*2# +$ 0%21#"> %*. &+*1"+- oer their own lies through actie inolement in
creatie, expressie, and physical ,recreational, actiities.

Ideally, the identiication o LZ(D9 objecties takes place during the initial phase o project
conceptualization and in conjunction with the deelopment o a monitoring and ealuation strategy.
Len when this does not happen initially, objecties can still be reined to approach the LZ(D9
criteria.

1he objecties o a project shape measurement processes and indicators, and ice ersa. 1hereore, a
consideration o what can and should be measured ought to be included early on in the process o
determining a project`s objecties. As we will see in the ollowing section, haing clear objecties
osters the identiication o clear indicators.

BBBC B.#*14$>4*/ B*.4&%1+"2

All too requently, an undue amount o anxiety surrounds the deelopment o indicators. 1his is
understandable because the identiication o adequate and reliable indicators is a diicult process and
demands ocused attention. loweer, they are only measures to assist us in our monitoring o
project implementation and in our ealuations o achieement o project objecties. Indicators
should not drie project planning. Just because we may be able to more easily measure something
does not mean this should determine the ocus o the project. Rather, project planning should be
drien by an interest in measuring achieement o objecties and project benchmarks and in
documenting the progress o project implementation by tracking project inputs and outputs.

(* BF?B3(9VD 42 % 0#%26"# +$ % :"+Y#&1 4*:61b +61:61b "#26-12b +" +61&+0#2 +$ 4*1#"#21C
Q+" #<%0:-#b %* 4*.4&%1+" 0#%26"#2 17# :"#2#*&#b %52#*&#b -#@#-b +" .#/"## +$ % 21%162b +"
2+&4%- +" 5#7%@4+"%- &+*.414+* ,4174* +6" 1%"/#1 :+:6-%14+*C

\e use indicators during each phase o a project and throughout its lie cycle. Although our
discussion will touch on the use o indicators in monitoring a project, our main ocus will be on their
use in measuring project outcomes. By identiying indicators, we are deining the eidence that we will

42
use to determine whether or not the objecties and goals are being accomplished according to the
original plan and time rame o the project.

1he identiication and selection o indicators is a ery important process in the design and
implementation o a monitoring and ealuation strategy. Although there are some indicators that are
appropriate or comparison globally across arious projects ,these are relatiely ew and they are used
to ealuate long-term impact related to global initiaties such as reduced child malnutrition, decreased
rates o lIV inection, increased literacy rates, and better physical and social surial o children
aected by war, or example,, in general, indicators must be deeloped or a speciic project because
they are a tool to ealuate a speciic outcome.

Indicators should be: Talid
Deliable
Lensitie

Indicators should be alid, reliable, and sensitie to the output, status, or outcome o interest:

T%-4.41> implies that our indicator is a alid or true measure o the behaior, status,
knowledge, attitude or other eature it is supposed to measure.

D#-4%54-41> means that i we measure the same thing more than once using the same indicator,
we will get the same response, it is reliable and does not change according to unpredictable
actors.

L#*2414@41> implies that the measure is responsie to cbavge in our outcome, status or behaior
o interest.

In order to urther illustrate the process o deeloping indicators, we will again draw on the case study
examples. In the Proince-Based \ar 1rauma 1eam ,PB\11, project, Lxposure and Impact Scales
were initially used to measure a child`s psychosocial distress. In order to identiy alid, reliable, and
sensitie 4*.4&%1+"2, we need to understand the arious 0#%26"#0#*1 1++-2 we will utilize in order
to derie the inormation on the indicators. 1he PB\11 project used the Lxposure scale as a tool to
measure the kind, requency and seerity o traumatic experiences encountered. 1his was identiied as
degree o exposure to death and iolence according to the number o times a child experienced such
things as: aerial bombardment, mine explosions, mortar bombardment, death o amily, neighbors, or
others, personal injury, kidnapping, maltreatment, hunger, light and homelessness, etc. 1he Impact
scale was used as a tool to measure the requency and seerity o trauma or iolence-related
symptoms. Use o these scales assumed that the greater the exposure, the greater the risk o
displaying symptoms commonly assumed to be maniestations o war trauma ,such as requent
nightmares, wetting the bed, ear, excessie alertness or possible danger, requent headaches,
palpitations, etc.,. 1hus, the primary 4*.4&%1+" or measuring success in the PB\11 project was a
quantitatie measure that came rom haing combined the results o questions about the requency o
nightmares, bed-wetting, ear, headaches, etc., as correlated with or understood in relation to exposure
to death and iolence.


43
\as this a alid indicator o the project outcomes as identiied aboe:
Improed child-child, child-adult relationships
Diminished isolation behaior
Reductions in aggressie,iolent behaior
Decrease in excessie watchulness or danger
Improed school attendance
Improed classroom behaior & cooperation
Reduction in concentration problems
Reduction in playing o war games
Increased hope & positie attitude toward uture

I we had eidence that linked maniestations o war trauma ,the bedwetting, nightmares, etc., so
strongly to improed concentration and classroom behaior, diminished isolation, improed
relationships, positie behaiors, an increased sense o hope, and so on, we might choose this as an
indicator to represent these other outcomes. In the absence o clear eidence that this one indicator
is alid enough to stand in or the other outcomes, reliable enough in that it measures unctioning
accurately and consistently, and sensitie enough to pick up a wide range o behaiors and attitudes
that we hope to inluence through psychosocial programming, we might conclude that the two
measurement tools ,the Lxposure and Impact Scales, and the indicator they inorm are not a
suicient measure o program success or ailure.

Indicators need to be used or what they can actually tell us. As discussed earlier in conjunction with
the deelopment o a logic model, the reliance on the Impact and Lxposure scales has ailed to
uncoer other sources o stress ,such as the inability to conduct burial rites or parents, and were
thereore not .ev.itire enough to pick up all sources o stress. As the entire approach o the project
eoled, inormation collected as part o the on-going monitoring process highlighted the realization
that the trauma scales were no longer releant. By the end o the PB\11 project, a reliance on these
measures had aded into the background.

A more alid, reliable, and sensitie indicator would be the degree o social unctioning as deined by
local people and program beneiciaries. 1here are additional quantitatie measures o social
unctioning that could be utilized. loweer, they still need to be alidated or utilization across
cultures, since the deelopment o many such instruments
29
originates in a western Luropean and
American context. An een better starting point would hae been to carry out an ethnographic
exercise to identiy local understandings o stress, coping, and unctioning resources and to use these
as a platorm or project design. Beneiciaries had sel-imposed a silence on spiritual issues because
they were willing to hae the experts` deine what their problems were. A better attempt at
understanding local perceptions could hae yielded additional markers or measures o unctioning to
those measured by the Impact Scale that looked at bed-wetting, nightmares, etc.

1he deelopment o good indicators inoles a clear understanding o: 1, what it is you want to
measure, and 2, how you will measure it-that is, what kind o tools, scales, or quantitatie or

29
Examples include the following: Achenbachs Child Behavior Checklist; Robert Goodmans Strengths and
Difficulties Questionnaire, 2000; Rosenbergs Self Esteem Scale; Childrens Attributions and Perceptions
Scale (CAPS) by Maccarino, et al; Youth Coping Index by Hamilton McCubbin, Anne Thompson, and Kelly
Elver, 1995; State Hope Scale and the Trait Hope Scale by C. R. Snyder, et al. Additional examples are
referenced in the Selected Resources section at the end of this document.

44
qualitatie instruments you will use in order to measure it. \e need to assess whether or not our
indicators are reliable and alid, whether we can realistically collect the data gien a particular
situation, and whether the data collection eorts represent a reasonable amount o cost and eort.

\here some implementers can run into problems using scales such as these, is in a lack o .ecificit,.
lor example, when the goal is to identiy dierent needs o community members ,those who need
extra support and attention in order to cope, or instance,, an indicator that is not .ecific enough
might not be able to distinguish between the dierent degrees o need, it may in act show that 90-
100 o a population is suering rom post-traumatic stress disorder, or example. Indicators need
to be .ecific enough to measure needs and changes in those needs.

(C e6%*141%14@# %*. e6%-41%14@# B*.4&%1+"2

1. Qvavtitatire data are represented in the orm o numerical or categorical ,yes,no, responses, or other
scales or ratings that lend themseles to numerical alues ,e.g., requently, sometimes, neer`,.
Quantitatie indicators are oten gathered through sureys, tests o knowledge and skill retention,
records, existing population data, direct obseration, or other sources. A requently used type o
quantitatie measure is the surey questionnaire. Participants are asked to respond to questions by
indicating the strength o their eeling or attitude on a scale ,e.g., when asked, low rightened do
you eel` an adolescent indicates almost neer,` somewhat,` or almost always`,. Questionnaires
are a conenient and clear way to measure a ariable. loweer, they sacriice the range o personal
and subjectie responses that are best captured by qualitatie measures.

2. Qvatitatire data`s greatest alue lies in the ability to represent the depth o the subjectie experience
o participants or beneiciaries in a gien population. Qualitatie measures are thought prooking and
enlightening, and attempt to get at the richness o human experience by tapping into the participants`
own ways o expressing their perceptions, reactions, eelings, attitudes, and interpretations. Because
indiiduals respond dierently to crisis, measures that can accommodate personal representations o
experience are more likely to bring aluable but hidden inormation to the surace. As illustrated in
the PB\11 project, qualitatie data can highlight problems with project actiities speciic to a cultural
context early in the lie cycle o a project. Qualitatie measures oten depend on erbal sel-reports o
these eelings, descriptions, and interpretations o eents. Although qualitatie measures can be
quantiied, they are not numerical in their raw orm. A greater amount o time in collecting data and a
greater degree o analytical skill must be applied to qualitatie data. 1he ariety o qualitatie methods
will be discussed in the next chapter.

BTC S4*)4*/ V5Y#&14@#2 %*. B*.4&%1+"2

Project planners need to hae a clear idea o their objecties beore they can discuss indicators o
success.` Indicator deelopment and the spelling out o project objecties and intermediate results
go hand in hand. It is an iteratie process, that is, the articulation o the pathway to desired results
deelops out o a series o adjustments and reinements as project actiities and inputs, their outputs,
intermediate results, and inal outcomes ,i.e., the higher-leel outcomes that are essentially the project
objecties,, and releant indicators or each step are considered in turn. 1he process o deeloping
indicators is thereore best thought o as resulting rom a cyclical consideration o inormation. lrom
a consideration o the oerarching or broader project objecties and the kinds o actiities to achiee
them ,with their arious inputs and outputs,, the ocus shits to speciic actiity objecties, the
anticipated output, and indicators to monitor their implementation. lrom there, consideration moes
to the outcomes related to larger objecties and indicators to ealuate and measure them, based on the

45
project logic model. 1he cycle can be reiterated during the course o project implementation in order
to adjust the selection or determination o objecties, indicators, and means o measurement as
necessary. At the heart o the process is always the project goal.

?4%/"%0 N8 S4*)4*/ !"+Y#&1 B*:612b V61:612b V5Y#&14@#2b %*. 17#4" B*.4&%1+"2

Ideally, this sequence as captured in Diagram will be made explicit during project planning.
loweer, many projects, particularly in emergency situations, may assume an outcome without
explicitly stating the relationship between a project actiity and the result or outcome. Although not
desirable, many project coordinators may ace this situation at one time or another. 1he task then is
to work in the other direction, seeking to clariy the project objecties the actiities are actually
working to achiee, and to articulate the outcome that is tacitly anticipated. Indicators at the leel o
actiity, output, and outcome are then considered in turn, again oten leading to adjustments o the
objecties themseles. 1hinking about bor to measure makes one more aware o rbat to measure.
Another approach to designing a monitoring and ealuation strategy is to think o objecties at
dierent leels o project implementation. A project may in act hae a range o objecties with
dierent timerames. Such an approach may take as its starting point ery simple actiity statements
and end up with more complex outcomes-outcomes we hope will be achieed by our actiities. A
project that has multiple leels o objecties can distinguish between objecties that are achieed
during the course o a project ,e.g., parents hae increased their knowledge and skills in recognizing
and handling iolent or anti-social behaior in children, and objecties that will be achieed by the
end o a project ,e.g., children exhibit ewer iolent or anti-social behaiors,. 1his can also be thought
o as a chain o results` in which intermediate results lead to other results that in turn lead to the end
results or outcomes. 1hese will hae been articulated during the deelopment o the logic model, or
the reasoning behind the project. It is important to understand that all projects hae objecties at
dierent leels and that indicators may be used to assess progress on objecties at each o these
dierent leels.

Insets 21 and 22 illustrate the process o deeloping objecties and indicators linked to two examples
o diicult-to-measure concepts that are characteristic o psychosocial programming. Our examples
ocus on building or restoring a child`s .ev.e of ratve, also reerred to as sel-esteem or sel-worth, and
Endline Outcomes/
Objectives
Outcome Indicators
Project Input
Monitoring Indicators
Project Output
Monitoring Indicators
Intermediate
Outcomes/
Objectives
Outcome Indicators

Project Goal

46
the concept o boefvtve... 1here are numerous pathways toward these objecties as they are shaped by
a particular socio-cultural context and by the eents or circumstances that hae led to a child`s loss o
sel-worth and hope ,such as traumatic eents experienced during war,.

Project design would best begin with a participatory assessment inoling arious members o the
community that will beneit rom project implementation. By learning rom dierent members o a
community ,not only rom those whose oices are most accessible, such as community leaders, but
also rom more ulnerable groups and rom children and youth themseles, what sel-worth and hope
look like, project planners can, with the assistance o the community, begin to identiy appropriate
interention strategies, appropriate objecties, and alid, reliable, and sensitie indicators to obsere
and measure change in sel-worth and hope.

1hrough a culturally grounded process, an important pathway toward an increased sense o sel-worth
was ound to include:

An increased sense o sel-worth or alue as a unction o being a member o a larger
community in society, and
An increased capacity to make personal iews, opinions, or obserations heard, where
culturally appropriate.

In order to deelop indicators to measure achieement o these objecties, project planners would
need to work with local communities to learn what roles children and youth can take in particular
eents, what expressie channels o communication are aailable, and how to recognize cries or help,
expressions o need or opinions, etc., gien a particular socio-cultural context.

Project planners will also need to work with local community members and use participatory
methodologies in order to learn rom children, their caregiers, extended amily members, community
leaders, local healers, teachers, and others, what restored hope looks like in order to deelop culturally
appropriate objecties and indicators or re.torea boe.

Again, through a culturally grounded process, we might determine that a hopeul` child is one who
is:
More engaged in social and recreational actiities
More engaged in uture planning
More willing to share dreams about the uture with peers
Lxpressing optimism about the uture
1rusting others in community


47
B*2#1 E;8 V5Y#&14@#2 %*. B*.4&%1+"2 $+" c+:#$6-*#22

!+2245-# V5Y#&14@#28
Increase children`s and youth`s inolement in planning or the uture ,near-term and long-term, and coniction
that they hae some control oer the direction o that uture
Increase the capacity or sharing and working together toward uture goals
Increase the sense o trust in members o a community
Strengthen the social support mechanisms o a community
Increased leel o hope among generally aected and at-risk children

L+0# !+2245-# B*.4&%1+"28
Degree o children`s and youth`s perceptions o their own ability to plan or the uture ,skills deelopment,
education, saing resources, or other,
Number o children and youth inoled in cooperatie endeaors ,such as planting community gardens,
contributing toward the building or decoration o a more permanent community structure, etc., and their perceied
alue o such endeaors
Children`s perceptions o the alue o teamwork
Number and quality o social support mechanisms in a community
1he leel o trust children hae in other members o a community and,or social network ,this would ery likely
require proxy indicators,
Proportion o children or youth who respond positiely to a majority o questions designed to measure their leel o
hope ,e.g., a score between 31 and 42 points on the Children`s State lope Scale,.

TC d24*/ B*.4&%1+"2 1+ Z+*41+" !"+Y#&1 B*:61 %*. V61:61

1he implementation o a project is monitored to ensure that necessary ivvt. are proided and that
actiities are actually carried out as planned. lor example, we need to know whether or not personnel,
inancing, acilities, and supplies were receied on time since these acilitate or hinder the progress o
an interention. A good monitoring system will also keep track o project ovtvt, such as: the number
o training sessions scheduled, the number o trauma counselors trained, and the number o children
counseled. A reporting mechanism should be in place so the project manager can make decisions
about implementation in a timely ashion. Project outputs or actiities are monitored to make sure
that each step in an oerall plan is completed. lor example, we need to know that training curricula
hae been deeloped, that trainers hae been trained, and that caregiers were gien the training. On
the one hand, we need to know that inputs-newly hired but untrained trainers, unds or salaries,
space or trainings, and training materials-are in place. On the other hand, we need to know that
trainers hae been trained, and that caregiers hae receied training rom these trainers, these are
examples o dierent leels o project outputs.

B*.4&%1+"2 &%* 5# .#$4*#. $+" #%&7 21#:
lor example, i teams will be trained:
lae the teams been identiied
lae the training modules been deeloped and translated, i necessary
Is the quality o the modules up to standard
low many training sessions hae been scheduled
low many training sessions were actually carried out

It is a good idea to identiy the actual source o inormation or data or each indicator during the initial
project planning stages. 1his can help eliminate any duplication o eort and ensure that data

48
required or monitoring are collected in a timely ashion. Sometimes the inormation an indicator
might hae proided is lost because too much time has passed and it is no longer possible to collect
the data. In designing a monitoring strategy, it is important to list the inputs and outputs, identiy
indicators, ava identiy data sources or each.

I it is sensitie enough, the monitoring strategy will also point out areas where more attention is
needed. loweer, it cannot always alert project managers to a need or programmatic changes outside
o the actiities already anticipated. In the case o projects designed to address the psychosocial needs
o children and amilies, a monitoring and ealuation strategy must be designed to determine not only
whether or not project actiities are adequately carried out, but ery importantly, whether or not they
are indeed reaching those they are intended to help. 1his is particularly important when marginalized
groups are the intended project recipients. \e want to know that, gien the project input, we are
seeing the anticipated output ,rom scheduled actiities and other input, among intended project
participants.

Although written project proposals and descriptions oten gie the impression that indicators and
ealuation methodologies are static and neer change, indicators may eole as a project eoles. 1he
ability to adjust our measures o input, output, and outcome based on lessons learned is one o the
keys to deeloping a useul monitoring and ealuation system. Among the actors that may necessitate
adjustments are changes in the external situation, workload increases or sta, or a realization that the
initially deined indicators are less releant than had been enisioned. In act, as a project unolds and
implementers gain new insights, it may become clear that the measures are ocusing on the wrong
things or not monitoring the most releant indicators. lor example, one may learn that that the logic
model or reasoning behind the project was only partially correct. In such circumstances, rigid
adherence to predetermined indicators blocks learning and moement beyond one`s preconceptions.

(C 3+*2+-%&`+ =*"4&70#*1 !"+Y#&1

1o illustrate how indicators are deeloped in the context o a project, let us turn to the example o the
Consolacao Lnrichment Project. In this project, a total o ten sta members were selected rom
among the Mozambican reugees and three sta rom the host country o Malawi. Additional
consultants and technical assistants were attached to the project at arious interals during the ie
years that the project ran. 1he personnel inoled in the project are part o a project`s input. 1he
sta receied training that emphasized:

1. Principles o child deelopment and psychosocial deelopment,
2. Understanding and recognizing children`s reactions to war experiences,
3. 1he centrality o cultural traditions and the importance o supportie adult role models in
building or restoring children`s sense o security and belonging to a community, and
4. Principles and strategies o working with children through recreational and creatie actiities.

Project output, then, would include trained sta. An indicator to monitor this output would be the
number o sta who successully completed this series o trainings. An additional indicator that
should also be considered is the number o sta who could successully recall key messages in the
training upon completion o the training workshop, and again, at an interal o six months ater the
training ,this could proide an indication o the quality o the training and monitor project output as a
step toward achieing project objecties,. Monitoring project input and output may be primarily a
matter o maintaining accurate inancial and personnel record-keeping and maintaining a schedule o

49
actiities that also record, in this case, attendance at training sessions, completion o training, and
results o the training exercise ,e.g., retention o messages and methods,.

_C L%0:-# B*:61jV61:61 Z%1"4<

A matrix o project inputs and outputs can proe useul in designing a monitoring strategy. By linking
output directly to project actiities and objecties, we can assess project implementation. Ideally, both
quantitatie and qualitatie indicators should be used because o the ariety o data accessible through
these dierent means.

1able 1 represents a sample o what a partial matrix o input and output indicators or the PB\11
project might look like. Actiities are linked to input and output indicators, and data sources are
identiied. \e also note whether indicators are primarily qualitatie or quantitatie.

9%5-# ;8 Z+*41+"4*/ B0:-#0#*1%14+*8 S4*)4*/ B*:61b V61:61b B*.4&%1+"2b %*. ?%1% L+6"&#2

avte Pro;ect .ctiritie. . avte of Po..ibte vaicator. avte. of Data ovrce.
^P|1
3-person teams identiied or training
Qvavtitatire
1eam members identiied

Project manager`s records
O|1P|1
In each proince, 3-person teams will
be trained in child deelopment,
impact o war on children, training and
mobilization processes, and
community-based, expressie actiities
Qvavtitatire
Number ,4, o teams trained
4 and o teams with adequate
knowledge and skills ollowing
training and at 6 months
Qvatitatire
Local perceptions o the knowledge
and skills that trained team
members bring to the community

Superisor`s records
Knowledge,skills
assessment ollowing
training and at 6 months

locus group or key
indiidual interiews
^P|1
Select and train community adults on:
1he impact o iolence on children,
Children`s healthy deelopment,
Local modes o healing,
Organizing structured actiities to
support children`s psychosocial
deelopment
Qvavtitatire
4 o community adults selected or
training
4 o training sessions scheduled
4 o training sessions scheduled
that are completed
Qvatitatire
Adult`s assessment o their own
emotional well-being

1raining team and,or
project manager`s records

O|1P|1
Community members are better able
to recognize children`s needs,
understand the impact o iolence on
children, and know how to assist
children
Qvavtitatire
Number o community members
who recognize certain symptoms as
maniestations o the way iolence
aects children, recorded as a score
on a knowledge scale administered
at the end o training
Qvatitatire
Community adults` perceptions o
the alue o children`s psychosocial
deelopment, local modes o
healing, and structured actiities

Surey o community
members who attended
dialogue sessions

locus group interiews

50
avte Pro;ect .ctiritie. . avte of Po..ibte vaicator. avte. of Data ovrce.
êt eret O|1P|1
1rained community adults will organize
structured actiities to promote
children`s psychosocial deelopment
Qvavtitatire
o iolence-aected children
inoled in actiities
Qvatitatire
Children`s enthusiasm or and sel-
reported and,or obsered quality o
participation

Actiity attendance records
,aevovivator: existing data or
population estimates,
Semi-structured interiews
with children, innoatie
qualitatie methods with
groups, and obserations

An ovtvt indicator can sometimes be misconstrued as an ovtcove indicator. 1his can happen when the
outcome o a certain actiity is not made explicit, or when an actiity is iewed as an end in itsel. 1o
expand on a preious example, i actiities such as drama, singing, dancing, or story-telling, which
encourage emotional expression and group integration, are understood to decrease eelings o
isolation and other symptoms related to experiences o war-related iolence, we might be tempted to
think that, i a child simply participates in these actiities, we hae achieed an ovtcove. loweer,
participation is only a project ovtvt. \hat we really need to measure as an outcome is the prealence
or degree o eelings o isolation and other symptoms related to experiences o war-related iolence as
reported by the children or their care-giers. 1he monitoring o ovtvt only assesses whether or not a
project is being implemented as designed. It is not a measure o the actual ovtcove or the results o the
project as implemented. 1he next leel output` in 1able 1 aboe could also be iewed as an
intermediate result or outcome, howeer, it too is an ovtvt that seres to monitor project
implementation. An example o an ovtcove that would ollow the input and output described in the
table would be the re.vtt o community adults` application o the training. A quantitatie ovtcove
measure might be the number o children who exhibit ewer anti-social behaiors and show greater
integration, trust, and speciic measures o psychosocial deelopment ,as deined speciically or the
context o the project interention,. A qualitatie indicator might be community adults` sel-reported
alue o their capacity to assist children in coping with iolence-related stress and in improing in
psychosocial deelopment.

TBC =@%-6%14*/ !"+Y#&1 V61&+0#

1he simple outcome o our interention is what we are able to measure or obsere ollowing
implementation o our project. But how do we interpret the outcome we obsere and how do we
learn i our project has been successul or not 1he most obious answer is to compare the status o
interest ,e.g., children`s sense o security or utilization o creatie coping mechanisms, in our project
beneiciaries beore and ater project implementation ,that is, pre- and post-interention,. 1his will
tell us i the change has been positie or negatie, but it will not tell us i the change was caused by
our project, because there may hae been other NGO actiities or enironmental actors that
occurred at the same time as our interention. I we do not hae data on pre-interention status, we
can still collect inormation ollowing completion o the project and compare status between those
who participated in our project and those who did not, een though this will not tell us about
preexisting dierences between participants and non-participants that could hae inluenced the
outcome we obsere.

In the absence o more data, we can report on simple outcome measures and this may be suicient
or our project reporting needs. Reporting on outcome can demonstrate to an extent whether or not
our project objecties hae been met. In order to decide i a report on outcome measures is
suicient, we need to deine the purpose o the ealuation clearly. Is it to document results and
lessons learned Is it to empower a community \hat do we want to learn rom the ealuation

51
\hat are the donor`s expectations Gien the nature o responses to humanitarian crises, NGO
coordination, and multi-sectoral interentions, it is becoming increasingly diicult to isolate changes
in status that hae resulted rom one particular project. Also, because o the complexity o actors
that inluence psychosocial well-being in indiiduals and communities, we cannot always be sure that
we ully understand a particular interention eect as distinct rom another. loweer, we can still
report on outcome and the apparent achieement o project objecties. \e can make inormed
assumptions about our particular project impact based on preious interentions, although it is
important to note that we are reporting on general or net` outcome and not attributable`
outcome-that is, outcome that we can say is directly attributable to our interention and not other
actiities or enironmental actors.

(C 97# ?4$$#"#*&# 5#1,##* !"+Y#&1 V61&+0# %*. B0:%&1

Some ealuations demand that we ealuate causal links between our project actiities and outcome
rather than simply obsere the general outcome, especially i the ield is new enough that not much
documentation on the causal chain between actiities and input, output, intermediate results, and end
outcomes exists. lor example, it is well documented that during times o war and orced separations,
reuniting children with their primary caregiers who are supportie and coping emotionally and
socially is highly beneicial to children. I we know ,through monitoring actiities, that our project has
been successul in reuniting amilies it is likely that we would not need to establish a causal link
between reuniication and psychosocial beneit through conducting an impact ealuation. loweer,
gien that the ield o psychosocial programming is relatiely new and includes a wide range o
potentially helpul interentions, it is important to conduct more actiov re.earcb ,usually smaller-scale,
pilot studies in which an impact ealuation is planned ahead o time and circumstances make it
easible, in order to document causal links between project interentions and outcomes. \e may also
be asked to report on the outcome that we can attribvte directly to our project in order to justiy the
scaling up or replication o a project.

I, or example, it might be argued that the reason children in an IDP camp are interacting better with
their peers is simply a result o time haing passed since the children experienced trauma or separation
rom their homes, and not because we introduced recreational and educational actiities. In order to
rule this out, we would want to show that the outcome we obsere can be attributed to our project
actiities. \e also want to know that our project actiities hae helped and not hindered the
psychosocial recoery o our participants. But how do we know i the change we see pre- and post-
interention is a result o our project and not due to other actors In order to talk about project
ivact, we need to be able to measure or estimate the dierence between the outcome o a project
interention and what the outcome would hae been iv tbe ab.evce of the project. In other words, we
need to hae a realistic idea o what the change in status o our project participants would hae been
i our project had neer been implemented.

I we knew exactly what the status o participants would be in the absence o a project, all we would
need to measure would be their status ollowing our project interention. But we cannot know this
because we do not control all the internal and external inluences on our project participants. An
alternatie is to measure where our participants and non-participants started and where they are
ollowing the project implementation. Diagram 8 below illustrates this graphically. 1he treatment
eect` or project impact is the dierence in outcome between project participants ,in which the
change is illustrated by a solid line, and equialent non-participants ,degree o change illustrated by a
dotted line,, or where the participants would hae been had they not participated in the project or
treatment.

52

It is not enough to simply know how status has
changed or participants, howeer. \e also need to
know i there are some actors that could hae
inluenced change dierently between project
participants and non-participants. low can we
know that non-participants would hae reacted or
changed in the same way as participants I we take
the status o non-participants to represent what the
status o participants would hae been had they not
receied the project interention, we need to know
that the two groups are equialent.

1here are dierent ealuation designs we can employ in order to accomplish a alid comparison.
Some o these will be discussed in Chapter Six. Impact ealuations require considerably more
resources than an outcome ealuation. Such resources as staing ,do we hae the sta or can we hire
suicient sta, and does the sta hae the adequate technical skill or is additional training needed,,
time, and adequate unding to carry out the ealuation are required. Seeking technical assistance
speciically or this eort may help you and your sta identiy measures that hae either been used
preiously or that may be a good it with your project objecties in order to design an eectie
methodology. As stated preiously, the input o community members is ery aluable in designing a
culturally grounded ealuation eort. Impact ealuations are especially helpul when assessing
interention strategies that hae untested assumptions, or when it is necessary to proe with a higher
degree o certainty that a particular project or the implemented actiities can be credited with speciic
results. 1hey also ocus on longer-term and oten broader objecties or goals rather than on
intermediate results. As preiously emphasized, not eery project must necessarily undergo an impact
ealuation.

_C B*.4&%1+"2 %2 Z#%26"#2 +$ L1%162 +" V61&+0#

\hether we undertake an outcome ealuation or an impact ealuation, we need to measure ,or be
able to model statistically, what existed prior to the interention. Data regarding the state o things
beore an interention are reerred to as ba.etive aata. Data on outcome ollowing an interention can
be reerred to as endline` data. 1he data may include both quantitatie and qualitatie inormation.

_(L=SBF= .%1% :"+@4.# % @4#, +$ 17# 5#7%@4+"b %11416.#b )*+,-#./#b "42)b
21%162b #1&C :"4+" 1+ :"+Y#&1 40:-#0#*1%14+*C

1he ability to identiy alid, reliable, and sensitie indicators ,the measures with which we will assess
the status prior to and ollowing an interention, will guide the content and methods used in
collecting baseline data. By recording our outcome indicators both prior to and ollowing an
interention ,e.g., in a baseline and an endline surey,, we hae a way to measure change in behaior,
attitude, knowledge, risk, status, etc.

It is also important to remember that some indicators may proide data or more than one outcome
or desired result. lor example, i a project objectie is to reduce children`s eelings o isolation by
?4%/"%0 O

Bef ore Af ter

53
increasing the number and quality o close attachments and riendships with peers, an indicator ,a
measure, o this outcome might be the number o close riendships a child has ormed. 1his same
indicator could proide a measure o a child`s trust or ability to interact with peers. I a project
objectie is to increase ethnic tolerance in the community by sponsoring a number o ethnically
dierse cultural eents, one outcome indicator might be the ethnic diersity at one o the sponsored
eents ,expressed as numbers o major ethnic groups as a proportion o total attendees,. 1his same
indicator might also measure the degree o access by dierse ethnic groups to the enue or cultural
eents.

As mentioned beore, baseline and endline data can be both quantitatie and qualitatie. Inset 22
describes qualitatie outcome indicators at both the indiidual and community leel or an Last 1imor
project.

B*2#1 EE8 =%21 940+"8 e6%-41%14@# V61&+0# B*.4&%1+"2

1he psychosocial project promotes normal amily and eery day lie in order to reinorce a child`s natural resilience. 1he
project ocuses on primary care and preention o urther harm in healing children`s psychological wounds through the
proision o support and training to community members. 1he objectie is to create a sustainable, community-based
response to mitigate the impact o iolence and displacement o children, youth, and amilies. Project outcome
indicators hae been identiied to gauge progress and results during the project`s irst year. 1hese indicators ocus on
outcomes or the community, or children, or youth, and in the policy arena. Monitoring has required the deelopment
o surey tools and a database that tracks project actiities, indiiduals` progress, and aggregate data. 1he ollowing are
the qualitatie indicators that were identiied to measure project outcomes:

Perceptions o tolerance by sub-groups within communities,
Children`s leel o hope and positie uture orientation ,this could also be quantiied on a scale,,
1eachers` perceptions o children and youth`s adjustment in school,
Parental perception o children and youth`s emotional and social well-being, and
Community leaders` perceptions o the role and unctioning o youth.

Qualitatie methods or gathering inormation include indiidual structured interiews and ocus groups. In addition,
indiiduals use ield journals to report insights and relections, while documentary photography and ideo are being used
to record the changes the project and the participants go through.

3C (* =@%-6%14+* Z%1"4<8 V5Y#&14@#2b V61&+0#2b B*.4&%1+"2b %*. ?%1% L+6"&#2

1he use o a matrix can acilitate the process o linking indicators to outcome measures. 1able 2
oers examples o both quantitatie and qualitatie indicators and their data sources and links them
to anticipated outcomes ,i.e., project objecties,. In Chapter lie we will return to discuss adantages
and disadantages o seeral o these data sources.

54
9%5-# E8 =@%-6%14+* Z%1"4<8 V5Y#&14@#2b V61&+0#2b B*.4&%1+"2b %*. ?%1% L+6"&#2

Ob;ectire.,Ovtcove. avte. of vaicator. avte. of Data ovrce.
Increased capacity o local
organizations and community
adults to help children
aected by war-related
iolence readjust

Is there an indication
that communities hae a
better understanding o
the psychosocial needs
o children

Qvavtitatire
o community adults and local organizations inoled
in actiities to promote children`s well-being
4 o communities and o community leaders,adults
who recognize the alue o expressie actiities or
meeting the psychosocial needs o children
Qvatitatire
Community members` perceptions o their capacity to
assist children
Perception o ability to unction better as a community in
assisting children.

Records o actiities
designed to support
psychosocial well-being and
deelopment
Surey questionnaire o
community leaders and
adults
,with ocus groups, and
obserations
lae adult caregiers
experienced a reduction
in war-related stress
Qvavtitatire
o adults reporting ewer symptoms o war-related
stress
Qvatitatire
Adults` reported sense o hope, sel-eicacy, conidence,
ability to plan

Surey questionnaire

with community adults
Children will experience a
reduction in war-related stress
Do children experience
ewer and less seere
symptoms related to
experiences o iolence

Qvavtitatire
lrequency & seerity o war-related stress symptoms
among children ,including nightmares,
lrequency & seerity o iolence-related symptoms in
relation to experiences o iolence

Impact o Lents Scale
Brie Symptom Inentory

Are children and youth
coping better with stress
Qvavtitatire
Degree o children`s ability to concentrate in school
o children able to express diicult emotions ,erbally,
other,
o youth who score at the optimal leel on a scale that
measures coping

1eachers` records on
children`s behaiors
Strengths & Diiculties
Questionnaire
\outh Coping Index

Improed psychosocial well-
being, social integration, and
return to normalcy`
Are children integrating
socially and better able to
express and deal with
diicult emotions and
iolence-related
symptoms
Do children hae an
increased sense o
security
Qvavtitatire
4 o positie social interactions counted within a speciied
period o time
A scale o children`s relationships with peers and adults
o children exhibiting 2 negatie emotional responses
Qvatitatire
Degree o social unctioning according to amilies
Children`s perceptions o what it is to integrate socially
,what does it mean to get along well with others, etc.,

Screening data
Lthnographic obserations
Surey interiew

with children and amily
members

Are children able to
orm peer riendships
Qvavtitatire
o children who hae more and stronger riendships
with peers
Qvatitatire
Problems with peers oiced by children

Progress notes

with children

Are children rebuilding
their trust in adults
Qvavtitatire
o children contributing more at home
Qvatitatire
Caregiers` perceptions o children`s cooperation with
adults in home and community

lome isit records and
notes on obserations and
interactions with caregiers

55
Ob;ectire.,Ovtcove. avte. of vaicator. avte. of Data ovrce.

Are children resoling
conlicts peaceully
Qvavtitatire
4 o aggressie or negatie behaiors obsered in a time
period
4 o conlicts obsered in a gien setting within a
speciied period o time and o those resoled
peaceully
4 o incidences o iolence in the amily
Qvatitatire
Children`s perceptions o social integration ,what does it
mean to get along well with others, etc.,

Lthnographic obserations

Interiews with community
adults, teachers, and
children

?C !"+<> B*.4&%1+"2

In identiying indicators to ealuate project outcome, we oten need to turn to inormation that
indirectly proides a measurement or reading on our outcome o interest. \e are able to gather data
that can sere as a proxy` or inormation that is not directly obserable, essentially unobtainable, or
ethically inappropriate to collect. lor example, health projects requently use proxy indicators to
measure sexual practices. Since health workers cannot directly obsere whether sae sex practices are
actually being practiced, they oten must rely on other eidence, such as whether or not a person
knows how to practice sae sex or whether a person purchases condoms. \hile knowledge certainly
does not predict behaior, and haing a condom is not the same as using one, these might sere as
next best` indicators. Various qualitatie research methods can be utilized in order to draw out data
or indicators and proxy indicators. Lncouraging a child to draw pictures descriptie o home lie or
o particular situations, or example, can proide insight into a child`s perception o experiences and
ability to cope. Drawing may be a more appropriate communicatie or expressie channel or young
children than direct erbal communication. 1elling a story or play-acting is another aenue that may
be easier or a child as well.

56

37%:1#" Q+6" L600%">

Certain undamental goals are at the center o psychosocial programming.

In deeloping project responses, we should always strie or project objecties that are SMAR1:
Lpeciic, Zeasurable, (ppropriate, Dealistic and 9ime-bound. In order to measure our achieement
o these objecties as well as our project implementation and progress, we should identiy indicators
that are: Talid, Deliable, and Lensitie.

Quantitatie data are represented in the orm o numerical or categorical ,yes,no, responses, or
other scales or ratings that lend themseles to numerical alues. Qualitatie data represent the
subjectie experience o the participant. Qualitatie measures attempt to get at the richness o
human experience by tapping into the participants` reactions, eelings, attitudes, and interpretations.

1he objecties o a project direct its process o measurement. As such, objecties drie indicators,
and not the other way around. It is good practice to link indicators to intended data sources early on
in the process o designing a monitoring and ealuation strategy. Sometimes we need to use
indicators that indirectly measure an outcome o interest. 1hese are called proxy indicators and
proide the next best` measure when a direct measure o the outcome is not easible.

In the absence o more data, we can report on simple outcome measures, and this may be suicient
or project reporting needs. In order to talk about project ivact, howeer, we need to be able to
measure or estimate the dierence between the outcome o a project and what the outcome would
hae been iv tbe ab.evce of the project. 1his requires a more rigorous research design.


57
Chapter Five

37%:1#" J8 B.#*14$>4*/ ?%1% L+6"&#2 %*. Z#17+.2 +$ ?%1% 3+--#&14+*

1bi. cbater ritt roriae av ivtroavctiov to i..ve. .vrrovvaivg aifferevt .ovrce. ava vetboa. of cottectivg aata.

BC ?%1% L+6"&#2

As indicators are identiied, their data sources should also be determined. \ou will recall that in
Chapter lour we discussed the process o deeloping speciic objecties or undamental goals o
psychosocial programming. In 1able 3 we expand on this discussion by identiying dierent kinds o
data sources used in ealuating the achieement o these undamental goals.

9%5-# G8 =<%0:-# ?%1% L+6"&#2 $+" Q6*.%0#*1%- X+%-2 +$ !2>&7+2+&4%- !"+Y#&12

X+%-2

L%0:-# +$ ?%1% L+6"&#2
L#&6"# %11%&70#*1 ,417 &%"#/4@#" [
Child eels sae and cared or by an adult
caregier

Adapted standardized scale that asks child to rate pictures
depicting behaiors indicatie o secure attachment
Unstructured interiew with child and caregier
Obseration o caregier child interaction
!##" "#-%14+*2 +" 2+&4%- &+0:#1#*&# -
Child has the capacity to create and
maintain meaningul relationships with
peers and adults. leels he,she is able to
naigate the social world.
Standardized scale such as the Achenbach Child Behaior
Checklist or other widely used child behaior checklist ,CBC,
adapted to current context, which asks dierent inormants to rate
a child`s competencies and problems in a wide range o domains
Unstructured interiew with child and peers
Peer nomination rating obtained rom riends
Obseration o child in social situations
L#*2# +$ 5#-+*/4*/ - Child is socially
connected to a community and eels he
,she is part o a larger social whole.
Unstructured interiew with child
Obseration in social situations
Records o participation in organizations and clubs
M#--\5#4*/b L#-$ ,+"17b L#-$\#21##0 -
Child thinks o him or hersel as worthy
and capable o achieing desired goals.
Child has sense o being alued. las the
capacity to participate in decisions
aecting his,her well-being.
Semi-structured scale that asks child to speak about any interesting
or dramatic experience they wish to discuss
Adapted standardized sel-esteem scale
Obseration o child in decision making situations
Ratings by peers
9"621 4* +17#"2 - Child has belie that
he,she can rely on others or help,
nurturance, and adice. Child eels that
he,she will not be hurt by others.
CBC
Unstructured interiew with caregier or other key inormant,
such as a teacher
c+:#$6-*#22 +" +:140420 %5+61 17#
$616"# - Child eels conident that the
world oers positie outcomes and a
hopeul uture. Shows willingness to
make uture plans.
Semi-structured scale that asks child to speak about any interesting
or dramatic experience he,she wishes to discuss
State lope Scale` and 1rait lope Scale`
CBC
Unstructured interiew with child and,or caregier and,or teacher

(&&#22 1+ +::+"16*414#2 - Child has
access to opportunities or cognitie,
physical, & spiritual deelopment and
economic security.
School attendance and perormance records
Caregier,teacher,religious leaders interiews
Marketing o ocational training opportunities and
attendance,completion records

58
As shown there can be a range o data sources including:

L1%*.%".4g#. 4*21"60#*12. Such instruments should be culturally adapted or use and may
include: sel-reporting by responding to a surey questionnaire, qualitatie narraties produced
by the participant on some ariable o interest, or pictorial ratings o a construct, idea, or
perception,
L1"6&16"#. +" 6*21"6&16"#. +*#\+*\+*# 4*1#"@4#,2 with project participants,
B*1#"@4#,2b Y6./0#*12b "%14*/2b +" *+04*%14+*2 made by persons who hae contact with
project participants, such as caregiers, teachers, riends and other key inormants,
Q+&62#. .42&6224+*2 ,417 /"+6:2 who are eected by the project or who interact with
project participants in some way,
L>21#0%14& 5#7%@4+"%- +52#"@%14+*2 made by sta or others who hae receied some
training as obserers, and
M"411#* "#&+".2 routinely collected on a particular behaior, such as school attendance.

Most quantitatie indicators are airly straightorward to collect. lor example, the number and
requency o children`s actiities scheduled can be easily obtained i a record-keeping system is
maintained by community adults directing children`s actiities, and with periodic checks by project
sta. Other, qualitatie, indicators require indiidual and,or small group interiews, and
ethnographic obserations. Sometimes a group o indiiduals ,a ocus group, is chosen or what its
participants can contribute to a discussion on a particular topic or issue. By conducting ocus group
discussions, an ealuation can obtain responses not always aailable in one-on-one interiews. In
addition, ery useul data can emerge out o acilitated community group discussions. Indiidual
interiews may be more appropriate than group methods or other questions-particularly or
sensitie topics.

In order to derie children`s opinions or reactions to actiities, arious other techniques in addition to
semi-structured interiews may be required. It may not be enough to simply ask a child whether or
not an actiity such as storytelling is enjoyable or what other actiities he,she would like to be
inoled in. Asking a child to play-act or to draw a picture o actiities that he,she imagines children
in normal` situations engage in, or example, might solicit insight into the alue particular actiities
hold or the child and a child`s perception o his,her role in those actiities. \hile an expressie
actiity such as drawing might be considered an actiity toward an objectie, since it is assumed to
increase a personal sense o security through the ery actiity itsel, it may also proide a source or
outcome indicators. 1his may be so because, through drawing, children are oten able to express their
thoughts, concerns, and eelings, which in turn contributes to a sense o security and possibly control
oer one`s lie, in which case we would add more lines o interaction. \e could possibly discoer
inormation both in the content o the drawing itsel ,either through assessment o the isual artiact
and,or through a child`s explanation o the drawing, and in a child`s demeanor while drawing. 1his
could proide an indicator to measure the presence or degree o a sense o security in that child at a
particular point in time. 1he ield o art therapy, or instance, has uncoered particular symbolism in
children`s drawings that can point to a greater or lesser sense o security in a child. lor example, recall
that oer time, children in the Consolacao Lnrichment Project ,CLP, began to talk about their
drawings - what the characters were doing and why, and then created their own ull-length stories
based on their drawings, which they then shared with each other as a group. 1he drawings, stories,
and sharing the stories beore the group, were all sources o data.


59
(C e6%-41%14@# ?%1% L+6"&#2 +$ 3+*2+-%&`+ =*"4&70#*1 !"+Y#&1 k3=!l

1he CLP collected both quantitatie and qualitatie data. 1he screening data used as part o the
selection criteria or participants was quantitatie. School-age children were initially screened
according to a list o seen emotional and behaioral responses common o children exposed to war
and related crisis situations. 1he list o characteristic responses was deried rom a reiew o
published literature on children`s responses and rom discussions with community members about
troublesome and recent changes in children`s behaior linked to war exposures. Gien cultural
dierences in the deinition and expression o emotional experiences, CLP sta elt it was also
important to assess the actual experiences o children. It assumed that certain experiences - such as
the death o a caregier or being chased by bandits - would cause psychological distress in most
cultures, ,regardless o whether or not the term describing that experience was the same across
cultures,. Children gien highest priority or participation in the project were those who scored
highest on this list ,the greatest number o symptoms and,or experiences, and who had other
additional risk actors, or example, poerty, separation rom amily or siblings, lack o school
enrollment. Inset 23 shows an abbreiated ersion o the CLP screening measure.

B*2#1 EG8 3+*2+-%&`+ =*"4&70#*1 !"+Y#&18 (55"#@4%1#. L&"##*4*/ Z#%26"#

Child shows signs o:
Sadness, crying
Being withdrawn, alone, or not playing with riends
Appearing araid or worried
Unable to concentrate, haing trouble at school
Lxperiencing intrusie war-related imagery
Being physically aggressie, uncooperatie, or being hard to discipline

Child has had the ollowing experience:
\itnessing a killing
Parent,caregier killed in war
lamily member injured or killed in war
lamily or child pursued by bandits
Capture by bandits

One strategy or determining whether or not the project was haing the desired outcome was to
measure the persistence or alleiation o emotional and behaioral responses o indiidual children
oer time. CLP`s strategy was to compare the seen emotional and behaioral responses o a child
beore entering the project and again ater that child had been in the project or a period o time. ,1he
ie criteria relating to a child`s history were not appropriate or this purpose since they could not
change oer time.,

Results at the project leel were relected primarily in weekly work summaries and weekly actiity
reports. 1hese were designed to record the number o actiities, participants, and oerall ability o the
project to meet its timeline or input and output. Project records and other data sources proide key
indicators that can also tell us about speciic outcome at the community leel and population leel
,i.e., an aggregation o community-leel data,.
Qualitatie indicators may require creatie methods to capture changes oer time. In CLP, a set o
qualitatie methods proided useul data with which to measure project outcomes. Inset 24 describes
some o these qualitatie methods.


60
B*2#1 EI8 e6%-41%14@# Z#17+.2 +$ 17# 3+*2+-%&`+ =*"4&70#*1 !"+Y#&1

1he Consolacao Lnrichment Project utilized a set o qualitatie tools to capture outcome data. 1he tools included:
amily interiew data, progress notes ,a qualitatie measure used to monitor a child`s psychosocial adjustment,, home
isit data ,primarily qualitatie inormation proided by a child`s caregier,, and weekly project actiity summaries
,quantitatie and qualitatie data regarding the outcome o project actiities, gathered initially or project monitoring,.

avit, ivterrier. proided in-depth qualitatie inormation on the experiences, social unctioning, strengths, and interests
o a child rom the perspectie o the child`s caregier, as well as aspects o the unctioning o a child`s amily and the
stress a amily might be experiencing. \hen gathered at multiple points in time, a project may document whether or
not, rom the amily`s point o iew, a child`s unctioning is becoming better.

Progre.. ôte. described a child`s behaior during actiities, his or her interactions with other children, and noted
problems oiced by the child as well as any special accomplishments or interests. Lach local sta trainee ,Actiistas, as
they were called, was gien responsibility or the obseration and monitoring o our to six speciic children. 1he
assignment o a child to an Actiista was random. Notes were conceptualized as a dynamic orm o monitoring and
ealuation, since they allowed sta to understand a child more ully, monitor a child`s progress or lack o progress, and
continue ormulating project goals or the psychosocial deelopment o each child. By utilizing a group ormat o
project reiew, sta skill deelopment was enhanced, theory was linked to practice, and the actiity unctioned as a
team-building exercise or the sta.

ove 1i.it. were made in an attempt to gather additional inormation about a child`s oerall unctioning. 1he home isit
sered as an additional tool in assessing the child`s behaior rom the caregier`s perspectie.

In retrospect, CLP could hae better utilized aailable data by haing a sta member speciically
assigned to the ealuation eort. 1oo oten, the task o ealuating a project suers when it is tacked
on to existing sta workloads. In CLP, the sta had primary responsibility or running the project.
1his, as in many children in crisis initiaties, required considerable time and emotional energy and
meant that a signiicant amount o data were not collected in as timely a ashion as hoped. It would
hae been better to assign speciic CLP sta to the ealuation, and to proide them with training,
superision, and support. \ithout clearly designated sta, the day to day actiities required to collect
data are likely to gie way to the more pressing concerns o the project. Once certain critical time
periods passed it was not possible or CLP to catch` up in collecting time-sensitie data.

BBC Z#17+.2 +$ ?%1% 3+--#&14+*

In this section we will ocus on major methods o data collection that are requently used in the
context o psychosocial projects: interiews, obserations, and sel-report methods. Oten these
methods are used in combination with each other. \hen considering any o these, one should be
aware o the adantages and disadantages o each, and decide which one alone, or in combination
with others, best meets the unique goals o the project ealuation. An important consideration in
choosing a methodology is the depth o inormation sought, its ease o administration, and leel o
skill required to administer.

(C B*1#"@4#,2

Dierent interiew methods are aluable or dierent topics and circumstances. 1hey can also be
used in combination with one another in order to gather dierent perspecties on the same topic or
to probe or more relectie and descriptie responses. Some examples o arious interiew styles or
methods include:


61
Open-ended or ocus group
Key inormant
Unstructured or semi-structured
Structured
Sel-reporting

1. Oevevaea vterrier. ava ocv. Crov vterrier. can be eicient sources o inormation while being
minimally intrusie. 1hey allow the interiewer to explore a ariety o topics in a systematic way while
giing the interiewer the possibility o discoering new or indigenous concepts. Additionally, they
allow the interiewer to understand the personal meaning o discussed concepts and ways concepts
may oerlap in meaning. \hile these techniques can proide aluable and rich data, there is a need to
be careul to design interiews to ensure that the opinions gathered are representatie o the ariety o
iews held by the targeted population. \ou may want to identiy seeral dierent ocus groups or
the same interiew questions and carry them out in dierent settings to encourage those members o
a population that are not used to speaking out to air their opinions as well. Sta will require training in
conducting ocus group interiews. 1raditions surrounding priacy, open discussion, and the
expression o opinions-particularly with regard to groups composed o emales and males-need to
be taken into consideration when opting or a ocus group methodology.

2. Ke, vforvavt. are people in the community who are in a position to hae greater depth o
knowledge on a particular aspect o the culture you are interested in learning about. 1hey can proe to
be inaluable sources o inormation in assessing a situation, deeloping a project, and ealuating a
project. 1hey can proide quick` access to inormation that might take someone rom outside the
community longer to learn or understand the importance o ully. loweer, key inormants may not
always be representatie o the community as a whole, the inormation shared with you may represent
mainly an indiidual key inormant`s own experience o a situation. Key inormants may also hae a
particular agenda, such as an interest in helping their own ethnic or clan groups, and must be careully
selected and their iews weighted accordingly.

1o take an example, suppose the ocus o your project were on the recoery process ollowing a war.
A ritual healer would be a aluable key inormant or local perspecties on healing ater the eects o
war. Recall the PB\11 project included inormation rom traditional healers in its inquiry. Not only
would he hae his own perspectie drawn rom his many interactions with those who sought his help,
he is likely to also be able to tell the stories o those whom he has helped to heal.

3. |v.trvctvrea or .evi.trvctvrea ivterrierivg allows or maximum lexibility in the direction and structure
o responses. More time may be required or such an interiew, but the beneit is that the respondent
,or group, him,hersel is able to order and structure the response rather than relecting an order
imposed by the interiewer. In some instances, a respondent`s ordering or sequencing and
oregrounding o topics may be ery important. Question guidelines and possible probes to
encourage a respondent to elaborate urther on a gien question are oten included in semi-structure
interiew guidelines.

4. trvctvrea ivterrier. oten ollow a questionnaire. lor arious reasons, the primary purpose o an
interiew may be to record responses to ery speciic questions. In order to guarantee that particular
questions are answered, it may be necessary to structure an interiew, with either qualitatie ,open-
ended, questions or quantitatie ,closed or quantiiable, questions.


62
5. etfreort vetboa. are eicient and systematic or both implementation and data analysis. \hile sel-
report measures are easily administered and proide systematic data, it is important to be aware o the
disadantages. 1he data collected rom a sel-report questionnaire is indicatie o a person`s orv
ercetiov o what they are doing or how they eel, and may not be actual or consistent with behaioral
maniestations o sel-reported eelings or attitudes. A sel-report methodology may be less eectie
with young children who are unable to recognize, characterize, or explain clearly their own patterns o
behaior, especially oer time.

Additionally, there may be actors that inluence the responses, such as social desirability, sel-
selection o participants ,not eeryone who receies a questionnaire responds to it,, or an
unwillingness to answer candidly i the person is embarrassed by the question or his,her answer to it.
Also sometimes responses become exaggerated when the person beliees he will get something i he
answers the questions in a way that indicates he is more in need than he really is. lor example, a child
who knows that he will get in trouble or ighting in school may not report it on the questionnaire out
o ear o getting in trouble. Likewise a parent may not report seeing her child ight because she is
aware o its undesirable social implications. A caregier may exaggerate economic need belieing that
this will increase resource allocation. It is recommended that other techniques such as those
mentioned aboe be used in conjunction with a sel-report questionnaire to ensure the accuracy o the
data and correctly interpret the meaning behind the obtained responses.

I you decide to use a standardized questionnaire or scale that has already been deeloped and
alidated on another cultural group, it is especially important to consider its appropriateness and
adaptability to the cultural group. \hile it may be quicker to use an existing instrument like a scale,
structured interiew schedule, or some other paper and pencil instrument, it is important to assess
how embedded this instrument is in \estern tradition and i it is culturally appropriate or the context
within which one is working. loweer, many instruments, while originally deeloped in the US or
Lurope, hae been translated into other languages and, more importantly, alidated on similar
populations. In addition, some measures, because o their close reliance on obserable behaior are
more cross-culturally appropriate than others or can be adapted more easily. 1hese measures may be
an eicient way to gather the necessary data.

Keep in mind that een i a measure is standardized on the population with whom you are working, it
does not necessarily mean that it will proide all o the inormation needed in order to assess the
project`s speciic goals. lor example, a standardized measure or assessing post-traumatic stress may
be able to proide data on trauma experienced, as it is deined within the instrument, but it may miss
some o the context-speciic social meanings o trauma as well as culturally embedded coping skills
and resources. \ou may want to deelop your own measure or use a combination o measures to
ensure that the data you are collecting are addressing the appropriate ariables with which to measure
the project goals.
30
As you make this decision, keep in mind the emotional discomort o the
participant and time and emotional cost o the ealuation or sta. 1hus, eery question should count.
\ou should hae a clear idea o the questions you want to ask and assess how each question, whether
in interiew, obseration or sel-report ormat, assesses those questions. Lxtraneous data, while
tempting to collect since you are there and are interested in the participants` experience, can be
insensitie, a waste o aluable project time and ultimately more o a burden than an asset to the data
analysis process.

30
A discussion of principles of developing questionnaires and structured interviews will not be covered in this
document. The reader is referred to several resources within the bibliography.

63
_C =17*+/"%:74& 9#&7*4i6#2

Lthnographic techniques, most oten used by anthropologists, describe a culture or some aspect o a
culture in detail by building an ethnographic record` through obserations, listening, and asking
questions.
31
In this method, the obserer keeps a careul and detailed record o what was seen and
heard. 1his can be time-consuming and requires ieldwork oer time. loweer, there is great alue in
ethnographic approaches because they proide extremely rich data on how people see their own
experience and communicate that experience through arious expressie channels.

Common ethnographic methods include:
Participant obseration
Systematic obseration
Participatory appraisal

1. In Particiavt Ob.erratiov, the obserer establishes a relationship or rapport with the persons or
community he,she is obsering, and learns about the culture and society by obsering rbite ivteractivg,
usually oer a period o time. Although this method can yield aluable inormation, being a
participant obserer requires maintaining a diicult balance o objectiity and inolement with a
community. Sometimes it is just too diicult to join` a community or there is not enough time -
particularly a community in the midst o a crisis.

2. In ,.tevatic Ob.erratiov, the obseration process is more planned or organized according to what
kind o inormation is o interest. 1here may be checklists, a scoring system, or prearranged categories
that are used to record the data o interest. 1he obserer has some rapport with the community but
maintains his,her status as obserer rather than becoming a participant.

\hen making obserations o behaiors, careul planning is needed. 1he obserer should attempt to
obsere or measure each participant under similar conditions. lor example, when obsering social
interactions o children, it would be good to obsere all o the children at approximately the same
time o day and under similar conditions ,e.g., during an aternoon ree play session,. It would not be
a good method to obsere some children during ree play and others while they worked in the
classroom. 1his is because although you are likely to obsere dierent amounts o social play among
the children, it would not be clear i the dierences were due to the children or the locations.

3. A Particiator, .rai.at method amiliar to many NGOs is commonly called Participatory Rural
Appraisal ,PRA,. 1his is a culturally sensitie surey methodology that builds on the teachings o
Paulo lreire,
32
A PRA method o inquiry alues experience and context oer scientiic experimental
research designs that analyze data collected by an outside expert.` PRA emphasizes using local
knowledge and empowering local people to make their own assessment, analysis, and uture plans.
Chambers
33
deines PRA as an empowering process o appraisal, analysis, planning, action,
monitoring and ealuation.` 1he surey teams strie to be multi-disciplinary and gender balanced.
1hey use group animation and exercises to acilitate inormation sharing, analysis, and action among
stakeholders. 1he key tenets o PRA are participation, teamwork, lexibility, optimal ignorance, and

31
H. Russell Bernard, Research Methods in Anthropology; Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2
nd
Edition
(Walnut Creek, California and London: Sage Publications, Inc., 1995).
32
Paolo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972).
33
R. Chambers, Rural Appraisal: Rapid, Relaxed, and Participatory (Sussex: HELP, Institute of Development Studies
Discussion Paper 311, 1992).

64
triangulation. 1he PRA methodology uses semi-structured interiewing, ocus group discussions,
preerence ranking, mapping and modeling, timelines, wealth ranking, and seasonal and historical
diagramming to gather data.
34
\hile PRA was originally deeloped or rural agriculture situations, its
use has expanded to other sectors including education, conlict resolution, and health and is widely
used in urban settings by international and local NGOs, academic institutions, and donors. Similarly,
many o the PRA tools and guidelines can be adapted to assess and ealuate psychosocial projects.

3C ?4"#&1 V52#"@%14+* 9#&7*4i6#2

Direct obseration techniques are a aluable data collection method. Obseration is considered to be
more direct than other methods because it detects the behaior o interest at a particular time and
place as it occurs naturally. Obseration can be done by project sta, or by caregiers, teachers, and
peers. 1his would proide a wide range o inormation about the child in dierent settings ,e.g.,
home, school, play, and oer a broader assessment than i the data were just collected rom one
source. \hen multiple sources o data are used and they oer consistent indings - reerred to as
triangulation - conclusions based on them are more alidated. \e will discuss triangulation in more
detail later in the chapter.

Commonly used orms o recording obsered behaior are:
Narraties
Lent records
Interal recording.

1. ârratire. are written or spoken obserations o eerything an obserer sees, and these proide a
rich array o obserations o eents and actiities. 1he drawback is that the quality o the data may be
marginal, since it is diicult to assess the objectiity o narraties and one obserer o one child may
ocus on particular behaiors while another obserer o another child may notice something
completely dierent.

2. revt Recora. proide a record o how oten a particular behaior occurs within a speciied time
rame and may track duration or magnitude, depending on the type o behaior. Lent recording may
be diicult when one obserer is obsering multiple participants. In this case, interal recording may
be a good option.

3. vterrat recoraivg breaks time periods such as a day into smaller segments ,15 minutes to 1 hour, and
obseres one person ,e.g., child playing with a toy, or an interaction between two people ,e.g., two
children playing together,, or behaior in a small group ,e.g., group o children playing a game, or
that amount o time. 1he obseration can also take place within randomly selected interals-instead
o obsering or iteen continuous minutes, an obserer may randomly select three ie-minute
interals during a particular hour. I a person exhibits the behaior o interest within that timerame, it
is noted. It is important to consider how countable a behaior is, and whether just the act o counting
may hae an aect on the behaior and participants ,e.g., a child becomes shy and stops the

34
See: M. Brydon-Miller and D. Tolman, editors, Transforming psychology: Interpretive and participatory research
methods, Journal of Social Issues 54/4 (1997); and World Bank Participation Sourcebook.
http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/sourcebook/sba104.htm.

65
behaior,.
35
1hese are important ariables to consider in designing a direct obseration coding
system.

lield notes are key in recording ield obserations. Lxamples include:
Jottings ,brie notes on key details in order to jog your memory or uller descriptions later,,
A diary ,this is a aluable record o personal obserations that may highlight details that proe
important later, een i they seem marginal at the time,,
A running ield log o how you plan to spend your time and then how you actually spend your
time
36
, and
lull notes that can detail methodology or be descriptie or analytical, or all three.

?C _%&)\9"%*2-%14+* +$ L&%-#2

1here are seeral issues to address when selecting and adapting a scale: translation or language
equialence, cultural and socioeconomic equialence, and conceptual equialence. Language
equialence implies that the descriptors and measures o psychological concepts can be translated well
across languages. A good way to address this issue is to use a back translation technique,
3
which
entails our steps:

Deeloping the questionnaire in the researcher`s language
1ranslating the questionnaire into the language in which the interiew will be conducted
Doing an independent back-translation into the language in which the questionnaire was
originally deeloped by the researcher
lield-testing the questionnaire or reliability and alidity

1his is best done by bilingual speakers, with the back-translation carried out by someone who has not
seen the original questionnaire deeloped by the researcher. It should be noted, howeer, that een
though the language may be equialent, this does not necessarily mean that the concepts themseles
are equialent.

=C 9"4%*/6-%14+*

Lach method o collecting data has its biases and weaknesses. 1hereore, it is best to not use just one
method o data collection, or methods that hae similar weaknesses. It is much better to use dierent
methods o data collection that represent a range o methods that do not share the same weaknesses.
1his is called triangulation.` By utilizing three ,or more, methods to get at the same inormation, we
can uncoer more inormation about the true measure and the potential weaknesses o any gien
method. lor example, psychosocial competence could be measured by interiewing children about
their riends and play actiities ,a qualitatie measure, as well as asking a teacher to ill out a
questionnaire about the social interactions o those same children in her class ,yes,no categorical
responses or responses that rate interaction on a scale rom 1 to 3 or 1 to 5, or example, would be
quantitatie measures,. \e could also obsere children playing and characterize the quality o the play
,e.g., interactie,solitary, aggressie, cooperatie, etc.,. \e might also discoer alternatie and

35
J. Cone, Observational assessment: Measure development and research issues. In Handbook of Research Methods
in Clinical Psychology edited by Kendall, Bucher and Holmbeck (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999), 191.
36
Ibid., page 184.
37
H. Russell Bernard (1995) op. cit.: 275.

66
unobtrusie measures
38
that illustrate natural erosion or natural accretion, or example, such as the
wear that particular areas o a playground or particular sports equipment and games show, potentially
as an indication o a certain quality o play. Multi-modal methods o measurement increase the
conidence one can hae when positie results are obtained. Lxamples include sel-report diaries,
behaioral obserations, peer nominations, questionnaires, and sureys.

37%:1#" Q4@# L600%">

1ypical data sources include:
Standardized instruments
Structured or unstructured one-on-one interiews
Interiews, judgments, ratings, or nominations made by persons who hae contact with project participants
,caregiers, teachers, riends and other key inormants,
locus Group discussions with persons impacted by the project or who interact with project participants in
some way
Systematic behaioral obserations made by sta or others who hae receied some training as obserers
\ritten records ideally those that are routinely collected on a particular behaior

Interiews, obserations, and sel-report methods are requently used methods o data collection.
Interiewing, ethnographic techniques, and obseration methods were discussed, including:
Unstructured or semi-structured interiewing
Key inormant interiews
Quantiication o selected obserations rom ield notes
Participant obseration techniques
Systematic obseration techniques
Personal narraties
Lent records
Sel-report methods
Unobtrusie measures

1riangulation describes a data collection approach that utilizes seeral modes o measuring a status, behaior,
outcome, eent, or phenomena. \hen seeral ways o measuring an eent show consistent results, the
conidence in that result is increased.

38
For a valuable discussion on unobtrusive, alternative and complementary measures, see: Unobtrusive Measures
(revised edition) by Eugene Webb, Donald Campbell, Richard Schwartz, and Lee Sechrest (Thousand Oaks,
California: Sage Publications, Inc., 2000).

67
Chapter Six

37%:1#" K8 !"+Y#&1 B0:%&1 =@%-6%14+*

.ttbovgb a fvtt ai.cv..iov of ivact eratvatiov i. be,ova tbe .coe of tbi. vavvat, av ivtroavctiov to .ove /e,
vetboaotogicat i..ve. ava cbattevge. facea iv covavctivg av ivact eratvatiov ritt be re.evtea.

BC B0:%&1 =@%-6%14+*

In order to determine impact or attributable outcome, there must be a causal pathway between the
project`s actiities and the changes reported or obsered. An impact ealuation may be required in
order to test the logic behind the project or to decide whether or not a pilot ,i.e., experimental, project
should be scaled up or replicated elsewhere.

As mentioned in our discussion on project outcome ealuation in Chapter lour, we need to be able to
measure the dierence, pre- and post-interention, between outcomes where we implemented the
project and outcomes iv tbe ab.evce of the interention. In other words, in order to identiy the
outcome attributable to our project interention ,that is, the actual project eect,, we need to hae a
realistic idea o where our project participants would hae been i they had neer receied our
interention. 1o reconstruct where participants would hae been had they not receied our
interention, it is easiest to compare our beneiciaries with an equialent group. lor a reliable
comparison, our comparison group ,also called control group`, must be the same as our
beneiciaries, or we should at least be able to calculate how dierences between beneiciaries and non-
beneiciaries might inluence the outcome dierently.

One o the strongest ealuation designs is one in which beneiciaries are selected at random or
participation in the project ,and in which beneiciaries and non-beneiciaries are compared both pre-
and post-interention,. Random selection ,whether simple or systematic random selection, assures us
that the indiiduals or households we choose at random rom a population will be representatie o
the entire population, since eeryone has an equal opportunity to be included. In other words, i we
are able to randomly assign indiiduals rom a population to an interention, then probability tells us
that the group that receies the interention and the group that does not receie the interention are
equialent. \e will be able to compare participants with non-participants and be conident that the
outcomes or the two groups are not dierentially aected by actors that we cannot control.

In ull coerage projects and in most emergency response projects, howeer, we oten cannot
randomly assign participants to an interention because either eeryone is included in the
interention, or it would be unethical to withhold project actiities rom all those in need. \e must
thereore ind or deise a comparison group or statistically model pre- and post-interention measures
in order to say with conidence that the obsered outcomes can be attributed directly to our project.

An IMPACT evaluation is done in order to determine whether or not longer-
range outcome is directly attributable to a project.

68
Impact ealuations are ery aluable or project learning and in preparation or project replication
and,or scaling up. lrom an impact ealuation, we can learn i our project logic is sound in spite o
poor implementation or, conersely, i our implementation was carried out well but the project logic
behind it was inaccurate. 1hat is, ailure to produce anticipated project results could be due to either
logic ailure or poor implementation. I the logic is sound and i we hae implemented our project
actiities and other inputs correctly, we would expect to see the outcome we anticipated. It is possible
to implement project actiities ery eectiely and reach the expected output ,e.g., community
counselors trained, children enrolled in psychosocial actiities, etc., and at the same time ail to see
anticipated outcome. Project actiities and input can be successully completed, but i there is no
causal link between them and anticipated results, we will not see the outcome we expect.

(C (11"45614*/ V61&+0#

Key indicators used to measure project outcome can also be used to measure project impact.
loweer, because the actual impact o a project will most oten be limited to ewer, more long-term
objecties, not all outcome indicators will necessarily be used. 1here may also be a need to deelop
additional impact indicators because o the interest in the longer-term or ultimate project objecties.
An impact assessment can be thought o as an ealuation o the sum total o a chain o causal
relationships between project input, output, intermediate results, and achieed outcomes or objecties
that contribute to a long-term project goal. In order to establish a causal relationship, certain criteria
must be met.

Inset 25: Attributing Outcome to a Specific Intervention

1o demonstrate that an outcome is attributable to a speciic interention, the ealuation must show that:
1here is a statistical relationship between the interention and outcome ,that is, by using principles o statistics,
the relationship can be mathematically represented,
1he interention either preceded or was concurrent with the outcome
1he change in the outcome obsered is not attributable to changes in other actors that happen to occur at the
same time

Lxtraneous actors that can conound the interpretation o attributable outcome may include:
1he presence o other interention actiities in a region
Uncontrolled selection` ,e.g., some participants o the project might be more likely than
others to participate in the interention actiities or there may be other dierences between
participants and non-participants inluencing the outcome,
Lndogenous change` or some kind o change outside o the control o project, such as
general trends that aect the population, interering eents ,political eents, economic shits,
personnel changes,, or maturational trends ,change that occurs because o the passage o
time,

1he extent to which impact ealuation can measure and clearly show that the results achieed can be
attributed to a project`s actiities depends on the nature o the interention and its setting.


69
1he eectieness o an impact ealuation also relies on aailable resources ,time, money, personnel,
etc.,. Budgets must relect the additional unds required to conduct an impact ealuation. It is not
wise to attempt an impact ealuation unless the cost or this ealuation is careully itemized. 1hese
costs include materials, equipment, technical assistance, the time o other sta in supporting the
ealuation eort, and costs associated with the documentation and dissemination o the results and
lessons learned through written materials and attendance at releant conerences.

_C D#%2+*%5-# (226"%*&# +$ !"+Y#&1 B0:%&1

1he inability to carry out an impact ealuation, due to limited resources or the inability to ind an
adequate ealuation design within a diicult emergency context, does not mean that a project was not
eectie. It means only that resources or data were not aailable in order to demonstrate with
statistical conidence that anticipated changes were due to the project`s eorts. An alternatie
approach is to carry out a rigorous outcome ealuation and support your assumptions about impact
with alternatie and complementary measures. A mixed methods` approach ,one that utilizes both
quantitatie and qualitatie data, is oten the most desirable method because it can address a broad
range o outcomes and inluencing actors.

I budget and other resource limitations restrict data collection to ewer sites or households than
would be ideal, and i the sample size or other design characteristics rule out statistical power or
conidence, we can still ind methods that will proide us with reasonable assurance that the outcomes
we are seeing are in act attributable, at least in part, to our interention. 1he most important thing to
remember is to be trav.arevt about the selection criteria used or sampling and be bove.t about what the
study`s limitations are. Do not try to make claims beyond what the data proide.

BBC D#2#%"&7 ?#24/* V:14+*2

In order to ealuate project impact, an appropriate research design must irst be selected.

( D=L=(D3c ?=LBXF 42 % 0#17+.+-+/4&%- 21"%1#/> $+" %@+4.4*/ +" &+*1"+--4*/ $+" 54%2
%*. 4*1#"$#"4*/ #@#*12C

A strategy or aoiding or controlling bias requires the establishment o a measurement scheme and
comparison groups. 1he particular research design will ary depending on coerage, aailable data or
constraints on data collection, and issues such as budget and time allowance. Some designs result in
greater statistical power than others. laing more statistical power means that we are able to say with
more conidence ,represented and measured mathematically, that the obsered results are attributable
to the project.

laing deined our indicators ,i.e., the items or the status we will measure to tell us about project
results,, we need to deine how we will use them. Measurement schemes inole a comparison o
results or obserations at dierent times, beore and ater project implementation, or example.
Some o the standard measurement schemes, ollowed by options or comparison groups are outlined

70
below.
39
Obserations are indicated by O, and project interention is indicated with an X. 1he order
rom let to right represents the time sequence.

Mea.vrevevt cbeve.
1. Post-test only, measurements or obserations ,i.e., the measurement o indicators, take place
ater project implementation.
X ...... O
vterrevtiov Ob.erratiov

2. Simple pre-test and post-test, indicators are recorded ,obsered, in the beneiciary population
both beore and ater project implementation.
O
1 ......
X
......
O
2
Ob.erratiov vterrevtiov Ob.erratiov
at 1ive 1 at 1ive 2

3. Pre-test and post-test comparison group design, the same indicators are recorded in both the
beneiciary population and a control group, beore and ater project implementation.
O
1a ..
X .. O
2a
,a ~ participants exposed to the project,
O
1b ..
O
2b
,b ~ control group, not exposed to project actiities,

4. Panel design, multiple measurements are taken throughout the project implementation and
include an obseration beore interention and obserations ater interention.
O
1

X O
2
O
3
O
4

5. Continuous measures pre- and post-interention ,also called a time series design,, multiple
measurements are taken both beore and ater interention.
O
1
O
2
O
3
X O
4
O
5
O
6

(C Z%Y+" 9>:#2 +$ 3+0:%"42+* X"+6:2

1. Ravaoviea Covtrot.. As mentioned preiously, one o the strongest designs or maintaining internal
alidity inoles random selection o project participants to an interention. By random, we mean that
selection is carried out with no predetermined criteria or biases guiding the selection. 1his can be
accomplished through simple random selection, such as pulling names out o a hat` or through
systematic random selection. Systematic random selection entails the systematic selection o, or
example, an indiidual or a household rom a complete listing o all indiiduals or households
according to a sampling interal. 1he sampling interal is determined by diiding the total population
,such as the number o indiiduals or households, by our sample size ,80, or instance,. I the
sampling interal is 34, we would start at a randomly selected number between 1 and 34, and rom
there select eery 34th indiidual or a household rom the list. I we started at the 1
th
indiidual or
household on the complete list, our second selection ,on our way to selecting 80 indiiduals or
households, would be the 51
st
on the list ,1 - 34 ~ 51,, our third selection would be the 85
th
on the
list, etc.

Randomized control design inoles at least two groups that hae been randomly assigned to either
the interention group ,i.e., participants, or to a group that does not receie the interention ,the non-

39
Earl Babbie, Chapter 4, Types of Study Design, Survey Research Methods, 2nd edition (Belmont, California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1997), 51-64; and Peter H. Rossi and Howard E. Freedman, Evaluation: A
Systematic Approach (Newbury Park, California and London: Sage Publications, Inc., 1993).

71
interention group,. \ithholding participation in an interention can be ery diicult, i not
impossible, in emergency situations where a project is most oten ull coerage, howeer, there may
be opportunities or introducing randomized control designs. Interentions where there are dierent
phases or timelines or implementing the project, or other cases in which there is a natural delay in
implementation may lend themseles to a randomized control design.

2. Refteire Covari.ov Crov. 1his inoles one group in a simple beore and ater project interention
comparison. In ull coerage projects ,i.e., projects where all children and youth are potential
beneiciaries, such as in a reugee or IDP camp,, this may be the only option aailable. loweer,
attempts should be made to identiy possible comparison groups rom among those who will receie
the interention at dierent leels o intensity or at dierent times during the course o the project`s
implementation. In the case o the PB\11 project, or example, the project was phased in at
dierent illages oer time. 1here was a natural delay between the institution o the project in the
irst community and the second, third, etc. Baseline measures were taken in the irst and second
communities, or example, but only the irst community initially receied the project. 1hus, the
second community sered initially as a comparison group with the irst. At a later date, measures
were again applied to the two communities in an eort to determine whether or not there were any
dierences that could be attributed to the project. It was only later that the second community
receied the project.

. Cov.trvctea Covtrot.. In this design, two or more groups are compared, one group made up o those
who participated in the project ,exposure group,, the other made up o those not exposed to the
project. \e should be conident that the control group is similar in all respects, or that we can
anticipate actors that might inluence dierential outcome ,that is, actors that might hae resulted in
dierent outcomes or the control group, had they been exposed to the project,. Another option is to
deine the control group ourseles so that we can model where their status baa tbe, beev eo.ea to tbe
rograv. An example o this is the Discontinuity Regression` or Cut-point` design discussed below
,in the discussion on Quasi-experimental Designs`,.

1. baaor Covtrot. 1his is the least strong design and is used when other options are simply not
easible. In this design, the outcome o the exposure group is compared to external standards or to
expert opinion regarding assumed impact.

BBBC =@%-6%14+* ?#24/*2

\hen we put together measurement schemes and comparison groups in arious combinations, we
come up with particular ealuation design options as shown in Inset 26.

Inset 26: Design Options for Impact Evaluation
Partial Coverage Projects:
Randomized or True Experimental Design
Quasi-Experimental Design

Full Coverage Projects:
Non-Equivalent Control Group Design
Repeated Measures Design (Panel Studies or Time
Series Designs)
Simple Before and After Studies
Cross-Sectional (Non-Uniform) Studies

72
1he questions that need to be asked when deciding which research design can and should be utilized
include:

1. \hat baseline data are aailable
2. Is the project partial or ull coerage
3. \hat resources ,time, budget, personnel, etc., hae been made aailable

\hether we are conducting an ivact ealuation or an outcome ealuation, we want to know whether
or not a change has occurred. As discussed preiously, baseline data proide us with inormation on
the status, behaior, knowledge, etc. that exist prior to the interention. 1ime pressures o emergency
response programming oten make the collection o baseline data appear to be an unnecessary luxury,
howeer, these data are ery important i we want to be sure that our project is resulting in the
anticipated outcome and that our interention actiities are helpul rather than harmul or a hindrance
to our goals. \hen baseline data are aailable, research design options are improed immensely.

\e also need to construct a alid comparison. Since emergencies tend to aect large areas or else
result in displaced populations temporarily settled among host populations, it is diicult to ind a
comparable group ,e.g., similar in socio-economic and ethnic-political-cultural background, with a
similar experience o trauma and displacement,. One option is to utilize a modiied time-series design
in which .tage. of cbavge resulting rom on-going interention actiities are compared. 1his can be done by
drawing a comparison group rom within the interention group itsel.

(C !%"14%- 3+@#"%/# !"+Y#&12

1he preerred research designs or an impact assessment o partial coerage projects include
randomized experiments and quasi-experimental design. Partial coerage projects are those in which
not all the potential beneiciaries are reached, such as a project that is implemented in only three o
ie reugee camps, or example. Partial coerage projects aord the opportunity to conduct pre- and
post-interention sureys in aected communities among those who will receie the interention and
those who will not receie the interention, thus proiding a comparison o the beore` and ater`
pictures in communities exposed` and not exposed` to the interention.

1. Ravaoviea eerivevt. inole the random assignment to exposure or non-exposure groups. In all
the other designs, exposure to a project is not random but purposeul. In randomized experiments,
measures typically inole obserations beore, during, and ater interention, o both exposure
,interention, group and control groups, who hae both been randomly assigned by the researcher.

2. Qva.ieerivevtat ae.igv. include:

Regre..iovai.covtivvit, .tvaie.. 1his design lends itsel well to interentions that entail a cut-o
point or inclusion in an interention. lor example, i only children aboe a deined leel o
war trauma experiences are included in a particular type o interention, we can statistically
model ,gien strong measures o the outcomes we are interested in, where this group would
hae been iv tbe ab.evce of the interention. 1his can be done by itting two lines on a graph o
pre- and post-interention scores` or children abore the cut-o point and or children betor
the cut-o point, and extending each or comparison. 1his design introduces an amount o

73
control oer the dierences between the two groups that would hae resulted in dierential
outcomes.
40

Matcbea covtrot.. Lxposure groups are matched with control groups ,i.e., groups, communities,
or regions, not aected by the project by the researcher or ealuator. 1hese typically consist
o beore- and ater-interention obserations.

tati.ticatt, eqvatea covtrot.. Lxposure groups and non-exposed groups are compared by means
o statistical controls. 1he measurement scheme may be beore- and ater- or ater-
interention only, but relies heaily on statistics and uses control ariables.

Ceveric covtrot.. Lxposure groups are compared to outcome measures aailable in the general
population. Ater-interention outcomes are compared to normal` leels or expected
indicators within a general population. 1his assumes that there is a general population`
comparable and accessible.

_C Q6-- 3+@#"%/# !"+Y#&12

1. ôveqviratevt Covtrot Crov De.igv. measure two or more groups both beore and ater a project
interention. Nonequialent implies that the two groups o participants dier rom one another at the
outset, beore the interention occurs. I reugee and non-reugee children had dierent experiences
o war, or example, these would represent nonequialent groups, yet they might be matched
according to approximate characteristics, such as age, sex, educational background, make up o amily,
language spoken, etc. Because they are nonequialent, it is more diicult to measure the eect o the
project ,its ivact, because chances are, the act that the control group is not equialent to the
interention participants means that there are actors that inluence the potential outcome dierently.
1hat is, we cannot assume that the nonequialent control group relects where the participant group
would hae been iv tbe ab.evce of the interention.

2. Reeatea Mea.vre. De.igv. ,either panel studies or time series designs, inole taking multiple
measures o the same indicators or the same participants oer time. lor example, in order to
examine the eects o the PB\11 project, the impact measures could hae been applied at interals
prior to and ater the project was introduced. lere the releant comparison is between the
measurements rom the irst week, which proides a baseline measure, and the measurements made
ater the completion o the training. In a sense, the participants in a time series design sere as their
own control group, in that they are being compared to themseles at a preious time. 1he PB\11
project chose a non-equialent control group design, children and amilies who participated in
actiities were compared to similar communities that did not participate. By comparing changes in
symptoms or the communities that receied the interention with those that occurred in matched
communities that had not receied the interention, the project hoped to determine whether the
reductions stemmed rom the psychosocial interention rather than improements in the wider
economic or political conditions.

. In ivte efore ava .fter De.igv., the project interention group ,also called the exposure group`, is
compared to itsel beore and ater project implementation. 1his is oten the most do-able research
design option or projects implemented in emergency situations because time and resources may be

40
For a complete explanation of this design, see Trochim, William, M. K., Research Design for Program Evaluation:
The Regression-Discontinuity Approach (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 1984).

74
limited, and it may be diicult i not impossible to ind a comparison group. In this design, outcome
,and impact, indicators are compared beore and ater the project. In order to establish attributable
outcome, we must use more sophisticated statistical models and carry out a thorough accounting o other
possible conounding actors. A simple beore and ater design can be eectiely used or an ovtcove
ealuation, but will not indicate attribvtabte ovtcove unless other actors inluencing net outcome hae been
identiied. êt ovtcove reers to all obserable outcome, without dierentiation between what may hae
occurred due to political, economic, or other shits, and what outcome is attributable to the interention
itsel.

1. Cro..ectiovat ;ôv|viforv) De.igv tvaie. rely heaily on statistical models also, by utilizing ater-
interention outcome measures and control ariables. Dierentially exposed groups are compared with
statistical controls in order to disentangle attributable outcome rom net outcome.

BTC L%0:-4*/

( L(Z!S= 42 +*-> % 265\2#1 +$ % :+:6-%14+*b 561 ,7#* .+*# &+""#&1->b 41 42 "#:"#2#*1%14@# +$
17# #*14"# :+:6-%14+*C

An important consideration when carrying out a population-based ealuation ,whether beore or ater
project implementation, or conducting a baseline surey, is the issue o sampling. Because it would be
a prohibitie use o resources or logistically impossible to gather baseline data as well as outcome and
impact indicators on eery single project beneiciary, we need to collect data rom a portion or sub-set o
the larger population. In order to be alid, our sample must be a true representation o the larger
population. In order to say with statistical conidence that the results o our sample are representatie
o a population and not due merely to chance, the sample must be o suicient size. 1hat is, the
number o indiiduals, amilies, or households interiewed in a surey or included in an ealuation
must be large enough to gie us statistical power to say that the results we come up with in our sample
are equialent to the results had we interiewed eeryone in the population. In order to illustrate a
statistical correlation that implies a causal relationship between our interention and an outcome ,i.e.,
an ealuation o attributable outcome, or impact,, we need to hae deried our results rom a sample
that truly is representatie o our population o interest.

\hat constitutes a large enough` .avte .ie Mathematical ormulas deeloped out o probability
statistics are used in order to determine appropriate sample size. In the most general sense, the rule is
the more the better,` that is, the larger the sample size, the greater the conidence in the results and
the smaller the margin or error.
41
Guidelines or sample size requirements are aailable elsewhere and
will not be discussed in depth here except to say that sample size is deried primarily by a ormula that
diides the product o the conidence leel ,a z-score, and product o the population proportion and
its inerse ,and in cluster sampling, the design eect also, by the square o the maximum tolerable
error. 1he resulting sample size n` is the number o respondents needed.

Additional households or indiiduals should be included in the sample to account or non-response
and to relect the population proportion i not eery household or indiidual contacted represents
part o the speciic respondent population desired. A simple random sample, with 95 conidence

41
For an accessible guide to sampling, see Magnani, Robert, the Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance (FANTA)
Sampling Guide (1997) available at the FANTA website: www.fantaproject.org.

75
that the results did not occur by chance, and with a maximum tolerable error o 10, might require a
sample size o 5, or example. A 2-stage cluster sample with the same leel o conidence and margin
or error might require a sample size o 220 ,or 10 clusters o 22 respondents each,, or example.
loweer, sample size alone is not enough to gie us statistical power, we also need to deine a strategy to
interiew households, indiiduals, or otherwise collect data on a representatie subset. 1his is called our
.avtivg ae.igv. Some o the more common sampling designs are briely described below.

(C !"+5%54-41> L%0:-4*/

lor a design to be a probability sample, two criteria must be met:
Lach participant must hae an equal chance o being selected.
1he probability o selection o each element can be calculated. \ithout the ability to calculate
what the chance is that any gien element will be selected, we lose the ability to say that a
sample is representatie o the whole population.

lour kinds o sampling strategies are described below ,other, equally powerul strategies exist but are
not described here,.

1. ivte Ravaov avtivg
1his is the most common type o sampling ,a uller discussion can be ound in arious texts deoted
to sampling
42
,. \ith simple random sampling, eery indiidual in the population has an equal chance
o being selected or the study. lor example, i there are two hundred children in a project, each
child`s name can be put on a slip o paper and a sample o 60 or 0 children can be randomly drawn
or participation in the study ,this is simple random sampling without replacement,. 1his method is
not always conenient or possible.

2. ,.tevatic Ravaov avtivg
I the goal is to identiy a sample o 120 households rom a complete list o 1440 households, or
example, in an IDP camp in order to interiew mothers regarding particular aspects o children`s
behaior ,such as aggressie behaiors, acting withdrawn, etc.,, we systematically select the required
number o households rom the list. lirst we deine the sampling interal by diiding the total
number o households ,1440, by the number o households we want to isit. Our sampling interal
equals 12, thereore we will select eery twelth household rom the complete list o households ater
beginning with a randomly selected start between 1 and 12. As long as our sampling interal does not
coincide with a regularly recurring eature o the population, this will result in a probability sample o
the population o the IDP camp under inestigation.

. tratifiea or toc/ avtivg
A stratiied sample is used when the precise proportions o important subgroups o a population are
known. lor example, i there are 150 emales and only 50 males in a group, and the goal is to relect
this inequality in the sample, a random selection o 20 o each o these two groups would result in
30 girls and 10 boys ending up in the sample.

1. Ctv.ter avtivg
1his type o sampling is aluable in cases where the actual population count within clusters is
unknown ,there is no complete list o households, or example,. I we do not hae an accurate list o

42
See Leslie Kish, Survey Sampling (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1965); and Steven K. Thompson,
Sampling (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002).

76
all irst-grade students in an area, or example, but we do hae a list o all irst-grade classrooms o
roughly comparable size in an area, we can use a 2-stage cluster design. Since we cannot randomly
choose respondents according to a random selection by student`s name ,because this list does not
exist,, we can irst randomly select a speciied number o irst-grade classrooms rom the list, and then
interiew ,through random selection, the same number o students rom each cluster,` or in this
case, rom each irst-grade classroom. lor instance, in the irst stage, we could randomly select our
irst-grade classrooms rom a complete list o all irst-grade classrooms in the sample rame, and then
in the second stage, 20 children in each classroom selected in the irst stage would be selected at
random and interiewed in each classroom selected.

_C F+*:"+5%54-41> L%0:-4*/

A weakness o all nonprobability sampling methods is that they can be assessed only by using
subjectie ealuation. 1he likelihood o a participant being selected is not known to the ealuator.
Because we cannot mathematically determine the probability o selection or each person interiewed
in a sample, we cannot say with statistical conidence that the results we end up with are truly
objectie and not inluenced by subjectie actors. In the end, the results may in act be close enough
that, gien limited resources, nonprobability sampling proides an indication o project impact. In
nonprobability sampling, participants are purposeully chosen, usually due to cost restraints and,or
conenience ,e.g., it may be ar easier to select amilies or households to interiew when they lie
close to a project oice,. \hile non-random sampling is quite common, it is necessary to be cautious
when generalizing indings to the larger population. Lxamples o nonprobability sampling include:
conenience sampling, quota sampling, and matched sampling. Again, the key thing to remember is
to trav.arevt and bove.t about the criteria or selection and the limitations o the data obtained through
non-probability sampling.

1. Covrevievce avtivg
In a conenience sample the ealuator selects participants according to their aailability or accessibility
or a surey, interiew, etc.

2. Qvota avtivg
In sampling strategy, the ealuator also selects participants but there is some attempt to highlight
certain characteristics o the population. lor example, indiiduals or households rom among a
number o dierent illages, communities, or sections o a camp, are identiied by particular eatures
or characteristics. A quota` rom among the dierent characteristic groups o illages, communities,
or sections, then seres as the basis or a sample.

. Matcbea avtivg
Matched sampling is another technique that is used when, due to cost or conenience sake,
purposeul selection is chosen oer random selection. 1his technique inoles creating comparable
groups o participants based on matching the indiiduals in each group on some actor or ariable
that is belieed to be important. lor example, when comparing the eects o the PB\11 project on
children, the sample o children who completed the project could be compared with another sample
o children who hae not gone through the project. In orming these two groups, each child in one
group is matched with another in the second group. 1he criteria or matching might include such
ariables as age, gender, nature o war experiences, etc.


77
TC Z+"# +* e6%-41%14@# ?%1% 3+--#&14+* %*. (*%->242

1he research designs outlined aboe apply primarily to quantitatie data. 1hey can also be used with
qualitatie data that hae been quantiied ,i.e., where qualitatie responses hae been assigned a
numerical alue ollowing analysis or categorization,. lor example, in a surey where an open-ended
question has been asked and responses tabulated, these same responses may be sorted or grouped
according to degree o creatiity, degree o hope` expressed, or some other scale constructed only
ater the data hae been gathered and with the input o local perceptions o creatiity, hope, or other
markers o attitude, perceptions, knowledge, etc. Much o qualitatie research does not ollow a strict
probability design. 1his is not to dealue it, howeer. On the contrary, it proides important insight
into other data collected. It also oers another method o triavgvtativg data. Recall that in
triangulation, we collect the same inormation ,e.g., a particular set o indicators o status o interest,
rom dierent sources or using dierent methods. \e might ask a question that results in quantitatie
data on the one hand, while we also ask an open-ended question within a ocus group that proides
another iew o the same data. Or we might use a dierent method, such as obseration or
unobtrusie measures ,such as physical accretion or physical erosion measures,.

37%:1#" L4< L600%">

An IMPAC1 ealuation is done in order to determine whether or not anticipated inal results or the
realization o longer-term outcomes are attributable to an interention. It can be thought o as the
sum o a chain o cav.at retatiov.bi. between project input,output, ivterveaiate outcomes, and vttivate
ro;ect ovtcove.

A true impact ealuation requires resources such as time, money, technical assistance, personnel, etc.
Project budgets must relect the additional unds necessary to carry out an impact ealuation.

lour types o comparison groups were deined: relexie, constructed, randomized and shadow
control groups.

A research design is a methodological strategy or aoiding or controlling bias or interering eents.
1he ollowing research designs were discussed:
Randomized experimentation
Quasi-experimental design
Nonequialent control group design
Repeated measures
Simple beore and ater studies
Cross-sectional non-uniorm designs

Baseline data proide a iew o the behaior, attitude, knowledge, risk, status, etc. prior to project
implementation.

A alid sample is representatie o the larger population. Probability and nonprobability sampling were
deined and descriptions proided or: simple random sampling, systematic random sampling, stratiied
sampling, and cluster sampling, as well as nonprobability designs such as conenience sampling, quota
sampling, and matched sampling.


78
37%:1#" L#@#*

37%:1#" N8 ?#24/*4*/ % !2>&7+2+&4%- !"+Y#&1 %*. _64-.4*/ %*
=@%-6%14+* L1"%1#/>

v tbi. cbater re ritt rerier tbe covtevt re.evtea tbrovgbovt tbi. aocvvevt v.ivg a ror/.beet forvat. Qve.tiov. v.efvt
iv bvitaivg av eratvatiov .trateg, ritt be re.evtea. 1bi. re.evtatiov i. .overbat artificiat iv tbat tbe aeretovevt of
av eratvatiov .trateg, i. vot a tivear roce... Ratber it i. a a,vavic bac/ ava fortb roce.. ritb vav, aa;v.tvevt. ava
refivevevt. ba.ea ov eerievce ava feeabac/ frov ro;ect vovitorivg .,.tev. ava otber .ovrce.. !itb tbi. iv viva re
ritt begiv tbe ai.cv..iov ritb .ove rer, ba.ic qve.tiov. aivea at gettivg off to a gooa .tart iv forvvtativg a .,cbo.ociat
ro;ect.
1

BC a#> e6#214+*2 4* Q+"06-%14*/ % !2>&7+2+&4%- !"+Y#&1

1. \hat segment o the aected community is your project seeking to assist and ,7>
Population generally aected by eents and circumstances-the 0 or so o the population that is not
experiencing the same leel o distress as those at higher risk or more seerely aected, but yet would
beneit psychosocially rom community-based interentions.

1he At-Risk` segment o the population that may hae witnessed or been directly inoled in iolence,
and are signiicantly distressed and at risk o not unctioning well psychologically and socially unless needs
are addressed in an appropriate and timely ashion.

Seerely aected group, including children and adults who need intensie psychological attention.

2. Describe what situational analysis and needs assessments hae been done, and their indings or
recommendations.

3. Match indings and recommendations rom the situational analysis and needs assessments to your
answers in Box 1.

43
This is not meant to provide a comprehensive discussion of steps in formulating a project; resources identified in the
bibliography can provide a more thorough discussion of relevant issues.

79
\hat gaps are there in your inormation about the situation and needs o your program target group,s,

low will you ill these gaps \ho will you go to or inormation low will you gather more inormation

4. low much &+006*41> :%"14&4:%14+* was there in the situational analysis and needs assessment,s,

A lot, community was inoled in strategy deelopment, data collection, situation analysis
Some, community was inoled in collection o data or situation analysis only
Not much, community had little or no inolement

5. List the appropriate community members, groups, gatekeepers, and others ,i any, who were included in
discussions about the need, purpose, design, and implementation strategy o the project.

6. List additional groups that could proide aluable inormation, insight, and guidance.

. \hat community resources hae you identiied or project implementation ,trainers, community centers,
adisors, monitors, other,

8. Brainstorm and ask dierent people in the community to learn i there is anyone else you could consult
while planning project objecties, actiities, and implementation, regarding traditional practices, appropriate
roles and actiities, cultural belies, local resources, etc. ,list possible sources here,.


80
9. List your project objecties ,that is, outcomes you expect to see as a result o your project interention,,
intermediate results ,i.e., steps or benchmarks along the path toward achieing those objecties,, and the
dierent actiities that will help achiee those objecties, gien your target group, the needs assessment, and
community input you hae receied.

,Ô1: As you receie additional input rom community members and others, you will probably reise
some o your initial assumptions about which actiities will lead you to certain outcomes, and that`s okay
because this is a learning process between your project sta and the community.,
10. low will the project oster sustainable solutions to community identiied needs

low might you improe the chances that it will

In what ways will the project promote community ownership


81
11. Conduct a cost-eectie analysis, how many people will the project assist and what is the estimated cost
per person

low can you increase the scale ,that is, reach more people across a larger area, without jeopardizing the
eectieness o the project

12. Consider i your project poses any risks to participants. I so, what are they and what steps will you take
to minimize these risks

13. Name any other groups ,e.g., local NGOs, goernmental departments, international NGOs, community-
based organizations etc., that are addressing similar needs or working with the same group or community.

low does your project dier rom these other project,s,,interentions

low does your project complement the other project,s,,interentions

\hat are possible linkages between your project and others that would be beneicial


82
BBC ?#@#-+: % ]S+/4& Z+.#-^

1. \hat do you want your project to accomplish \hat are the +5Y#&14@#2 or the changes you would hope
to see as a result o your project interention

1, At the indiidual leel

2, At the amily leel

3, At the community leel

4, At the population leel

Next to each +5Y#&14@#, list all the 4*1#"0#.4%1# "#26-12 you can think o that will help achiee these
objecties or end results.

At the indiidual leel.

At the amily leel.


83

At the community leel.

At the population leel.

=m(Z!S=8
At the indiidual leel.
V_h=39BT=: Improed psychosocial well-being among children aected by war.
!bat rovta tbi. too/ ti/e.
Children display a desired leel o pro-social behaior
Children display a desired leel o cognitie,emotional unctioning
Children maintain a desired leel o perormance in school
Children report a positie degree o coping
Children report a positie degree o sel-esteem and agency
B*1#"0#.4%1# D#26-12 H V61:6128
!bat are tbe .te. to get tbere.
Children -#%"* what appropriate pro-social behaior means
Children :"%&14&# pro-social behaior ,eavte of av actirit,: non-competitie group games that rely on
and build teamwork,
Ovtvt: 1eachers, counselors, and other community members are 1"%4*#. to proide a sae enironment
or children to begin to explore their eelings and perceptions about their experiences o iolence
Ovtvt: 1rained adults :-%* %*. &%""> +61 the psychosocial support actiities in which they hae been
trained ;eavte of actiritie.: actiities oered in a supportie enironment, in an appropriate and
systematic way proide children with alternatie ways o expressing their eelings and perceptions about
their experiences,
Ltc.


84

F+, -4*) %-- 17# 4*1#"0#.4%1# 21#:2 %*. +61:612C
!bat teaa. to rbat. !bat aoe. ,ovr ro;ect veea to accovti.b before accovti.bivg tbe vet .te.

1hink about identiying spiders,` a chain or results,` or other types o linkages or pathways. Are there
any gaps Identiy additional intermediate results i necessary to ill in any gaps.

\ou should make eery eort to include dierent groups rom the community ,a mothers group, a group o
youth, and a group o community leaders, or example, in your discussions.

?"%, % .4%/"%0 +$ >+6" -+/4& 0+.#-C

,Ô1: Yov va, ravt to rrite eacb ovtcove ava eacb ivterveaiate re.vtt ov a .earate .ti of aer or vote cara. 1bi. ritt
va/e it ea.ier to vore tbe.e arovva iv retatiov to eacb otber.)


85

B.#*14$> %-- 17# %&14@414#2 to achiee each intermediate result or step along your pathway.
Again, community participation is crucial to the design and success o the project.

V5Y#&14@# ;......
vterveaiate Re.vtt 1.1.......
.ctiritie............
...............
...............

;Ô1: r ,ovr rograv roo.at or ivtevevtatiov tav for reortivg to tbe aovor, ,ov va, ravt to bigbtigbt ovt, KY actiritie..
Yov ritt .titt ravt to iaevtif, . actiritie. for ,ovr tive c bvaget catcvtatiov. ava for ro;ect .taff tavvivg veea..)

F+, 4.#*14$> %-- 17# 4*:612 %*. %*14&4:%1#. +61:612 or each actiity in your project designed to achiee
each intermediate result along the pathway toward achieing your project objecties.

`.MP:
V5Y#&14@# ;......
vterveaiate Re.vtt 1.1.......
.ctiritie............ ^P|1: ;vateriat. for traivivg ror/.bo.;
............... tive attocatea for traivivg ror/.bo.; tocat
............... eerti.e for covavctivg traivivg; etc.)
............... O|1P|1: ;10 teacber. traivea iv C; etc.)


86

B.#*14$> %*> 6*.#"->4*/ %2260:14+*2 about why and how certain actiities lead to desired outcomes, and
why and how particular intermediate results are linked to or lead to other results.
Do any o these assumptions need to be tested lae they been proen elsewhere or do you need to
ealuate the alidity o an assumption that the logic behind your interention will achiee the desired
objectie, i implemented according to plan

("# 17#"# %*> +17#" $%&1+"2 that could inluence the project`s ability or inability to achiee the desired
outcomes \rite these down.

Now reisit your logic model to see i any linkages hae been let out. Remember to think about &%62%-
-4*)2 between actiities and outcomes, and between the intermediate results and the end outcomes or
project objecties.

BBBC ]LZ(D9^ V5Y#&14@#2 %*. Z#%26"%5-# V61&+0#2

1he next step is to more clearly deine your +5Y#&14@#2 in order to make them LZ(D9#", Lpeciic,
Zeasurable, (ppropriate, Dealistic, and 9ime-bound.


87

=m(Z!S=L8

V5Y#&14@# ;C Increased awareness by community leaders o key community-leel issues aecting children
Is SMAR1er as:
V5Y#&14@# ;C By the end o the project, community leaders in at least 10 o the 14 sub-districts will be hae identiied
and produced a list o key issues aecting children in their community and will hae designed strategy to mobilize
resources and plan actiities or children.

V5Y#&14@# EC Children can express themseles
Is SMAR1er as:
V5Y#&14@# EC By the end o the project, 80 o children report that they are always` or almost always` able to talk
to their parents and teachers about their eelings and concerns

V5Y#&14@# GC Improed psychosocial well-being o children
Is SMAR1er as:
V5Y#&14@# GC Improed psychosocial well-being in 90 o children in the project area, as measured by pro-social
behaior, school perormance, and sel-esteem

On the Program M&L Plan ,PMLP, worksheets proided at the end o this chapter, write down your
SMAR1 Objecties and Key Intermediate Results where indicated.

Now "#@4#, each o your objecties and intermediate results. Is each one Lpeciic, Zeasurable,
(ppropriate, Dealistic, and 9ime-bound I not, go back and rework the ones that are not. \ou may
ind that you need to break one o your objecties into two objecties or add another leel to the
chain o results ,i.e., your pathway o linked intermediate results on the way to achieing your end
outcome,.

D#@4241 >+6" -+/4& 0+.#- again to see that there are no gaps in it. 1his is another opportunity to
engage community members in the process. Reiew the logic, objecties, and outcome with key
community members and make adjustments as necessary.

BTC ?#@#-+: B*.4&%1+"2 1+ Z#%26"# (&74#@#0#*1

lor each objectie and intermediate result, you will need to identiy what it is you need to measure
,quantitatiely, or identiy ,qualitatiely, in order to record progress toward achieing the desired
result or a change in status, behaior, attitude, or knowledge. Reiew your objecties and intermediate
results. Is it clear ,7%1 you need to measure I you cannot identiy what it is you need to measure,
you will need to re-think your objectie or intermediate result in the context o your logic model.


88
lor each objectie and intermediate result, 4.#*14$> ,7%1 >+6 *##. 1+ 0#%26"#-either quantitatiely or
qualitatiely-in order to record progress toward achieing the desired result or a change in status, behaior,
attitude, or knowledge.

;Ô1: Circte tbe bra.e or /e, rora iv eacb ob;ectire ava ivterveaiate re.vtt tbat bet. rovt ,ov a. ,ov iaevtif, tbe
ivaicator. for vea.vrivg acbierevevt.)

=m(Z!S=
V5Y#&14@# ;C By the end o the project, 80 o children report that they are always` or almost always` able to talk to
their parents and teachers about their eelings and concerns
vterveaiate Re.vtt 1.1: 80 o parents report taking more time and care to listen to their children
vterveaiate Re.vtt 1.2: 100 o teachers in the project area incorporate non-erbal expressie actiities or children
into the curriculum

V5Y#&14@# EC Improed psychosocial well-being in 90 o children in the project area, as measured by pro-social
behaior, school perormance, and sel-esteem
vterveaiate Re.vtt 2.1: 90 o children are able to correctly identiy appropriate and inappropriate pro-social behaior
vterveaiate Re.vtt 2.2: 80 o communities in the project area hae trained adults implementing appropriate
psychosocial support actiities or children
tc.

lor the objecties and intermediate results you hae identiied aboe and listed in your PMLP
worksheet, identiy 4*.4&%1+"2 that are @%-4., "#-4%5-#, and 2#*2414@# to the outcome o interest.
\rite these down in the PMLP worksheet aligned with the objectie or result they measure. Now is
the time to be ery speciic so that you can clearly identiy ,7%1 you need to measure and, based on
this, 7+, you will collect,uncoer the inormation. 1ry to aoid number`-speciy proportion,`

89
where possible or appropriate, and include a deinition o the numerator and denominator so that you
know exactly what it is you need to measure.

`.MP of qvavtitatire ivaicator.:

V5Y#&14@#8 By the end o the project, community leaders in at least 10 o the 14 sub-districts will be hae identiied and
produced a list o key issues aecting children in their community and will hae designed strategy to mobilize resources
and plan actiities or children.
Proportion o communities in which leaders hae designed strategies to mobilize resources and plan actiities
that address key issues aecting children`s well-being in their community.
^vverator: Number o communities in which leaders hae designed strategies to mobilize resources and plan
actiities that address key issues aecting children`s well-being in their community.
Devovivator: 1otal number o communities within project implementation area.

V5Y#&14@#8 By the end o the project at least 80 o children in the project area show improed psychosocial well-being,
as measured by pro-social behaior, school perormance, and sel-esteem

Proportion o children who display a desired leel o pro-social behaior
^vverator: Number o children whose score on a compound ariable ,deried rom scales that measure pro-
social behaior, is within the optimal range
Devovivator: 1otal number o children in the surey

Proportion o children who maintain a desired leel o perormance in school
^vverator: Number o children whose score on the Perceirea cboot Perforvavce cate is within the optimal range

Proportion o children who report a positie degree o sel-esteem and agency
^vverator: Number o children whose score on the Cbitarev`. .ttribvtiovat t,te Qve.tiovvaire, Ro.evberg`. etf
.teev cate, and,or the tate oe cate is within the optimal range

In your PMLP \orksheet are spaces to identiy, next to each indicator:
1arget, where appropriate ,e.g., 80,
Data source ,i.e., the speciic measurement tool and,or method o collecting data,
lrequency o collection ,e.g., pre- and post-interention,
Sta person responsible or collecting and reporting data

lor each indicator, you will need to determine 7+, you will collect or uncoer the inormation you
need. 1he irst step is to identiy your required data sources. Could you gather the inormation you
need as part o routine monitoring o project input, actiities, and output I so, make sure that you
identiy someone to deelop a monitoring sheet or collecting and periodically reporting the
inormation. I the data cannot be gathered in the course o routine monitoring, you will need to
identiy speciic measurement tools or quantitatie indicators ,e.g., question sets or scales deeloped
speciically to measure degree o sel-esteem, hope, coping, or pro-social behaior, and,or
measurement strategies or qualitatie indicators ,e.g., semi-structured question guidelines or ocus
group discussions, a list o materials and actiities necessary to conduct a participatory mapping
exercise with children, etc.,.

In the process o identiying 7+, you will collect the data you need and ,7+ will be responsible or
collecting and reporting the inormation, you should meet with key stakeholders and community

90
members. It is important to identiy participatory mechanisms or monitoring progress toward those
results that are appropriately tracked by community members, and you should be thinking o how
inormation can be gathered in a sensitie manner. \ou should also consider how you will eedback
inormation to community members and other key stakeholders.

Be sure that the 0#17+. o collecting the inormation is clear. Reiew the arious methods discussed
in Chapter lie. Interiews, obserations, and sel-report methods are requently used methods o
data collection. 1hese include:

Unstructured or semi-structured interiewing
Key inormant interiews
Quantiication o selected obserations rom ield notes
Participant obseration techniques
Systematic obseration
Personal narraties
Lent records
Sel-report methods
Unobtrusie measures

Reiew your indicators and their data sources and methods. 1ry to identiy additional ways to gather
the 2%0# 4*$+"0%14+*. By collecting inormation toward your indicators rom three dierent data
sources or methods, you can be more conident in your data. 1his is reerred to as triangulation.
\here possible, you should attempt to collect your data through unobtrusie measures.

D#@4241 2#-#&1#. 4*.4&%1+"2 and .%1% 2+6"&#2 with key community members. Are there particular
measures, indicators, or data collection sources and methods that are politically or socio-culturally
sensitie \ith input rom key community members, you can identiy proxy indicators and,or
alternatie and unobtrusie measures, i necessary.

TC ?#24/* % L1"%1#/> 1+ Z+*41+" !"+Y#&1 B*:61 %*. V61:61

Reisit your logic model and the key actiities you identiied in order to reach the desired outcomes.
\ou will need to deelop a system to record and track your input and key output. \ou will also need
to identiy systems and mechanisms or reporting this inormation on a periodic basis. 1his will help
the program manager determine i the project is being implemented adequately and i any adjustments
or changes are required in order to ensure that the project is making progress toward its objecties.

Proide a detailed implementation plan by elaborating your project actiities. S421 %-- %&14@414#2, speciy
each step in realizing key actiities, and list all supportie project actiities also.


91
\hat "#2+6"&#2 will the project need in order to get set up and begin implementation o actiities Identiy
sta, inancing, acilities, supplies, necessary policies in place, training curricula, educational support
materials, recreational materials, training workshops scheduled, etc. 1his is your :"+Y#&1 4*:61.

;Ô1: t i. v.efvt to .ea/ ritb otber ^CO rograv vavager. rbo bare ivtevevtea .ivitar ro;ect..)

Deelop a 140#-4*# or each 4*:61 and the implementation o each %&14@41> ,identiy key steps or
components o each actiity,. ,Yov va, ravt to v.e a covvter grabic or .reaa.beet aticatiov for tbi..)

lae you speciied the dates o completion or speciic actiities \es No
Is this timeline realistic and appropriate, gien the climate,setting and resources \es No
I you answered no to either o these questions, write out your plan to address this.


92

lor each project actiity, identiy all expected +61:612 ,e.g., number o workshops, number o community
members attending workshops out o the total number o community members inited or expected to
attend, number o people trained, number o psychosocial support serices operational by a speciied date,
etc., and identiy date o completion according to your timeline, i applicable.

\hat saeguards hae you designed to protect project participants ,e.g., data coding systems, limited access,
locked iles,


93
TBC V61&+0# %*. B0:%&1 =@%-6%14+*2

Planning or a project ealuation must commence at the ery beginning o project implementation
planning. 1he design you choose depends primarily on the questions you wish to answer with your
ealuation. I your primary interest is in documenting achieement o your objecties with
quantitatie data, your ocus will be primarily on speciic, key indicators or reporting. I you are
more interested in sustainability and community empowerment and project ownership, you will want
to consider an evorervevt eratvatiov. An empowerment ealuation ocuses on community
participation in the planning, monitoring, and ealuation process and is more likely to ocus on
indicators and measurement strategies deined by the community rather than on measurable outcome
indicators as deined by a project`s objecties, although in some instances these could be the same. I
the purpose o your ealuation is to learn which interention strategies are the most successul in
achieing particular outcomes, you will want to consider a more rigorous ivact eratvatiov because you
will need to know which outcomes can be attributed to which actiities and interentions.

State the :6":+2#k2l +$ >+6" #@%-6%14+*.

\hat do you and,or the donor need to know

Does this require an ealuation that can statistically account or attributable outcome \LS NO

f ,ovr av.rer i. Y, ./i to tbe vact ratvatiov !or/.beet betor.
f ,ovr av.rer i. Ô, covtivve ritb tbe Ovtcove ratvatiov !or/.beet.

Do you hae the necessary resources to carry out an impact ealuation \LS NO

f ,ovr av.rer i. Y, ./i to tbe vact ratvatiov !or/.beet betor.
f ,ovr av.rer i. Ô, covtivve ritb tbe Ovtcove ratvatiov !or/.beet.

(C V61&+0# =@%-6%14+*

I your answer is NO, then you will want to consider an ealuation design that can measure speciic
outcomes o interest and proide a rea.ovabte a..vravce that the outcomes you obsere can be
attributed, at least in part, to your project interention.


94
Vd93VZ= =T(Sd(9BVF MVDaLc==9

lirst you need to decide which research design is easible.

1, \hat baseline data are aailable

2, \hat baseline data would you need to collect

3, \hat resources ,time, budget, personnel, logistical support, etc., are aailable or data collection

B.#*14$> %* %::"+:"4%1# #@%-6%14+* .#24/*C

Is your program ull coerage

I it is not ull coerage, will you be able to identiy and interiew,obsere,surey a control` group
comparable to your group o beneiciaries

I the program is ull coerage, will you be phasing in your project actiities in dierent locations

I your answer is yes, you will want to consider a panel design:
A :%*#- .#24/* inoles multiple measurements taken throughout the project implementation,
obserations are made beore and ater the interention.
O1 X O2 O3 O4

I you will not be able to identiy a control group and your resources or time limit you to only two large-scale
data-gathering exercises, you should consider a simple pre-test,post-test design:
A 240:-# :"#\1#21 %*. :+21\1#21 .#24/* records indicators in the beneiciary population beore and ater
project implementation.
O1 ...... X ...... O2
Ob.erratiov vterrevtiov Ob.erratiov
at 1ive 1 at 1ive 2
;rete.t) ;o.tte.t)

I your project is not ull coerage and,or you will be able to identiy and interiew, obsere, or surey a
control` group comparable to your group o beneiciaries, you could consider a pre-,post-test comparison
group design.

95

A :"#\1#21 %*. :+21\1#21 &+0:%"42+* /"+6: .#24/* collects data on the same indicators ,using the same
measurement instruments, in both the beneiciary population and a control group, beore and ater
O1a .. X .. O2a ,a ~ participants exposed to the project,
O1b .. O2b ,b ~ control group, not exposed to project actiities,

I you will be phasing in your project actiities in dierent areas oer the lie o the project, you may want to
consider a panel design with a wait-list` or other control group comparison.
A :%*#- .#24/* ,417 &+*1"+- /"+6: &+0:%"42+* inoles multiple measurements taken throughout the
project implementation, obserations or sureys are conducted with the irst group o beneiciaries beore
and ater the interention, and also with the second ,wait-listed` or delayed interention, group o
beneiciaries, beore and ater the interention.
O1a X O2a O3a ,a ~ 1
st
group o participants,
O1b X O2b O3b ,b ~ 2
nd
group or wait-listed participants,

I you will be utilizing a comparison or control group design, you need to clariy how you will select a control
group. \ill you match amilies in the beneiciary group and control group by socio-economic status and
educational attainment, by linguistic-ethnic and cultural actors, or other, or example \ill you select
comparable classrooms out o the control population that match classrooms in the beneiciary population, or
example ;v ,ovr orv rora., ae.cribe bor ,ov ritt iaevtif, a covtrot grov.)

lor quantitatie data collection, decide on a 2%0:-4*/ 0#17+.+-+/> and identiy a 2%0:-# 24g# that is
appropriate, gien your resources, the setting, and your needs.

Sampling methodology:
simple or systematic random sampling
stratiied sampling
cluster sampling
conenience sampling
quota sampling
matched sampling
sentinel surey sampling ,key households or indiiduals selected or periodic obseration,
other

Sample size: ____________


96
L(Z!S= LBn= 3(S3dS(9BVFL
Do you hae a 2%0:-4*/ $"%0# ,i.e., a complete list o names or household numbers rom which you can
randomly select indiiduals or households, I \LS, then you can conduct a simple random sample or a
systematic random sample.

L40:-# or L>21#0%14& D%*.+0 L%0:-#
v |z
2
P ,P-1,| D
2
z ~ z-score at leel o conidence ,95~1.96, 90~1.645, 80~1.282
P ~ proportion o the population ,.50 i unknown, ;tbe roortiov tbat i. ti/et, to
av.rer ,e. or vo to a articvtar qve.tiov of ivtere.t iv ,ovr .vrre, qve.tiovvaire)
D ~ maximum tolerable error
`.MP:
v |,1.96,
2
,.25, ,.5,| ,.10,
2
~ 3
low many randomly-selected households would you need to isit I you need to interiew a child between 10 and
18 years, or example, and you estimate that 30 o all households will hae a child in this age range, you can
calculate the number o households you need to isit in order to reach your minimum required sample size by
considering the percentage o the population and add in 10 non-response: ,3 , 0.30, 1.10 ~ 268

I you do not hae a sampling rame, you will need to randomly select clusters, rom which you will then
randomly select indiiduals or households to interiew. ;Yov .bovta ravaovt, .etect ,ovr ctv.ter. iv roortiov to
ovtatiov .ie.) 1he irst-stage cluster might be a illage, a grouping o small illages that are close together, or
a neighborhood o a city, or example. At the second stage, you randomly select households or indiiduals to
interiew.
E\21%/# 3-621#" L%0:-4*/ requires an additional calculation or design eect:
v |dz
2
P ,P-1,| D
2
d ~ design eect ,2.0 by deault,

I you do not hae a sampling rame or an existing map or listing o households prior to conducting a
household sample, consider inoling community members to quickly map out households and estimate
population and household size.

No matter which design youè selected aboe, consider a mixed-method approach-that is, an approach that
utilizes both quantitatie and qualitatie methods.

\hat kind o staing, time, and budget ,monetary, resources do you hae Could you conduct a pre- and
post-test or baseline,endline quantitatie surey %*. seeral qualitatie studies

Consider conducting at least two dierent qualitatie studies, such as:
Pre- and post-interention ocus group discussions with at least 3 dierent gender,age groups
Participatory mapping exercises with children or youth-mapping such things as: where time is spent
doing which actiities during the day, how much time is spent in the company o amily members or
peers during the course o a day, perceied risks, threats, or ears mapped onto the body, etc.
In-depth interiews and obserations o indiidual children and amilies oer the course o seeral
weeks or months


97
Describe your 2%0:-4*/ .#24/* or qvavtitatire data collection:
1otal number o illages, households, and,or indiiduals in project area ,real or estimated,:

Number o illages, households, and,or indiiduals that you can realistically sample,interiew:

low will you select illages, households, and,or indiiduals or the sample

Describe your 2#-#&14+* &"41#"4% or qvatitatire data collection:
Number o amilies, households, or indiiduals in your sample:

\hat are your selection criteria low will you select illages, households, and,or indiiduals or the
sample

\hat questions would you like to answer, gien the data you will collect

;Yov va, ravt to iaevtif, rariov. featvre. ;vi of etbvicit,, ca.te, ecovovic tiretibooa., teret of ai.tacevevt, rotectiov robtev., .ecvrit,
ri./., vore or te.. ti/et, to re.ova to .,cbo.ociat rograv ivterrevtiov, greater vvvber. of affectea ,ovtb, etc.) tbat covta .erre to grov
certaiv regiov. or rittage. togetber, ava tbev .etect ivairiavat. or favitie. frov tbere. Or ,ov vigbt ravt to iaevtif, ivairiavat cbitarev
frov avovg beveficiarie. ava vovarticiavt., for rbat tbe aifferevt bac/grovva. or .itvatiov. covta tett ,ov abovt tbe .vcce.. of ,ovr
rograv ivterrevtiov.)

B*1#"@4#,4*/
lae you obtained the inormed consent o participants or does your surey questionnaire include a
mechanism or obtaining inormed consent \es No

I your project ocuses on children, do you hae a plan or asking the caregier`s consent to interiew the
child \es No


98

D#i64"#. "#2+6"&#2
Identiy all the resources your sureys or other data collection strategies, data analyses, and reporting
will required.
low many interiewers will you need
\hat kind o training will they need
low many days are necessary or training interiewers and how much will it cost to conduct the
training ,including a acilitator, materials, room, transportation to,rom the training site, etc.,
\hat resources are required or conducting a translation, an independent back-translation, and a ield-
test o the surey questionnaire,s,
\hat resources are required or conducting the surey ,transportation, salaries, per diems,
superision, etc. or enumerators,
\hat resources will qualitatie data and participatory methods require
Ltc.

=*26"# &+006*41> :%"14&4:%14+*

linally, haing determined the scope and design o your program monitoring and ealuation strategy, reisit
each step in order to discoer additional opportunities to could include community,participant member
participation.

_C B0:%&1 =@%-6%14+*

I your agency`s program learning and,or donor reporting needs require an ivact eratvatiov, you will
want to identiy a rigorous ealuation design that is appropriate to the resources aailable to your
project. Because psychosocial interentions in the ield are designed to meet the needs o a
population under duress and not designed to be clinical trials, qva.ieerivevtat ealuation designs are
used in psychosocial program ealuation. Seeral quasi-experimental designs are discussed aboe in
Chapter Six. In order to determine which is appropriate to your project ealuation and to plan your
ealuation design a. ,ov tav ,ovr ro;ect`. aetaitea ivtevevtatiov, the ollowing worksheet will proe
useul.


99
BZ!(39 =T(Sd(9BVF MVDaLc==9

Decide which research design is easible.

1, \hat baseline data are aailable

2, \hat baseline data would you need to collect

3, \hat resources ,time, budget, personnel, logistical support, etc., are aailable or data collection

B.#*14$> %* %::"+:"4%1# #@%-6%14+* .#24/*C

Is your program ull coerage

I it is not ull coerage, how will you be able to identiy and interiew,obsere,surey a control` group
comparable to your group o beneiciaries

I the program is ull coerage, will you be phasing in your project actiities in dierent locations

I your answer is yes, you will want to consider a panel design:
A :%*#- .#24/* inoles multiple measurements taken throughout the project implementation,
obserations are made beore and ater the interention.
O1 X O2 O3 O4

3+0:%"42+* +" 3+*1"+-\X"+6: ?#24/*2

I your project is not ull coerage and,or you will be able to identiy and interiew, obsere, or surey a
control` group comparable to your group o beneiciaries, you could consider a pre-,post-test comparison
group design.

A :"#\1#21 %*. :+21\1#21 &+0:%"42+* /"+6: .#24/* collects data on the same indicators ,using the same
measurement instruments, in both the beneiciary population and a control group, beore and ater
O1a .. X .. O2a ,a ~ participants exposed to the project,
O1b .. O2b ,b ~ control group, not exposed to project actiities,

I you will be phasing in your project actiities in dierent areas oer the lie o the project, you may want to
consider a panel design with a wait-list` or other control group comparison.


100
A :%*#- .#24/* ,417 &+*1"+- /"+6: &+0:%"42+* inoles multiple measurements taken throughout the
project implementation, obserations or sureys are conducted with the irst group o beneiciaries beore
and ater the interention, and also with the second ,wait-listed` or delayed interention, group o
beneiciaries, beore and ater the interention.
O1a X O2a O3a ,a ~ 1
st
group o participants,
O1b X O2b O3b ,b ~ 2
nd
group or wait-listed participants,

?#$4*4*/ 3+*1"+- X"+6:2

1here are a number o ways to deine your control or comparison group. Some o these, as discussed in
Chapter Six, are as ollows:

Regre..iovai.covtivvit, .tvaie.. 1his design lends itsel well to interentions that entail a cut-o point or inclusion
in an interention. 1his design relies on statistically modeling to determine where the treatment ,participant,
group would hae been iv tbe ab.evce of the interention.

Matcbea covtrot.. Lxposure groups are matched with control groups according to speciic criteria that are likely
to inluence outcomes.

tati.ticatt, eqvatea covtrot.. 1his measurement scheme relies heaily on statistics to make comparisons between
participant and non-participant groups.

Ceveric covtrot.. Lxposure groups are compared to outcome measures aailable in the general population. 1his
assumes that there is a general population` comparable and accessible.

I you will be utilizing a comparison or control group design, you need to clariy how you will select a control
group. \ill you match amilies in the beneiciary group and control group by socio-economic status and
educational attainment, by linguistic-ethnic and cultural actors, or other, or example \ill you select
comparable classrooms out o the control population that match classrooms in the beneiciary population, or
example ;v ,ovr orv rora., ae.cribe bor ,ov ritt iaevtif, a covtrot grov.)


101
lor quantitatie data collection, decide on a 2%0:-4*/ 0#17+.+-+/> and identiy a 2%0:-# 24g# that is
appropriate, gien your resources, the setting, and your needs.

Sampling methodology:
simple or systematic random sampling
stratiied sampling
cluster sampling
conenience sampling
quota sampling
matched sampling
sentinel surey sampling ,key households or indiiduals selected or periodic obseration,
other

Sample size: ____________

L(Z!S= LBn= 3(S3dS(9BVFL

Do you hae a 2%0:-4*/ $"%0# ,i.e., a complete list o names or household numbers rom which you can
randomly select indiiduals or households, I \LS, then you can conduct a simple random sample or a
systematic random sample.

L40:-# or L>21#0%14& D%*.+0 L%0:-#
v |z
2
P ,P-1,| D
2
z ~ z-score at leel o conidence ,95~1.96, 90~1.645, 80~1.282
P ~ proportion o the population ,.50 i unknown, ;tbe roortiov tbat i. ti/et, to
av.rer ,e. or vo to a articvtar qve.tiov of ivtere.t iv ,ovr .vrre, qve.tiovvaire)
D ~ maximum tolerable error
`.MP:
v |,1.96,
2
,.25, ,.5,| ,.10,
2
~ 3
low many randomly-selected households would you need to isit I you need to interiew a child between 10 and
18 years, or example, and you estimate that 30 o all households will hae a child in this age range, you can
calculate the number o households you need to isit in order to reach your minimum required sample size by
considering the percentage o the population and add in 10 non-response: ,3 , 0.30, 1.10 ~ 268

I you do not hae a sampling rame, you will need to randomly select clusters, rom which you will then
randomly select indiiduals or households to interiew. ;Yov .bovta ravaovt, .etect ,ovr ctv.ter. iv roortiov to
ovtatiov .ie.) 1he irst-stage cluster might be a illage, a grouping o small illages that are close together, or
a neighborhood o a city, or example. At the second stage, you randomly select households or indiiduals to
interiew.

E\21%/# 3-621#" L%0:-4*/ requires an additional calculation or design eect:
v |dz
2
P ,P-1,| D
2
d ~ design eect ,2.0 by deault,

I you do not hae a sampling rame or an existing map or listing o households prior to conducting a
household sample, consider inoling community members to quickly map out households and estimate
population and household size.

No matter which design youè selected aboe, consider a mixed-method approach-that is, an approach that
utilizes both quantitatie and qualitatie methods.


102
\hat kind o staing, time, and budget ,monetary, resources do you hae Could you conduct a pre- and
post-test or baseline,endline quantitatie surey %*. seeral qualitatie studies

Consider conducting at least two dierent qualitatie studies, such as:
Pre- and post-interention ocus group discussions with at least 3 dierent gender,age groups
Participatory mapping exercises with children or youth-mapping such things as: where time is spent
doing which actiities during the day, how much time is spent in the company o amily members or
peers during the course o a day, perceied risks, threats, or ears mapped onto the body, etc.
In-depth interiews and obserations o indiidual children and amilies oer the course o seeral
weeks or months

Describe your 2%0:-4*/ .#24/* or qvavtitatire data collection:

1otal number o illages, households, and,or indiiduals in project area ,real or estimated,:

Number o illages, households, and,or indiiduals that you can realistically sample,interiew:


Describe your 2#-#&14+* &"41#"4% or qvatitatire data collection:

Number o amilies, households, or indiiduals in your sample:

\hat are your selection criteria

\hat questions would you like to answer, gien the data you will collect

;Yov va, ravt to iaevtif, rariov. featvre. ;etbvicit,, ca.te, ecovovic ba.e, ai.tacevevt, rotectiov c .ecvrit, ri./., vore or te.. ti/et, to
re.ova to .,cbo.ociat rograv ivterrevtiov, greater vvvber. of affectea ,ovtb, etc.) tbat covta .erre to grov certaiv regiov. or rittage.
togetber, ava tbev .etect ivairiavat. or favitie. frov tbere. Or ,ov vigbt ravt to iaevtif, ivairiavat cbitarev frov avovg beveficiarie.
ava vovarticiavt., for rbat tbe aifferevt bac/grovva. or .itvatiov. covta tett ,ov abovt tbe .vcce.. of ,ovr rograv ivterrevtiov.)


103
B*1#"@4#,4*/
lae you obtained the inormed consent o participants or does your surey questionnaire include a
mechanism or obtaining inormed consent \es No

I your project ocuses on children, do you hae a plan or asking the caregier`s consent to interiew the
child \es No

D#i64"#. "#2+6"&#2
Identiy all the resources your sureys or other data collection strategies, data analyses, and reporting will
required.
low many interiewers will you need and \hat kind o training will they need
low many days are necessary or training interiewers and how much will it cost to conduct the training
,including a acilitator, materials, room, transportation to,rom the training site, etc.,
\hat resources are required or conducting a translation, an independent back-translation, and a ield-test o the
surey questionnaire,s,
\hat resources are required or conducting the surey ,transportation, salaries, per diems, superision, etc. or
enumerators,
\hat resources will qualitatie data and participatory methods require

=*26"# &+006*41> :%"14&4:%14+*
linally, haing determined the scope and design o your program monitoring and ealuation strategy, reisit
each step in order to discoer additional opportunities to could include community,participant member
participation.

3C D#:+"14*/

1he real purpose o an ealuation goes ar beyond satisying a donor requirement. 1he alue o an
ealuation is in documenting a project`s implementation, how success was or was not achieed, and in
disseminating lessons learned or uture or continued psychosocial interention. Because
psychosocial programming is still relatiely new, we hae much to learn about the nature o our
interentions, what works well, and why. Knowledge gained in the process o implementing projects
should be shared with local and international practitioners, academic colleagues, and donors. \ith
the application o systematic and rigorous approaches to psychosocial program monitoring and
ealuation, eeryone beneits, including uture recipients o our interentions and the societies they
build ater a crisis.

One o the most important lessons to remember when designing, conducting, and reporting on a
project ealuation is to be transparent and honest in what you can claim, gien the data you hae and
any restraints or challenges to data collection and analysis. Claims about project achieements or the
actiities that lead to such achieements can play a signiicant role in public policy, donor unding,
and uture interentions. 1hus we should not make claims beyond what we can realistically say with
the data we hae. At the same time, howeer, we need to share our experiences, lessons learned in

104
the process o implementing and ealuation a project, and what we can learn about the outcomes we
see as a result o our interentions.

1imely and appropriate eedback to stakeholders is also important. Sharing results can be crucial to
building bridges between international organizations and local communities, or example, and it opens
up aenues or continued learning on eectie and appropriate psychosocial interentions. It is
important to establish adequate reporting mechanisms, or both monitoring data as well as ealuation
results, early in the planning and implementation process.

Numerous examples o reporting on results and documenting lessons learned are aailable in print
and on the web. A recently released publication, low to Mobilize Communities or lealth and
Social Change
44
proides a !or/.beet for Reortivg Re.vtt. and a Matri for Docvvevtivg e..ov. earvea
that are ery useul or organizing the inormation that goes into a report and a dissemination o
lessons learned. 1he !or/.beet for Reortivg Re.vtt. suggests articulating: desired results ,objecties,
indicators, and questions related to objecties,, actual results ,what was achieed,, analysis ,why
\hat contributed to achieing these results,, lessons learned, and recommendations.
45

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1he Matri for Docvvevtivg e..ov. earvea prompts a consideration o key steps in realizing a
documentation and dissemination plan.
46

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1his guide to good practices in ealuating psychosocial programming is a work-in-progress and as
such represents an initial, coordinated step in the process o building stronger monitoring and
ealuation designs and greater dissemination o lessons learned so that project practitioners will not
hae to take a leap o aith` that their psychosocial projects are haing a measurable and positie
eect on the lies o children, amilies, and communities.

As mentioned in the Preface, this manual should be considered a working document. Through
dissemination, it is hope that more colleagues, field-based managers, and coordinators of

44
Lisa Howard-Grabman and Gail Snetro, How to Mobilize Communities for Health and Social Change, A Field
Guide (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Population Information Program, Health Communication Partnership, Media/
Materials Clearinghouse, 2003).
45
Ibid., 209-210.
46
Ibid., 211.

105
psychosocial projects can continue to provide critical review and further input across a variety of
disciplines, cultural settings, and regional perspectives. The next step, then, is to utilize this
manual in developing psychosocial project training, planning, implementation monitoring, and
evaluation, and to adapt and expand on it in order to meet the needs of practitioners in the field.

106
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Denzin and \onna S. Lincon ,Newbury Park, Caliornia: Sage,.
Atkinson, P.
1990 1he Lthnographic Imagination: 1extual Constructions o Reality. London: Routledge.
Bakeman, R.
2000 Behaioral obserations and coding.` In landbook o Research Methods in Social
Psychology, edited by l. 1. Reis & C. K. Judd ,New \ork: Cambridge Uniersity Press,.
Blomberg, J., J. Giacomi, A. Mosher, and P. Swenton-lall
1993 Lthnographic ield methods and their relation to design.` In Participatory Design: Principles
& Practices, edited by D. Schuler and A. Namioka ,New Jersey: Lawrence Lrlbaum , lowler,.
letterman, D.M.
1998 Lthnography: Step by step. 2nd edition. Newbury Park, Caliornia: Sage Publications.
Johnson, J. C.
1990 Selecting Lthnographic Inormants ,Vol. 22,. 1housand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sampson, R.J. & Raudenbush, S.\.
,In press,Systematic social obseration o public spaces: A new look at disorder in urban
neighborhoods,` American Journal o Sociology.
Spradley, James P.
1980 Participant Obseration. Orlando, lL: larcourt Brace Joanoich College Publishers.
\ebb, L., D. Campbell, R. Schwartz, and L. Sechrest
2000 Unobtrusie Measures ,reised edition,. 1housand Oaks, Caliornia: Sage Publications, Inc.

L%0:-4*/
Kish, L.
1965 Surey Sampling. New \ork: John \iley & Sons, Inc.
Magnani, R.
199 1he lood and Nutrition 1echnical Assistance ,lAN1A, Sampling Guide. .raitabte at
www.antaproject.org.
1hompson, S.
2002 Sampling. New \ork: John \iley & Sons, Inc.

116

Z#%26"#0#*1 B*21"60#*12 %*. L&%-#2
1he ollowing list is by no means exhaustie, nor does inclusion in this list necessarily imply an
endorsement or recommendation by the International Psychosocial Measurement Committee. 1he
measurement instruments included here are only examples and, with ew exceptions, hae not been
alidated cross-culturally. Reiews o these and other instruments and scales can be ound in the
Mental Measurement \earbook ,Lincoln, Nebraska: Buros Institute o Mental Measurement, and
1est Critiques ,Austin, 1exas: Pro-Ld,.
.aatire ebarior vrevtor, for Cbitarev ;.C). 1982. Mercer, J. R., & Lewis, J. l. 1he Psychological
Corporation.
ec/ Dere..iov vrevtor, . 1996. Beck, A.1. San Antonio: larcourt, Brace & Co.
ec/ Dere..iov vrevtor, ,2
nd
edition,. 1996. Beck, A.1., R.A. Steer, and G.K. Brown. San Antonio, 1X:
1he Psychological Corporation.
ec/ oete..ve.. cate. 1993. Beck, A. 1. San Antonio, 1X: 1he Psychological Corporation.
Cbita ebarior Cbec/ti.t, Reri.ea,11 ;.cbevbacb). 1991. Achenbach, 1. M. Uniersity o Vermont
Department o Psychiatry.
Cbita ebarior Cbec/ti.t, Reri.ea,2 ;.cbevbacb). 1992. Achenbach, 1. M. Uniersity o Vermont
Department o Psychiatry.
Cbitarev`. .ercetiov 1e.tC 198. Bellak, L., M.D., & Bellak, S. CPS.
Cbitarev`. .ttribvtiov. ava Percetiov. cate ;C.P). Maccarino, et al.
Cotovrea Progre..ire Matrice.. 1962. Raen, J.C. Oxord: Oxord Psychologists Press.
K.C. 1983. Kauman, A.S. and N.L. Kauman. Kauman Assessment Battery or children. Circle
Pines, MN: American Guidance Serice.
Mea.vre. of P.,cbo.ociat Deretovevt ;MPD). 1988. lawley, G. A. Psychological Assessment Resources.
Parevtivg tre.. vae ;P). 1990. Abidin, R.R. Pediatric Psychology Press.
Pier.arri. Cbitarev`. etf Covcet cate, ecova aitiov ;Pier.arri. 2). 2002. Piers, L.V. and lerzberg,
D.S. \PS.
Profite. of tvaevt ife: .ttitvae. ava ebarior. ;P.). 1990. Minneapolis: 1he Search Institute.
Reri.ea ebarior Probtev Cbec/ti.t. 198. Quay, l. C. and Peterson, D. R. Behaior checklist completed
by parent,teacher with 89 items and scales or conduct disorder, socialization-aggression,
attention problems, etc. Ages 6-18, 20 minutes to complete.
Reri.ea Cbita Mavife.t .viet, cate ;RCM.). 1994. Reynolds, C. R. and Richmond, B. \PS.
Re,vota. .aote.cevt Dere..iov cate 2va aitiov ;R.D2). 2002. Reynolds, \. M. \PS.
Re,vota. Cbita Dere..iov cate ;RCD). 1989. Reynolds, \. M. PAR.
Ro.evberg etf .teev cate. 1989. Rosenberg, M. Princeton: Princeton Uniersity Press.
tavaara Progre..ire Matrice.. 1962. Raen, J.C., J.l. Court, and J. Raen. Oxord: Oxord Psychologists
Press.
tate oe cate. 2000. Snyder, C.R., et al. In: avaboo/ of P.,cbotogicat Cbavge: P.,cbotbera, Proce..e. ava
Practice. for tbe 21
.t
Cevtvr,, edited by C.R. Snyder & R. L. Ingram ,New \ork: John \iley &
Sons,, Chapter .
tate1rait .vger re..iov vrevtor, 2 ;1.`2). 1999. Spielberger, C.D. \PS.
trevgtb. ava Difficvttie. Qve.tiovvaire. 2000. Robert Goodman.
tre.. Profite. 1999. Nowack, K. M. \PS.
1evve..ee etfCovcet cate. 1994. Roid, G. l., and litts, \. l. \PS.
1O^3. 199. Brown, L., R. Sherbenou, and S. Johnsen, 1est o nonerbal intelligence, a language-
ree measure o cognitie ability, 3
rd
edition ,Austin: Pro. Ld.,.
1rait oe cate. 2000. Snyder, C.R., et al. In: landbook o Psychological Change: Psychotherapy
Processes and Practices or the 21
st
Century, edited by C.R. Snyder & R. L. Ingram ,New
\ork: John \iley & Sons,, Chapter .

117
Yovtb Coivg vae. 1995. lamilton McCubbin, Anne 1hompson, and Kelly Ller.
3"+22\36-16"%- (.%:1%14+* +$ Z#%26"#0#*1 L&%-#2
Lonner, \.
1990 An oeriew o cross-cultural testing and assessment,` Applied Cross-Cultural Psychology
14: 56-6.
Van de Vijer, l. and lambleton, R.
1996 1ranslating 1ests: Some practical guidelines,` Luropean Psychologist 1 ,2,:89-99.

9"%4*4*/ X64.#2
ARC ,Action or the Rights o Children,
2001 Action or the Rights o Children ,ARC,: A Rights-based 1raining and Capacity Building
Initiatie. Genea: UNlCR,SCl,UNICLl.
lope, A. and S. 1immel
1995 1raining or 1ransormation. A landbook or Community \orkers. Gweru, Zimbabwe:
Mambo Press.
Loughry, M. and A. Ager
2001 1he Reugee Lxperience: A 1raining Module. Oxord: Reugee Studies Centre.
Macksoud, M.
1993 lelping Children Cope with the Stresses o \ar. A Manual or Parents and 1eachers. New
\ork: UNICLl.
Reell, B.
2000 Playing with Rainbows: A Manual. 1oronto: \\CA Canada.
Richman, N.
1998 In the Midst o a \hirlwind: A Manual or lelping Reugee Children. Stoke-on-1rent, UK:
1rentham Books.
Richman, N. and D. Pereira
1992 lelping Children in Diicult Circumstances. A 1eacher`s Manual. London: Sae the Children
lund, U.K.
2001 In Sae lands: A Resource and 1raining Pack to Support \ork with \oung Reugee
Children. London: Sae the Children lund, U.K.
Segerstrom, L.
1995 locus on Reugee Children: A landbook or 1raining lield Reugee \orkers in Social and
Community \ork. Stockholm: Rdda Barnen.
1eeri, l.
1999 Psychosocial Needs o Children in Armed Conlict and Displacement. A Module or 1raining
1eachers and Caregiers. Stockholm: Rdda Barnen.
1reseder, P.
199 Lmpowering children and young people. 1raining Manual. Promoting inolement in
decision-making. London: Sae the Children lund, U.K.
Victorian loundation or Suriors o 1orture
1996 Guide to \orking with \oung People \ho Are Reugees. Parkille, Victoria: Victorian
loundation or Suriors o 1orture.


118
D#:+"12b !"+Y#&1 =<%0:-#2b %*. 3%2# L16.4#2
Adjukoic, M. and V. Busko
199 School-based lealth and Peace Initiatie, 1rauma lealing and Peaceul Problem-Soling
Program or Primary Schools in \estern and Lastern Sloenia. Zagreb: UNICLl, CARL,
McMaster Uniersity Project, Croatian Ministry o Lducation and Sports.
Agger, I., L. Jareg, A. lerzberg, J. Mimica and C. Rebien
1999 Laluation o Norwegian Support to Psycho-Social Projects in Bosnia-lerzegoina and the
Caucasus. Norway: 1he Royal Ministry o loreign Aairs.
Al-Lissa, \.A.
1995 1he impact o the Gul armed conlict on the health and behaior o Kuwaiti children,`
Social Science and Medicine 41: 1033-103.
Blomqist, U.
1995 Protection o Children in Reugee Lmergencies: 1he Importance o Larly Social \ork
Interention-1he Rwandan Lxperience. Stockholm: Radda Barnen.
Boyden, J.
199 Children o \ar: Responses to Psycho-social Distress in Cambodia. Genea: United Nations
Research Institute or Social Deelopment.
de Berry, Jo, A. lazili, S. larhad, l. Nasiry, S. lashemi, M. lakimi
2003 1he Children o Kabul: Discussions with Aghan lamilies. \estport, C1: Sae the Children
lederation, Inc. and UNICLl. Aailable on-line at:
http:,,s6.saechildren.org,publications,children_o_kabul.pd
De Jong, J.1.V.M. and J.M.A. lermanns
1999 1he psychological impact o war and the reugee situation on South Sudanese children in
reugee camps in Northern Uganda, An exploratory study,` Journal o Child Psychology and
Psychiatry 40,4,: 529-36.
Demusz, K
2000 Listening to the Displaced: Action Research in the Conlict Zones o Sri Lanka. Oxord:
Oxam.
Dybdahl, R.
2001 Children and mothers in war: An outcome study o a psychosocial interention program,`
Child Deelopment 2,4,: 1214-30.
Gibbs, S.
1994 Post-war social reconstruction in Mozambique, re-raming children`s experience o trauma
and healing,` Disasters 18,3,: 268-6.
lonwana, A.
199 lealing or peace, 1raditional healers and post-war reconstruction in Southern
Mozambique,` Peace and Conlict: Journal o Peace Psychology 3,3,: 293-305.

Jareg, Llizabeth, Lenhart lalk, and GUSCO ,Gulu Support the Children Organisation,
1999 Steps in the Deelopment o a Monitoring and Laluation System or Centre- and
Community-based Psychosocial \ork with \ar-Aected Children in Uganda. Redd Barna,
Norway and Red Barnet, Denmark.
2001 Breaking through the Clouds: A Participatory Action Research ,PRA, Project with Migrant
Children and \outh along the Borders o China, Myanmar and 1hailand. London: Sae the
Children lund, U.K.
Schembri, G.
199 Liberia`s Lx-Child lighters: A Narratie Account o the \ork o Sae the Children lund,
UK, in Liberia. London: Sae the Children lund, U.K.

119
Segerstrom, L.
1994 lrom Lxposed to Inoled: An Action-Oriented Study o Somali Reugee Mothers`
Psychological \ell-Being and 1heir Sense o Competence to Care or 1heir Children.
Stockholm: Rdda Barnen.
Shaw, J. and J. larris
1994 Children o war and children at war, Child ictims o terrorism in Mozambique.` In
Indiidual and Community Responses to 1rauma and Disaster: 1he Structure o luman
Chaos, edited by R. Ursano, B. McCaughey, and C. lullerton ,Cambridge: Cambridge
Uniersity Press,.
Smith, P., S. Perrin, et al
2002 \ar exposure among children rom Bosnia-lerzegoina: Psychological adjustment in a
community sample,` Journal o 1raumatic Stress 15,2,: 14-56.
Stubbs, P. and B. Soroya
1996 \ar trauma, psycho-social projects and social deelopment in Croatia,` Medicine, Conlict
and Surial 12: 303-14.
Summerield, D.
1999 A critique o seen assumptions behind psychological trauma programmes in war-aected
areas,` Social Science & Medicine 48: 1449-62.
\illiams, G., C. Aloyo Obonyo, et al
2001 Resilience in Conlict: A Community-Based Approach to Psycho-Social Support in Northern
Uganda. Kampala: AVSI, UNICLl.

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