CHAPTER I

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 SURFACE ENGINEERING
Serviceable engineering components not only rely on their bulk material properties but also on the design and
characteristics of their surface. This is especially true in wear resistant components, as their surface must perform
many engineering functions in a variety of complex environments. Wear is one of the predominant factors that
controls the life machine parts. Metal parts often fail because they wear, which causes them to lose dimension
and functionality. Different categories of wear exist, but the most typical modes include Abrasion, Impact,
Metallic (metal to metal), Heat, Corrosion etc. Most worn parts fail from a combination of modes, such as
abrasion and impact etc. [1]. Researches are going on to reduce the wear either in the form of using a new wear
resistant material or by improving the wear resistance of the existing material by addition of any wear resistant
alloying element etc.
The behavior of a material is therefore greatly dependent on the surface of a material, surface contact area and
the environment under which the material must operate. The surface of a metallic material is made up of a matrix
of individual grains, which vary in size and bond strength depending on the means by which the material was
manufactured and on the elements used to form those grains [1].
The surface of these components may require treatment, to enhance the surface characteristics. Surface
treatments that cause microstructure changes in the bulk material include heating and cooling/quenching through
induction, flame, laser, and electron beam techniques, or mechanical treatments (one example is cold working).
Surface treatments that alter the chemistry of a surface include carburizing, nitriding, carbonitriding,
nitrocarburizing, boriding, siliconizing, chromizing and aluminizing [2].

1.2 HARDFACING
Hard facing is another form of surface treatment, where the bulk materials surface is given a protective layer of
another material having more superior properties than those of the bulk material. [3]. Hard surfacing employs the
deposition of a special alloy material on a metallic part, by various welding processes, to obtain more desirable
wear properties and/or dimensions. Such an alloy may be deposited on the surface, an edge, or merely the point
of a part subject to wear. To achieve high wear resistance, metal matrix systems are reinforced with hard
particles [4]. Welding deposits can functionalize surfaces and reclaim components extending their service life.
The properties usually sought are greater resistance to wear from abrasion, impact, adhesion (metal-to-metal),
heat, corrosion or any combination of these factors. Many hardfacing techniques such as laser cladding, gas-
tungsten arc welding (GTAW), gas-metal arc welding (GMAW) and plasma transferred arc (PTA) are widely
employed for deposition of a protective layer on a surface of a bulk material subjected to severe working
conditions.
Numerous hardfacing materials are available to fit the need of practically any metal part. Some alloys are very
hard, others are softer with hard abrasion resistant particles dispersed throughout. Certain alloys are designed to
build a part up to a required dimension, while others are designed to be a final overlay that protects the work
surface. The most common coatings applied by hardfacing are metal matrix composites (MMCs) consisting of
Ni, Co or Fe-based matrix, and reinforced with hard ceramic particles. A hard-faced part should be thought of as
a composite, with the base material selected for strength and economy, and the hard-facing material (which
might be unsuitable as well as too costly for use in fabricating the complete part) selected for the specific
wearing conditions to which the critical sections of the part will be subjected in service.
Hardfacing may be applied to a new part during its production, or it may be used to restore a worn-down surface.
Hard-facing increases the service life of a part and to reduce their cost, either by rebuilding or by fabricating in
such a way as to produce a composite wall section, there by extend the lifetime of machinery equipment
efficiently. Hardfacing is primarily done to enhance the surface properties of the base metal substrate and
hardfaced materials generally exhibit better wear, corrosion, and oxidation resistance than the base metal.
Percentage dilution plays a major role in determining the properties of a hardfaced surface [6].
In recent years, weld hardfacing processes have been developed rapidly and are now applied in numerous
industries, e.g., chemical and fertilizer plants, nuclear and steam power plants, pressure vessels and
agriculture machines, railways, and even in aircraft and missile components .This process has been adopted
across many industries such as Cement, Mining[3], Steel, Petro-chemical, Power, Sugar cane and Food.

1.2.2 HARDFACING PROCESSES

Hardfacing can be applied by a number of welding processes, selection of most suitable welding process for a
given job will depend on a number of factors like nature of work to be hardfaced, of the component, accessibility
of weld equipment, state of repair of worn components, number of same or similar items to be hardfaced etc. [6].
Various hardfacing methods can be classified as:
1.2.2.1 SURFACING WITH POWDERS
The processes previously discussed utilized hardfacing alloys in the form of solid or tubular rods and wires.
Hardfacing alloys are also available in powdered form, and their method of application is quite different from the
standard welding methods. Hardsurfacing powders are used for restoring worn surfaces and are widely used by
original equipment manufacturers on new parts which require small hardened surfaces. The four major methods
for applying powder metal hardfacing alloys are: flame spray, manual torch, plasma spray, and plasma arc
welding.
1.2.2.1.1 FLAME SPRAY PROCESS
The flame spray process is accomplished with a special gun-like apparatus which utilizes an oxyacetylene or
oxyhydrogen flame. An air orifice aspirates the powder into the flame and deposits it on the surface. As the
molten particles strike the surface, they flatten out and cool instantaneously. The bond is mechanical since there
is no fusion with the base metal. If desired, fusion can be accomplished in a subsequent fusing operation with an
oxyacetylene burner.
The process is very effective for shafts or small cylindrical parts which are rotated on a lathe while being
surfaced. The surface must be cleaned and grit-blasted before applying the powder for a good initial bond.
Deposition thickness can range from 1/32 to 3/ 32 inches.
1.2.2.1.2 MANUAL TORCH PROCESS
The manual torch process utilizes a special oxyacetylene torch which has a small hopper from which the
surfacing powder is aspirated into the fuel gas stream. Application of the surfacing powder and fusion to the base
metal take place in one operation. Single pass deposit thickness can range from 0.030 to 0.050 inches.
1.2.2.1.3 PLASMA ARC SPRAY AND PLASMA ARC WELDING
These are two processes used to deposit powdered metal surfacing alloys utilizing a plasma arc torch. In this
process a plasma spraying torch is used which has a non-consumable tungsten electrode, the end of which is
behind a small constricting orifice in which a DC arc is initiated between a central tungsten electrode and a
water-cooled surrounding anode. The arc is conf'med within the torch and either argon or nitrogen, sometimes
with small additions of other gases such as hydrogen or helium, are injected into the arc region. A high
temperature plasma flame is formed which passes through the nozzle and carries with it powder which is fed into
the plasma flame by a carrier gas [5]. The high temperature of the plasma flame, which can be up to 15 000C,
will melt powdered alloy or ceramic material which is sprayed on to the workpiece. This process generates
sufficient heat to melt any material. Therefore process has widest range of materials of any spraying process and
high purity deposits obtained free from oxides. Also the equipment is not transportable and are quiet expensive.
The deposition rets are about 2.3 kg/h for steels and ceramics and 4.5 kg/h for Ni-Cr alloys. Because the metal
particles are fully molten and travel at high velocity, the mechanical bond at the surface is very good and does
not require subsequent fusing in most cases.
In plasma arc welding, the transferred arc method is used, which is a higher energy process. The base metal is
actually melted, resulting in a fully fused surface. Both plasma arc methods lend themselves to high production,
automatic surfacing applications requiring a thin overlay.

1.2.2.2 WELDING
Welding processes, are preferred for applications requiring dense relatively thick coatings (due to extremely
deposition rates) with high bond strength. Welding coatings can be applied to substrate which can withstand high
temperatures. Welding processes most commonly use the coating material in the rod or wire form. Thus
materials that can be easily cast in rods or drawn into wire are commonly deposited. In Arc Welding the
substrate and the coating material must be electrically conductive. Welding processes are most commonly used
to deposit primarily various metals and alloys on metallic substrates.
The welding processes determine the filler metal form and deposition efficiency. Arc welding processes are
generally preferred for hardfacing for reasons of speed and low cost[8]. Before selecting a welding
process, importance is given to position of welding, base metal dilution, deposition rate and other
process capabilities The most important welding processes used are
1.2.2.2.1 Oxyacetylene welding
Oxyacetylene process is an early method of applying surfacing alloys and are still in use. The equipment consists
of a torch, hoses, oxygen cylinder, acetylene cylinder, and two pressure regulators. In oxyacetylene welding, a
thin surface layer of the part in the immediate area being hardfaced, is brought to melting temperature. The
hardfacing alloy is simultaneously melted into the molten area where it flows and spreads, and is fused to the
surface in a thin smooth layer, with little dilution from the base metal. This method is commonly referred to as
sweating. The process does not lend itself to automation, although some automatic set-ups have been
developed [5].
The main advantages and disadvantages of the oxyacetylene welding process are:
1. Minimum melting of the parent metal occurs with low dilution of the surfacing alloy which is
advantageous when using expensive highly alloyed consumables.
2. Minimum melting of tungsten carbide granules from tubular rods.
3. low temperature gradients which minimize stresses and subsequent cracking
4. Grooves and other recesses can be accurately filled and very thin deposits can be applied
5. Equipment is of low cost, portable and no power supply required.
6. Slow, unsuitable for surfacing large areas.
7. The operator requires much skill, and the deposition rate is very low (up to 1 kg/h).
8. Build-up of heat may cause over heating of component and lead to distortion.
9. Limited range of consumables are available in this method.

1.2.2.2.2.Shielded Metal Arc Surfacing
In this process an arc is drawn between a coated consumable electrode and the work piece. The metallic core-
wire is melted by the arc and is transferred to the weld pool as molten drops. The electrode coating also melts to
form a gas shield around the arc and the weld pool as well as slag on the surface of the weld pool, thus protecting
the cooling weld pool from the atmosphere. The slag must be removed after each layer. Manual Metal Arc
welding is still a widely used hardfacing process. Due to the low cost of the equipment, the low operating
costs of the process and the ease of transporting the equipment, this flexible process is ideally suited to
repair work. Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc (MMA) welding or
informally as stick welding, is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode coated in flux to
lay the weld. An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding power
supply, is used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be joined. As the weld is laid, the
flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of
slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination [8].
This method is used extensively for field repair and rebuilding of equipment. The arc power may be either direct
or alternating current. Dilution level is higher than in the oxyacetylene method, but can be kept to a minimum by
using the proper welding current, using a weaving bead instead of a stringer bead and keeping the electrode in
the puddle rather than on the base metal [9].
The main characteristics of the manual metal arc welding process are:
1. Low equipment cost.
2. Equipment requires a minimum of maintenance.
3. Welding can be carried out remote from power source, eg welding cables can be 100 m in length.
4. Positional welding possible, eg vertical.
5. Can be used with limited access.
6. Deposition rates of 1 - 7 kg/h.
7. Granular carbides in tubular electrodes are usually melted by the arc leading to decreased wear resistance
compared with oxyacetylene deposits.
8. Thickness of deposit 3 mm upwards

1.2.2.2.3 Gas Tungsten Arc Surfacing
This process utilizes the same equipment and procedures as GTA welding. Deposition rate is low, but deposits
are of high quality as long as efforts are made to keep dilution to a minimum. Normal dilution is somewhat
greater than in oxyacetylene surfacing. Although argon, helium or mixtures of these gases may be used, dilution
is the lowest when using pure argon. Gas Tungsten Arc Surfacing is used for many of the same type of
applications as the oxyacetylene process. These are usually small wear surfaces which require a smooth high
quality deposit [9].
1.2.2.2.4 Submerged Arc Surfacing
In this process the heat for welding is supplied by an arc maintained between solid or tubular wires and the
workpiece. The arc is shielded by a layer of fused granular flux which blankets the molten weld pool and the
adjacent metal near the joint, thus protecting the molten weld metal from atmospheric contamination. There have
been various modifications to the basic submerged arc process which can increase the deposition rate and limit
the penetration, and therefore restrict dilution.
Submerged arc welding utilizes both solid and tubular wires, and a granular flux. It lends itself to automatic
operation and is used for production surfacing of large numbers of parts in shops. The deposition rate and travel
speeds are high, and the penetration is deep. Weld beads are smooth and of good quality. Heat input is high and
for this reason, this process is not recommended for use on austenitic manganese steels. The deep penetration
causes the highest dilution (up to 50%) of all of the processes, which makes it necessary to deposit three or more
layers to attain the full properties of the surfacing material [5].
Currently available modifications include the use of auxiliary cold. (non-current carrying) or hot (current
carrying) wires that are fed into the weld pool, oscillating welding heads, and the application of powdered alloy
to the workpiece surface below the granular flux to restrict penetration of the arc into the base material. Both AC
and DC power sources are used for submerged-arc welding.
The main characteristics of the submerged arc welding process are:
1. Fully automatic process.
2. Deposition rates 10 - 30 kg/h and higher.
3. Wide range of consumables available.
4. Excellent deposit appearance. Minimum finishing required.

1.2.2.2.5 Gas Metal Arc Surfacing
Gas metal arc surfacing is not widely used for hardfacing since most of the iron based alloys can be deposited
more economically by other methods. It is used somewhat for out-of-position surfacing where the low
penetration of the short circuiting transfer mode produces low dilution. It is also used for depositing non-ferrous
alloys, such as aluminum-bronze, which cannot be applied by other methods.
In case of large bulky, difficult to transport components, the repair process will preferably be manual,
and will be performed by a skilled welder using portable equipment. Mechanized setups are implemented, when
applicable, if long stretches of weld deposit are needed, using either Gas Metal Arc Welding(GMAW
also known as MIG) or Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), because of their higher deposition rate when compared
to manual Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW or Stick).

Deposition Rates of Different Welding Processes [10]

1.2.2.3 CLADDING PROCESSES
Cladding processes are used to bond bulk materials in foil, sheet or plate form to the substrate to provide
triboligical properties. The cladding processes are used either wher ecoatings by thermal spraying and welding
cannot be applied or for applications which require surfaces with bulk like properties. Since relatively thick
sheets can be readily clad to substrate, increased wear protection may be possible compared to thermal spraying
and welding. If the coating material is available in sheet form, then cladding may be cheaper alternative to
surface protection. It is difficult to clad parts having complex shapes and extremely large sizes [6].

Laser cladding is a subject of considerable interest at present because it offers the chance to save
strategic materials by coating the surface properties of bulk materials with enhanced hardfacing wear (or
corrosion) resistant super alloy coatings. The coating enhances the surface properties of the bulk material by
improving wear (or corrosion) properties on its surface in the same way as conventional coating
processes. However it does so it with more precision and with less thermal load on the bulk material. The main
benefits of laser hardfacing (over other non-laser welding techniques) include: low dilution rates (<3%),
uses less filler material, higher hardness and small Heat Affected Zone (HAZ, extra protection to
components thus longer life, up to a factor of five. The process is fast, accurate and easy to automate. This
increases production and reduces TRT (Turn around Times). Once the process is validated it is readily adopted
because of the proven benefits.
1.2.2.4 METALLISING
In this process the filler metal in wire form is drawn through a spray gun by feed rolls and is melted in an
oxyacetylene flame. The molten filler metal is atomized by a compressed air blast which carries the metal
particles on to the workpiece previously prepared by grit blasting or rough machining. The bond between the
sprayed metal and the workpiece is purely mechanical and the coatings are porous. The process can also be used
to deposit ceramics such as alumina or zirconia from powder or from sintered rods or from a continuous flexible
cord formed by packing ceramic powder into a sleeve of combustible material.
A comparatively recent development, now well established, is the arc spraying process in which two wires of the
metal to be sprayed are fed to a gun and an electric arc maintained between the ends of the wires. The wires melt
in the arc and are atomised by air blast in the normal way. Deposition rates are approximately treble that of gas
pistols and the bond strength and tensile strength of the deposit are increased [5].
The main characteristics of.the metallising process are:
1. Gas sprayed coating thicknesses generally less than 2 mm but thicker coatings, up to 12 mm, can be
applied by arc spraying.
2. Smooth even coatings.
3. Unsuitable for impact.
4. Porous nature of coatings aids lubrication.
5. Low bond strength, but this can be increased to some extent by the initial application of a nickel-
aluminide or molybdenum bond coating or by electric arc spraying.
6. Sample to be coated must be prepared by grit blasting or rough machining.


1.2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF HARDFACING ALLOYS

Unlike the various electrodes, wires and filler metals in the previous lessons, hardfacing electrodes and filler
metals are frequently proprietary alloys made to each manufacturers specifications from formulas proven over
the years. Very few of them are classified according to an AWS specification. Hardfacing systems may be
divided into four basic categories: iron base, nickel base, cobalt base, and tungsten

1.2.3.1 IRON BASE ALLOYS
The iron base alloys as a group are the most widely used of all the hardfacing systems, and include a wide range
of alloy types. These range from steels containing 2-12% alloying elements to high alloys containing 12-50% of
these elements. This group includes a number of buildup alloys, as well as excellent hardfacing alloys. The iron
based alloys are characterized by excellent resistance to abrasion in varying degrees or excellent resistance to
impact, depending on alloy content. The higher alloy versions afford good wear resistant properties up to
1,000F. Filler metal is available as coated electrodes, bare electrodes for oxyacetylene welding or gas tungsten-
arc welding, solid or cored wires for submerged arc welding, and cored wires for open arc welding. Iron is the
least expensive matrix material, and it can be found in a great number of proprietary alloys. Due to the large
variety of iron base alloys available for hardfacing applications, it has become customary to group them more by
behavior under wear than by chemical composition. Various types of iron based alloys used can be classified as
Pearlitic steels are low-alloy steels. They contain low carbon (<0.2% C) and low amounts of other alloying
elements (up to 2% Cr), and are useful as buildup overlays, to rebuild parts back to size. This group of alloys has
high impact resistance and low or medium hardness (in the range of 25 to 37 HRC), as well as excellent
weldability.
For building up Austenitic Manganese steel, which is highly resistant to impact and work hardens during usage,
two types of filler manganese steel are used, containing also Nickel and Molybdenum: while Manganese is
around 15% for both, Chromium may be on the low side (about 4 %)(EFeMn-C) for buildup of machinery parts
subjected to impact, or on the high side (about 15%)(EFeMn-Cr), used for buildup or welding to the same or
other metals.
For metal to metal wear resistance applications, martensitic steels similar to tool steels are employed, with due
precautions during welding to avoid cracking: these, called also machinery hardfacing alloys, harden upon
cooling from welding temperature and exhibit higher hardness although less impact resistance than the above.
White cast irons are used for metal-to-earth abrasion resistance. Main ingredients are Chromium that can range
between 6 and 35%, and Carbon usually between 2 and 6%. The low carbon alloys are preferred for moderate
abrasion and impact. Higher carbon white irons are selected where impact is not an issue but where severe
abrasion takes place. Additional elements that may be found are Silicon, Molybdenum and Manganese

1.2.3.2 COBALT BASE ALLOYS
The cobalt base alloys consist of 45-63% cobalt, 24-29%chromium, 5.50-13.5% tungsten and 1.10-3.20%
carbon. They are probably the most versatile of the hardfacing alloys because they resist heat, corrosion,
abrasion, moderate impacts, galling, and metal-to-metal wear. Some alloys in this group remain substantially
hard at temperatures up to 1500F. Applications would include hot work equipment such as hot punches, valve
parts, shear blades, etc. In recent years, the price of cobalt has risen sharply since there are few sources in the
world. The price of cobalt alloys per pound exceed that of the iron base alloys by approximately eighteen times.
All the Cobalt base and Nickel base alloys have high resistance to corrosion and oxidation; they processes
low co efficient of friction making them especially suitable for applications involving metal to metal wear; and
they are almost always selected for applications involving temperatures of 550 degrees or higher[11]. The Cobalt
base alloys retain much of their original hardness at red-hot (800degrees)

1.2.3.3 TUNGSTEN BASE ALLOYS
The tungsten base alloys produce the most wear resistant deposits of the hard surfacing materials. They consist
of hard granules of tungsten carbide distributed in a matrix of iron, carbon steel, cobalt alloy, or nickel alloy. The
matrix, being somewhat softer than the carbides, wears away to a degree, leaving the hard carbides protruding.
This roughness of the deposit renders these alloys useless for metal-to-metal applications, but ideal for
applications such as rock drill bits and other mining, quarrying and digging applications [13] .
Despite their excellent abrasion resistance, tungsten carbide alloys can only withstand impacts that do not
produce compressive stress above their yield strength. Tungsten carbide alloys have low resistance to oxidation
and low resistance to corrosion, unless deposited in a nickel or cobalt matrix. Hardness at high temperatures is
approximately equal to the higher alloy iron base alloys if the tungsten carbide granules are in an iron or steel
matrix. If in a nickel or cobalt matrix, better hot hardness can be achieved.
These rods or electrodes are usually supplied as carbon steel tubes filled with tungsten carbide granules by
weight. The cost of rods or electrodes consisting of tungsten carbide granules in a carbon steel matrix is
approximately nine times that of the iron base alloys. If the matrix is a nickel or cobalt base alloy, costs will be
higher.

1.2.3.4 NICKEL BASE ALLOYS
The nickel base alloys contain 70-80% nickel, 11-17%chromium, 2.50-3.70% boron, and 0.30-4.50% silicon.
The forming of various carbides and borides in the nickel matrix results in a deposit with excellent resistance to
low temperature abrasion, and makes these the best alloys for metal-to-metal wear. These alloys also have good
heat and corrosion resistance. They retain their hardness and temperatures up to 1200F. The nickel base alloys
lend themselves to flame spray and plasma arc applications, and are available largely in powder form. The cost
of nickel base alloys is approximately five to six times that of the iron base alloys.
Nickel-based coatings are used in applications where wear resistance combined with oxidation or hot corrosion
resistance is required [11]. They are mainly used in chemical industry, petrol industry, glass mould industry, hot
working punches, fan blades and mud purging elements in cement factories. Their advantages are especially
related to coating large-sized components such as piston rods, earthworking machines etc. [12]. The presence of
boride and carbide dispersions within their microstructures makes these nickel based alloys exhibit excellent
resistance to abrasive wear [4].Furthermore, these hard coatings are widely employed to improve the quality of
components whose surface is subjected to severe tribological conditions such as coal-fired boilers, heat
exchangers, turbines, tools, extruders, plungers, rolls for rolling mills, agriculture machinery, etc.
Addition of chromium promotes the oxidation and corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures and increases
the hardness of the coating by formation of hard phases. Boron depresses the melting temperature and
contributes to the formation of hard phases. Silicon is added to increase the self-fluxing properties and lower the
melting point of nickel, the base metal. However, it reduces the tensile strength of the alloy.
Carbon produces hard carbides with elevated hardness that promotes wear resistance of the coatings [6, 13]. The
presence of carbon is also responsible for the formation of chromium carbides which are brittle, angular and
hollow crystals that increase braze joint stress. The good corrosion resistance of the alloy is assured by the
presence of chromium while the wear resistance is directly connected to the relations between the matrix and the
hard phases: nature (boride, silicide, carbide) distribution, form, dimensions and orientation relationship between
the phases [14]. Niobium addition can reduce friction and wear loss of a deposited layer, when molybdenum
and carbon were added, they will combine and form a coarse precipitate that exhibits excellent wear
resistance to the deposited layer against Si3N4 ceramic ball wear test under the dry wear condition and
under oil lubrication, the wear debris accumulate and form a protective layer on the worn surface[15]. If
such a protection layer is derived from a high hardness deposited layer, it will remain on the worn surface and
then reduce the wear loss[14].
Due to various phases involved, the solidification paths of these alloys are particularly complex especially during
slow cooling in differential thermal analysis (DTA). The microstructure of these alloys has not been deeply
investigated [12, 4, 5] due to the complexity of their compositions and various complex phases involved which
are particularly sensitive to different cooling conditions, hence the interest of the present work to undertake the
microstructural studies of the phase transformations within the alloys with respect to their compositions and
cooling conditions. The influence of the addition of aluminium (in various contents) on the microstructural
changes of these alloys are also being investigated.


1.2.3.4.1 BENEFITS OF USING NICKEL BASED HARDFACING ALLOYS
Nickel-base hardfacing alloys (e.g. Colmonoy) were developed mainly to replace the Co-base alloys for avoiding
induced activity problems in thermal and fast reactor applications. Long-term ageing studies on the nickel-based
hardface deposits on austenitic stainless steel showed that the hardface deposit would retain adequate hardness at
the end of the components design service-life of 40 years of exposure at 823 K. Also they have excellent
properties under corrosion, abrasion and elevated temperature. The coatings usally shows a decreased wear loss
and coefficient of friction (COF) with increasing temperatures [11].

1.2.4 BASE METALS
Almost 85% of the metal produced and used is steel. The term steel encompasses many types of metals made
principally of iron. The various types of steels used in the industry for making different components for different
applications are grouped in to the following types [13]:

a. Low-Carbon Steels and Low-alloy Steels - These steels include those in the AISI series C-1008 to C-
1020. Carbon ranges from 0.10 to 0.25%, manganese ranges from 0.25 to 1.5%, phosphorous is 0.4%
maximum, and sulfur is 0.5% maximum. Steels in this range are most widely used for industrial
fabrication and construction. These steels can be easily welded with any of the arc, gas, and resistance
welding processes. The low-alloy high-strength steels represent the bulk of the remaining steels in the
AISI designation system. These steels include the low-manganese steels, the low-to-medium nickel
steels, the low nickel-chromium steels, the molybdenum steels, the chromium-molybdenum steels, and
the nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels. These alloys are included in AISI series 2315, 2515, and 2517.
Carbon ranges from 0.12-0.30%, manganese from 0.40-0.60%, silicon from 0.20-0.45% & nickel from
3.25-5.25%.

b. Medium-Carbon Steels - These steels include those in the AISI series C-1025 to C-1050. The
composition is similar to low-carbon steels, except that the carbon ranges from 0.25 to 0.50%
c. and manganese from 0.60 to 1.65%. Medium-carbon steels are readily weldable provided some
precautions are observed. These steels can be welded with all of the processes mentioned above.

d. High-Carbon Steels - These steels include those in the AISI series from C-1050 to C-1095. The
composition is similar to medium-carbon steels, except that carbon ranges from 0.30 to 1.00%.
e. Special precautions must be taken when welding steels in these classes. High-carbon steels can be welded
with the same processes mentioned previously.

f. Other steels are Low-Nickel Chrome Steels (AISI 3120, 3135, 3140, 3310, and 3316), Low-Manganese
Steels (AISI 1320, 1330, 1335, 1340, and 1345), Low-Alloy Chromium Steels (AISI 5015 to 5160 and
the electric furnace steels 50100, 51100, and 52100) which can be welded without special precautions
when carbon is at low end of the range.

1.2.5 GENERAL RULES FOR HARDFACING

Some general rules and precautions which will help to assure sound hardfacing deposits are listed below :
a. Base Metal Identification - The base metal must be properly identified so that the proper buildup and/or
hardfacing alloy can be selected. Also, base metal type will help determine the proper preheat and inter
pass temperature. A magnet will help to identify austenitic manganese steel since it is non-magnetic. The
magnet should be tried at several locations on the part because work hardened areas will be slightly
magnetic.
b. Base Metal Preparation - The base metal must be cleaned with a grinding w heel and be free of rust, oil,
grease, or other foreign matter. Cracks, tears, or gouges must be repaired using the proper filler metal or
buildup alloy.
c. Metal Removal - Rolled over and fatigued metal must removed. Work hardened surfaces of austenitic
manganese steel should be ground away before buildup or surfacing.
d. Buildup - Buildup of badly worn parts to within approximately of their final size w ith an appropriate
buildup alloy prior to hardfacing is necessary.
e. Preheat and Interpass Temperature - The importance of observing preheat and interpass temperatures
cannot be overstressed. Problems, such as spalling, cracking, and distortion can be minimized by proper
preheating, interpass temperature, and slow or retarded cooling.
f. Dilution - Dilution of the hardfacing deposits is expected in all cases w here the hardfacing alloy is fused
to the base metal and should be kept to a minimum. Excessive dilution with the base metal will alter the
hardness of the deposit and in part, is a result of the heat input. Heat input is a function of the heat
(amperage and voltage) and deposition rate (travel speed). Dilution will be greater in stringer beads
(straight) than in a weaving bead. A weaving bead is recommended wherever possible.
Electrical stick out (the amount of w ire between the contact tip and the arc) must be kept relatively
constant to control penetration in open arc welding. Long stick out decreases penetration and thereby, the
amount of dilution. Short stick out can drastically increase penetration and dilution.
g. Hardfacing Thickness - Too much hardfacing can cause more problems than too little. The hardfacing
deposit should consist of no more than two layers and the total thickness should not exceed in most
cases.

1.2.5 CHOICE OF DEPOSITION PROCESS

The choice between a welding or a spraying process is to be used may be decided by the nature of the coating
material required.. Which welding or spraying process to use cart be determined by the general characteristics
listed under the descriptions of each deposition process although sometimes the choice of process may be limited
to what is readily available in a works on site.
Whatever welding process is chosen the highest possible welding current should be used to obtain the greatest
economy. This is because the deposition rate increases with the welding current and the cost of each kilogram of
weld metal deposited is reduced quite dramatically. A similar economic advantage can be obtained by the use of
a semi-automatic welding process such as MIG or flux cored arc welding in place of manual metal arc welding
but account must be taken of the much higher capital cost of the welding equipment and allowances made for
shorter amortization periods and additional maintenance. Most hardfacing by welding is carried out in the flat
position where maximum deposition rates can be used but to take advantage of the high deposition rates of MIG
or flux cored arc welding process it is necessary to ensure that the duty cycle is reasonably high [5].
The duty cycle, or arcing factor as it is sometimes called, is the percentage of total time that a welder is
depositing metal and the cost of per kilogram of deposited weld metal falls as duty cycle increases. By
maintaining a constant flow of work to the welder the duty cycle can be maintained at a figure of at least 30%
which should make the use of semi-automatic processes economically viable. Another factor to be taken account
of in the economics of hardfacing is the time that a plant has to be shut down while components are repaired. It
may be economic to keep hardfaced spares available to reduce down time to a minimum. Because of the many
different interacting factors that cause wear it is not always possible to predict the best deposition process or the
optimum hardfacing material. Hence records of the hardfacing procedure and alloys used and their cost as well
as the time intervals between reclamation shold also be taken into consideration.

1.2.6 ADVANTAGES OF USING METAL ARC WELDING

The major advantages of using metal arc welding generally include
Alloy availability - almost as many alloys available as SMAW, with the ability to customize alloys easily
if the demand requires
High deposition - rates ranging from 1,8 - 11,3 kg/hr.
Deposit integrity - good recovery of elements across the arc
Easy to operate - minimal time is required to train an operator
Versatility - not as versatile as covered electrodes, but capable of being used outdoors and in remote
locations due to open arc operation
The main disadvantages of using metal arc welding for hardfacing are
Dilution - two or three layers are needed to obtain maximum wear properties [18].
Welding position - although some wires have out-of-position capabilities, most are designed for flat and
horizontal applications.
The major disadvantage of the MMAW process used for hard facing is the high degree of the
skill required for the welder.
Relatively low productivity and efficiency in terms of rate of metal deposition.- stub loss and deposition
of 0,5 - 3 kg/hr [16].


1.2.1 ADVANTAGES OF HARDFACING
By applying hardfacing to worn parts, several advantages can be obtained. Benefits of using hardfacing include
[2, 6]:
Substantially cheaper method for repairing worn parts which are extremely large or expensive.
It can be done on the spot so that the wastage of money and time on delayed work as well as
disassembling and assembling machine becomes unnecessary.
The deposited layers allow a greater external load such that the efficiency can be increased.
Building new parts with assured longer life of elements subjected to wear and abrasion.
Savings in maintenance costs when rebuilding at the equipment operation place.
Producing more economic parts by placing hard facing alloy only where needed.
Reducing breakdown time and increasing work efficiency.
Strongest possible bonding is obtained in this process.
All weldable metals and alloys can be used.
It can be carried out with low cost equipment.
A thick layer can be built up rapidly.
The process can be entirely automated.

The main disadvantages of hardfacing are:
This technique is restricted to metallic materials.
Products are vulnerable to residual stress related distortion.
The hard faced layer may undergo dilution by the diffusion of base material constituents.
Products may require a post weld finishing operation in many applications




1.2.7 SOME INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF HARDFACING [6]
Agriculture: Plowshare points, Soil-tamper points, Harrower teeth, Tiller blades, Canadian plowshare
points, Blade components of silo feeding equipments.
Automotive: Trucks, automobiles, highway construction and agricultural vehicles, cam actuators
and shafts, Exhaust manifolds, Pumps, Mufflers, Brakes, Clutches, Cones, Synchronizers, Valve
heads and stems, Inlet and exhaust seats, Eccentrics, Eccentric shafts, Rods, Rockers.
Building construction:Brick moulds, Wear plates, Mixing machine blades, Fuller screws, Crushing
cylinders, Punches and dies for ceramic materials.
Chemical: Pump shafts and sleeves, Rotating joints, Valves, Mixer blades, Homogenizer blades,
Agitator blades, Moulds, Shearing equipment.
Food Processing:Extruder screws for vegetables oils, Grain mill equipments, Corn and sugar cane
cutting equipments, Archimedean screws.
Glass & Ceramics: Moulds, Screws, Mixing blades, Kneader blades, Agitator blades, Shearing
equipment. Leather goods Cutting tools and equipment
Metal Working: Shear blades, Conveyor rollers, Surface cleaning rollers, Straightening rollers,
Draw die equipment, Moulds, Cast iron and alvanized pipe production.
Mining Ore:Crusher blades, Power-shovel teeth, Conveyor chains, Agglomeration grilles, Scraper
blades, Cut-off blades, Coke oven supports, Blast-furnace hoppers, Pump sleeves and conduits,
Filters, Elevator conveyor belts.
Naval works:Rod ends, Blower turbines, Piston rods, Transmission shafts, Screw shafts.
Paper:Roll cylinders for continuous machines, Drying cylinders, Mixers, Heaving plates, Pressure bars.
Petroleum:Blowers and ventilators, Pumps, Heat exchangers, Rods.
Power generation:Turbines, Joints.
Public works:Steam shovel teeth and edges, Excavator teeth, Bulldozer blades and teeth, Dredge
rollers, Tractor rollers and track links, Rubber Tire moulds, Mixers.
Shop Machinery: Tool machinery, Carriage guides, Mandrels and spindles, Tail stocks, Bushings.
Steel & Foundry:Ventilator and blower parts, Coke wagons, Blower nozzles, Feed rollers, Gaskets,
Speed reducer, Ore and earth handling equipment, De-flashing dies, Shear blades, Punches, Forging
moulds and punches, Sheet metal conveyor guide, Smooth-faced rollers.
Textiles:Filament guides, Diagonal cutter, Rollers, Heatingplates, Cloth puller


CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

E N Gregory[5] studied about various hardfacing deposition methods which can be used for surface
improvements. He studied about different hardfacing materials used and the effect of various alloying metals. He
also gives a good description about the classification of the hardfacing materials used along with general
properties and application of harfacing on different substrates like carbon steel martensitic steels etc. and
materials to be used for different application which requires maximum impact resistance, maximum heat and
abrasion resistance.
J. L. Henderson &J. H. Bulloch[17] discussed the detailed nature of abrasive and impactive, after which the
various processes used for the laying down of hardfacing materials on metallic surfaces are described. The
advantages and disadvantages of the various processes are considered in detail. The primary section of this paper
consists of a classification of the consumables utilized in the hardfacing processes. Inherent in this classification
the hardness level of the hardfacing deposit is considered as a function of the total alloy content. Also this
classification demonstrates that the consumables can conveniently be separated into eight groups, five of which
relate to the so-called alloy type and three to the hardfacing type, which consists of particles of the primary
carbide phase dispersed in an iron-rich matrix. A brief metallurgical description is offered for each individual
group, together with typical areas of application.

J. L. Henderson &J. H. Bulloch[3] also have given a brief review of various aspects pertaining to Wear
Processes and Hardfacing Materials. It attempts to clarify the necessary requirements for realising the correct
selection of Hardfacing Materials to mitigate Wear Processes. It considers such topics as the economics of
hardfacing materials where account is taken of various factors such as: cost of repair of replacement, time
between scheduled plant shutdowns; and financial overheads, wear processes and testing procedures and material
selection for wear resistance. The effectiveness of surface treatments and coatings in combatting wear are
discussed as well as the microstructural influence on wear resistance. Finally outlines for the classification of the
various hardfacing materials are assessed.

K. M. Kenchireddy, C. T. Jayadeva and Sreenivasan [18] studied the effects of welding processes on the
microstructure and wear resistance on hardfacing deposits using two different types of electrodes. In this study,
two different electrodes were used to examine the effect of microstructure and wear resistance for hardfacing
deposits. The factors such as, arc current, arc voltage, welding speed, electrode stick-out and preheat temperature
where found to predominantly influence the weld quality. The abrasion tests were conducted on a dry sand
rubber wheel abrasion machine. Results revealed that as hardness increases, the loss of wear decreases. The wear
surface results were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy results which indicated that the best abrasion
resistance is obtained in microstructures composed of chromium carbide alloy. Addition of hardfacing elements
such as chromium, carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur, and phosphorous showed improved the wear resistance
of the hardfacing alloy. Wear loss increased with load applied. The principle of wear mechanism was micro-
cutting and micro-ploughing in hardfacing alloys, except the fracturing accompanied by elements such as
chromium, carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur, and phosphorous increasing the hardness of hardfacing alloy
could improve wear resistance.
F. T. FURILLO [20] experimentally asserted the effects of molybdenum on the structure and hardness of tungsten
carbides . Crushed and sized molybdenum modified tungsten carbide was used as filler for steel tube rods and
was evaluated in hard-facing deposits made by oxyacetylene techniques. It was determined that up to 30 wt.%
molybdenum substituted for tungsten yielded structures and hardnesses equivalent to those of the tungsten
carbide. The microsrctures and abrasive wear resistance of deposits produced from the experimental
molybdenum-modified hard-facing rods were similar to comparable deposits of unmodified cast tungsten
carbide. The relative effects of carbide composition, carbide volume fraction and matrix hardening due to partial
carbide dissolution on abrasive wear resistance were discussed.

IRON BASED

K.M. KenchiReddy and C.T. Jayadeva [21] investigated the effect of microstructure employing two different
commercial hardfacing electrodes to investigate the effect of the microstructure. Results indicate that as hardness
increases, the loss of wear decreases. Electrode-I has less wear as compared to electrode-II as the percentage of
chromium, carbon and silicon is more in electrode-I. The abrasion tests were carried out in a dry sandrubber
wheel abrasion machine. The factors such as, arc current, arc voltage, welding speed, electrode stick-out and
preheat temperature, predominantly influence the weld quality. Experimental investigation revealed that, weld
metal chemistry & hardness have significant influence on wear property. Wear resistance increases with increase
in percentage of chromium & carbon content in weld deposits and the hardness mainly depends on process
parameters such as welding current, speed of arc travel and voltage. The analysis carried indicates that the
hardness values are more on the weld surface & decrease towards the base metal & remains constant on the base
metal.

Vishal I. Lad , Jyoti V. Menghani & S. A. Channiwala[22] used two hardfacing electrodes having different
chemical compositions have been selected with addition of alloying elements and their hardness and
microhardness responses were compared with that of mild steel. The emphasis has been to realize the effect of
microstructure and chemical composition on the hardness and micro hardness response of the hardfacing
material with respect to mild steel. It has been observed that the hardness of hardfacing alloys is varied with
addition of alloying elements compared to that without addition of alloying elements and the effect of addition of
various elements was studied on iron based hardfacing alloy.

S. Chatterjee , T.K. Pal [23] studied solid particle erosion behaviour of different hardfacing electrodes deposited
on gray cast iron using quartz sand and iron ore as erodent particles. Erosion test was carried out and differences
in erosion rates were found among different hardfacing electrodes at normal impact. Effect of both volume
fraction of carbides and type of carbides in the erosion behaviour of the deposits when quartz sand was used as
erodent particles was studied. Only volume fraction of carbides irrespective of carbide type mainly controlled the
erosion rate of the same deposits when iron ore was used as erodent particles. Such difference was accounted due
to difference in metal removal mechanisms by the two erodent particles used. Hard quartz sand particles were
found to be capable of causing damage to most of the carbides while relatively softer iron ore particles were
unable to fracture any carbides present in the microstructures. Furthermore, relatively brittle matrix led to high
erosion rate which is significant in case of quartz sand as erodent, but not in case of iron ore particles. Like
abrasion resistance, hardness was not found to be a true index of erosion resistance of hardfacing deposits.

Harvinder Singh[24] conducted a detailed study to find the effect of different compositions of iron based
harfacing electrodes on stainless steel, deposited by SMAW process. Three different iron based alloys, Hard
Alloy 400, Hardloy III, Hardloy V electrodes were chosen for hardfacing. A single and double layer was applied
by each electrode. The investigation was done on the samples prepared by these electrodes. Micro-hardness test,
wear test, and microstructure investigations were carried out for analysis. The hardness values and wear
resistance of the different hardfacing electrodes was tested and compared with each other. In the microstructure
the grains are very fine and distributed uniformly in (E3) samples. The microstructure, hardness and wear
resistance of hardfacing layer were affected obviously by amount of (CSiMnCr-Ni) component. The hardness
and wear resistance of hardfacing layer increases with increasing of carbon and chromium contents.

Cobalt based

K. Ogino and H. Kinoshita [26] studied the wear characteristic of a cobalt-based hardfacing alloy and ASTM
52100 steel, under conditions of unlubricated sliding wear. The maximum specific wear rates were obtained
under a sliding velocity of 0.25 m/s for cobalt-base alloy SF12 and SF20 specimens. From X-ray diffraction
composition of the wear debris was studied. The maximum wear rates are obtained with a sliding velocity of
0.25 m/s caused by scratching of the wear debris. Apart from the influence of oxidative wear this effect is
considered to be due to mechanical wear which increases the specific wear rate.

A. Frenk and W. Kurz [27] investigated the influence of the microstructure on the dry sliding wear resistance of
a hypo-eutectic Stellite 6 alloy under conditions leading to severe metallic wear of the hardfacing alloy.
Conventional chill casting as well as laser surface cladding were used to produce a wide range of solid
microstructures. The hardness of the allloy was strongly dependent on the microstructure and in particular on the
size of the dendrites. Under the sliding conditions investigated, severe delamination wear of the Stellite occurred.
High coefficients of friction were measured and the structure in the subsurface was completely destroyed by the
resulting stress cycles. During the stationary wear regime, no dependence of the wear rate on the as-solidified
microstructure could therefore be determined. However, a strong influence on the wear resistance of alloying
elements which affect the matrix properties was observed. Suggestions were made for the improvement of the
wear resistance of such alloys under similar sliding conditions.

Nickel based

D. Kesavan, M. Kamaraj [11] discussed in detail, influence of microstructure on high temperature dry sliding
wear behavior of nickel base hardfaced coating. Coating of nearly 4 to 5 mm thickness was deposited on 316 L
stainless steel substrate without any defects. The deposited coating contains large quantity of precipitates range
from 100 nm to 20 m in size) in the -nickel matrix which increased the hardness significantly. Sliding wear
tests were carried out on the coating for different sliding distances at room temperature and also higher
temperatures. Results showed that the wear resistance of coating improved significantly with increase in test
temperature, and the high wear resistance was observed at 823 K. The coating exhibited different operating wear
mechanisms depending on sliding distances and also test temperature. The wear mechanisms were identified
based on friction and wear values along with worn surface analysis. The operating wear mechanisms at 823 K
are adhesion at shorter sliding distance and tribo-oxidation at longer sliding distance.

Gopa Chakraborty, N. Kumar, C.R. Das, S.K. Albert, A.K. Bhaduri,S. Dash, and A.K. Tyagi [14]
presented the results of studies carried out on the microstructure, hardness, andwear properties of three nickel
base NiCrBSi hardfacing alloys deposited on austenitic stainless. Sliding wear resistance of the deposits is
evaluated by ball-on-disc tribo-test followed by electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy of the worn out
surfaces. It is found that dilution in the deposit by the substrate alters microstructure and hardness and brings
down wear resistance. The effect of dilution on wear resistance is more for the alloy with the highest alloy
content due to change in the volume fraction of precipitate caused by dilution. Oxides formed on the wear track
are different for these alloys and friction coefficients of the deposits are influenced by these oxide layers.

G. L. Goswami and Santosh Kumar, R. Galun and B. L. Mordike [7] conducted experiments which aimed at
exploring the possibility of producing nickel-based claddings for hardfacing applications as an alternative of
stellite by blown powder laser cladding process. Cladding of three nickel based materials, one metallic system
(Ni-15Cr-32Mo) and two composite systems ((Ni-20Cr)-40Cr2C3 and (Ni-20Cr)-40WC) has been done on mild
steel plate by blown powder laser cladding process. The process parameters were optimized to obtain defect free
claddings. The cladded samples were characterized by visual examination, optical microscopy and
microhardness measurements. Wear testing of these claddings was done and the results were compared with
those of stellite-6 claddings produced on same substrate by same method. The Ni-15Cr-32Mo claddings showed
better hardness and wear resistance while (Ni-20Cr)-40Cr2C3 / WC claddings showed lower hardness but still
much better wear resistance as compared to stellite-6 claddings. Therefore, nickel-based claddings process
appear as promising alternative of stellite-6 claddings for hardfacing applications.

J. A. Ajao [19] also conducted studies concerned with the microstructural characterization of some slowly
cooled Nickelbased hardfacing alloys investigated by differential thermal analysis (DTA), energy dispersive X
ray analysis , X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM).
Three major primary phases (Ni (), M7C3, and the phase) were observed during slow cooling in DTA
depending on the nominal compositions of the alloys. Intense segregations of the silicide phase Ni3Si were
observed in the nickel matrix. Large under coolings in addition to intense solid state precipitations were
observed in alloys with iron additions. The precipitates are responsible for the high hardness values and strength
of the alloys. The hardness values of the alloys were also found to be increased as the iron contents were
increased.

Y.L. Su & K.Y. Chen [25] In this work microstructure and the hardness of the nickel-base hardfacing alloy was
examined and their influence on the wear resistance of a deposited layer when different alloy elements were
added. Based on the results in this study the following points are concluded: niobium can reduce friction and
wear loss of a deposited layer, when molybdenum and carbon were added, they will combine and form a coarse
precipitate that exhibits excellent wear resistance to the deposited layer against Si3N4 ceramic ball wear test
under the dry wear condition and under oil lubrication, the wear debris accumulate and form a protective layer on
the worn surface. If such a protection layer is derived from a high hardness deposited layer, it will remain on the
worn surface and then reduce the wear loss.




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