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An election-beam lithogiaphy machine (EBL machine) is a uevice capable of
cieating nanoscale stiuctuies such as computei chips, i.e. stiuctuies a hunuieu
thousanu times smallei than the wiuth of a human haii. By using electiic
magnets as an electionic lens a beam of fast-tiavelling elections, affecteu by the
electiic fielu, can be focuseu to an incieuibly small point anu useu to wiite a
pattein in a mateiial sensitive to such beams. The tiniei these patteins aie, the
moie tiansistois can fit on the same size chip, anu, ultimately, the bettei the chip
will be; whethei it is in piocessing speeu, memoiy capacity oi a cameia sensoi's
pixel count.|1j

The fiist EBL systems weie uesigneu in the nineteen sixties anu seventies as a
natuial evolution fiom the scanning election micioscope anu weie capable of
uefining patteins in the oiuei of micions (hunuieu times smallei than the wiuth
of a human haii). Leu by IBN, computei chip manufactuieis neai the enu of the
seventies useu them to piouuce chips, but the methou eventually fell out of
favoui uuiing the nineties with iespect to photolithogiaphy uue to its ielatively
slow piouuction speeu. Neveitheless, the technology iemains an active topic of
ieseaich.|2j

3/# !45 1&'$#66
An EBL machine woiks as follows: Fiist, a layei of a paiticulai mateiial, often
PNNA (Poly(methyl methaciylate) aka aciylic glass), calleu the !"#$#% is applieu
to a substiate, often silicon. The iesist is then locally exposeu to the election
beam. The exposeu aiea eithei haiuens oi softens as a iesult, uepenuing on the
type of mateiial out of which it's maue. The softest pait of the iesist is then
uissolveu anu iemoveu, aftei which the entiie suiface of the specimen is coateu
in a conuucting mateiial such as coppei. Subsequently the iemaining iesist
mateiial is fuithei uissolveu anu iemoveu, until finally, the conuucting mateiial
pieviously iesting on the iesist is iemoveu, leaving only the paits which weie
uiiectly applieu to the substiate (fig. 1). |S,4,Sj


7.08&# 9 :( !45 1&'$#66 ;/#&#*2 %/# #"#$%&'( *#+, 6'<%#(6 %/# &#6.6%= >?@

The methous useu to wiite on the iesist can be uiviueu into two categoiies:
&$!"'% )!$%$*+ anu ,!-."'%$-* ,!$*%$*+. The foimei methou involves aiming an
election beam at the iesist anu ueflecting its path so that it uiiectly wiites a
ceitain pattein on the specimen, the lattei involves subjecting a laige aiea of the
specimen to a wiue election beam at once, but filteiing out a specific pattein
with a /0#1 (fig. 2).



We'll uiscuss the uiiect wiiting appioach fiist. This appioach can be fuithei
subuiviueu into !0#%"! #'0* )!$%$*+ anu 2"'%-! #'0* )!$%$*+ (fig. S).

The iastei scan methou is chaiacteiizeu by the fact that the election beam is
aimeu at (i.e. scans) eveiy possible point on the specimen sequentially. The
election beam is only active at the points that weie ueteimineu to be exposeu.
This allows foi pieuictable opeiation anu a consistent thioughput
notwithstanuing the wiiting pattein.

Contiaiily, the vectoi scan methou avoius wasting time scanning ovei aieas that
aie to iemain unexposeu anu limits its scanning behavioui to a ioute uiiectly
connecting those aieas that shoulu be exposeu.|S,6j


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H#$%'&)6$+( ,#%/'I= >F@

The piojection piinting methou, on the othei hanu, involves no scanning
whatevei. Two similai kinus can be uistinguisheu: iegulai piojection piinting
anu a methou calleu SCALPEL (SCatteiing with Angulai Limitation in Piojecting
Election-beam Lithogiaphy).

Piojection piinting is a quick methou of wiiting but it has its uownsiues. The
masks aie uamageu by the election beam in use anu must be ieplaceu
peiiouically. They'ie maue of tough mateiials such as quaitz anu piouucing them
is an expensive business. |7j


J/26.$+" ".,.%+%.'(6
The iesolution of the election-optical system isn't the physical limiting factoi foi
the iesolution of the iesult in this technology. The main limiting factoi is the
moleculai stiuctuie of the iesist, anu the inteiactions between elections anu the
iesist. Theie aie a few inteiactions that can be uistinguisheu. These aie the
election scatteiing, anu, coulomb inteiactions, anu the emitting of seconuaiy
elections.|8j

!"#$%&'( 6$+%%#&.(0
Two foims of election scatteiing can be uistinguisheu, namely foiwaiu
scatteiing anu backscatteiing of the elections. If the election beam penetiates
the iesist, the elections can colliue with the iesist. If an election of the beam hits
the iesist, then the election can move with a little angle with iespect to its
oiiginal uiiection, anu with lessei speeu. This is calleu the foiwaiu scatteiing of
elections. This foim of scatteiing is negligible if the iesist is thin enough, anu the
acceleiation voltage (the voltage useu to give the elections speeu) is high
enough. Piimaiy elections, the elections of the election beam, can also inteiact
with the atom in such way, that the elections aie bent back (this is
backscatteiing). The elections then move in the opposite uiiection (at a small
angle with iespect to the election beam), with no ieuuction in speeu.
Subsequently they'ie liable to hit othei paits of the iesist (that weien't meant to
be exposeu to the election beam), anu change its stiuctuie. If this occuis by a
thin line (that shoulu not be exposeu), the line can be uamageu too much. Foi
this effect can be compensateu using algoiithms, anu by choosing a high enough
acceleiation voltage, so that the elections move in a stiaight line. These foims of
scatteiing shoulu be avoiueu, if possible; if that is uone successfully then
scatteiing may not be the limiting factoi foi the iesolution of the iesult|8j.
Canuiuates foi this uistinction will be uiscusseu in the following paiagiaphs.


B#$'(I+&2 #"#$%&'(6
Piimaiy elections can also colliue with elections that aie oibiting aiounu the
nucleus of an atom in the iesist, those elections aie then pusheu out of its oibit.
The iesult is that eithei these elections can move fieely thiough the mateiial, oi
that somehow an X-iay is emitteu. The elections that can move fieely thiough
the iesist, calleu seconuaiy elections, can also inteiact with the iesist anu change
its stiuctuie on places at which the stiuctuie shoulun't be changeu.|8j


K'8"',* .(%#&+$%.'(6
Even if a piimaiy election meiely moves by an atom in the iesist (without
making contact with it), anu if it uoes so at gieat speeu, it can put an election
bounu to that atom in a highei oibit, oi push it out.
The iesult is the same as is uesciibeu in seconuaiy elections, but coulomb
inteiactions will uamage the iesist much less.|S,8j


3#$/(.$+" ".,.%+%.'(6
An election-beam lithogiaphy system has, next to a limiteu iesolution, also a
limitation in its thioughput. The piouuction iate uepenus on the exposuie time,
the time between the moment the opeiating contiollei assigns the EBL a task,
anu the moment the EBL has finisheu wiiting a pattein.
The exposuie time exist of beam-on time, that is the time the beam is activateu,
essential oveiheaus, that is the time useu to guaiantee the quality of the pattein,
anu unessential oveiheaus, the time iesulting of technical limitations that isn't
neeueu to guaiantee the quality.|1uj

Beam-on time is the time the beam is activateu. The length of this time uepenus
on the maximum beam cuiient, anu the impiessibility of the iesist. A biggei
beam cuiient is fastei, but is limiteu by coulomb inteiactions anu some othei
factois. A iesist that is moie impiessible is wiitten quickei, but is limiteu by the
fact that it is also moie sensitive to coulomb inteiactions anu seconuaiy
elections.
Essential oveiheau is the time useu to guaiantee the quality of the pattein. This
is foi example the time that is neeueu to change the acceleiation voltage, oi the
time to move mechanisms in the EBL. Anu unessential oveiheau exist mainly of
the time that is useu to piocess uata, anu uoesn't auu anything to the quality of
the wiiting.|1u,11,12j


:11".$+%.'(6
An obvious application of election-beam lithogiaphy is the piouuction of chips.
These chips can be computei chips, oi chips that can be implementeu in biains to
contiol a piosthesis oi to suivey Alzheimei etc. With e-beam lithogiaphy is it
also possible to make small uevices that can ieau the BNA, oi that can extiact
othei infoimation of cells of oiganisms. With an EBL-machine it is also possible
to piouuce oi iepaii masks, which aie useu in photolithogiaphy. Anothei
application is the piouucing of optical oi wiieless uevices anu stiuctuies on
nanoscale. By shaping ciystals in such way with e-beam lithogiaphy it is possible
to senu uata with light signals. It is also possible to make little antennas to senu
uata wiielessly. Anu finally can this technology be useu to make nanostiuctuies
foi (physical) ieseaich.|1,2,1Sj

K'($"8I.(0 &#,+&D6
This is a technology seveiely limiteu in piouuction speeu when using scan
methous anu veiy expensive when using piojection piinting methous making its
application to computei chip manufactuiing impiactical. Neveitheless, the issue
of speeu can be auuiesseu anu possibly iesolveu to some uegiee. Foi instance,
speeu limitations intiouuceu by uata piocessing might some uay paiauoxically
subsiue as a iesult of impiovements in the manufactuie of computei chips.







































4.*".'0&+1/2

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