12

Rheologic Models

Objective
.

Acquire a qualitative understanding of rheologic models as analogs of rock

deformation.

Equipment required for this chapter

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Rubber bands and springs

Plastic disposable syringe (available from
any medical facility)
String
Silly Putty1 (available at toy stores)
Standard masses
Spring scale (or fish scale)
Laboratory stands
Bars and clamps
Meter stick

Rocks respond in complex ways to stress. A layer

of rocks that will fold under one set of conditions
will fracture under another set. Adjacent layers
may behave differently under the same conditions.
Various aspects of stress and strain are examined
in Chapters 10, 13, and 14. In this chapter we will
investigate idealized relationships between stress,
strain, and strain rate, and try to achieve a more
intuitive understanding of why rocks deform the
way they do.

Stress, symbolized by the Greek letter s (sigma),

is the force intensity experienced by a body; it is
measured in units of force per unit area. Strain,
symbolized by the Greek letter e (epsilon), is the
resulting change in shape or volume caused by
stress. Strain can be measured in various ways
(see Chapter 14).
In addition to stress and strain, time is an important element in the study of deformation. The study
of the relationships between stress, strain, and time
is called rheology, from the Greek work rheos,
which means a flow or current. A rheologic model
is a characteristic relationship between stress, strain,
and time, exhibited by an object being deformed.
In order to gain a qualitative understanding of
stress and strain, it will be useful to examine
three rheologic models: elastic deformation, viscous deformation, and plastic deformation. We
will examine these separately and in combination.

Elastic deformation: instantaneous,

recoverable strain
Elastic deformation is exhibited by a rubber band
or a coiled spring (Fig. 12.1). With a perfectly
elastic body the strain is strictly a function of

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Rheologic Models --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

rubber band

b
Fig. 12.1

Elastic deformation. (a) Schematically represented as a coiled spring. (b) Simulated with a rubber band.

To summarize the key features of elastic deformation: strain is directly proportional to stress,
strain is (for our purposes) instantaneous, and
strain is completely recovered when the stress is
removed (unless the elastic limit has been
exceeded).

(percent lengthening or
shortening)

Fig. 12.2 Stress/strain graph of elastic deformation.

The slope of line varies with the elasticity (Youngs
modulus) of the material.

stress, and stress graphed against strain is a

straight line (Fig. 12.2). Elastic deformation is
described by Hookes law, s Ee, where E is the
elasticity (Youngs modulus) of the material. Objects that display perfect elastic behavior are called
Hookean bodies. Rocks behave as Hookean bodies during earthquakes, when they transmit seismic waves.
Unlike other types of deformation, elastic deformation occurs very quickly in the earth; for
our purposes it will be assumed to be instantaneous. Another unique characteristic of elastic deformation is that the strain is recovered when the
stress is removed, providing that the elastic limit of
the material has not been exceeded.

Viscous deformation: continuous strain under

any stress
Viscosity is the measurable resistance of a fluid to
flow. The viscosity of water is low, while the viscosity of honey is relatively higher. There are two
categories of viscous deformation: Newtonian and
non-Newtonian. The viscosity of water, and many
other fluids, can be altered only by changing the
temperature of the fluid. As long as the temperature remains constant, there is a linear relationship
between stress and strain rate. Materials that behave this way are called Newtonian fluids. The
lower crust may behave like a Newtonian fluid
(Wang et al., 1994).
In this chapter the viscous deformation that we
model will assume Newtonian behavior, in which
the strain rate is proportional to stress. The schematic analog of Newtonian viscous deformation is
a porous piston in a fluid-filled cylinder, together
called a dashpot (Fig. 12.3a). A suitable dashpot
for our experimentation is a plastic, disposable
syringe, common in hospitals (Fig. 12.3b).

Fig. 12.3 Viscous deformation. (a) Schematically represented as a leaky piston in a fluid-filled cylinder (together called
a dashpot). (b) Simulated with a disposable syringe.

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Rheologic Models

Another class of fluids called non-Newtonian

fluids behave differently. In non-Newtonian
fluids, the viscosity can be altered by means other
than temperature, such as by shearing the fluid. A
geologic example of a shear-thickening fluid is
quicksand. Quicksand occurs where sand is suspended in water that is under pressure due to a
slow influx of water below the surface, such as at
the orifice of a spring. If you rapidly shear the
quicksand, such as by stepping into it, its viscosity
increases, and you may be unable to extricate your
foot. The more you struggle, the more you shear
the quicksand, and the greater the viscosity becomes. The trick is to move slowly. If necessary,
lie down backward with your arms spread, and
slowly free your legs.
An example of a shear-thinning non-Newtonian
fluid is ink in a ballpoint pen. As the ball turns, the
ink is sheared and becomes less viscous, allowing
it to flow freely as you write. Non-Newtonian
viscous behavior is fairly common in the earth,
but it does not lend itself to the simple modeling
used in this chapter, so we will not be incorporating it into the following experiments.
Notice that, because viscous deformation is continuous at any stress, it is meaningless to graph
stress against strain as in Fig. 12.2. Here it is the
strain rate rather than absolute strain that is significant. Strain rate is symbolized e_ (the first time
derivative of e). The strain rate of a Newtonian
fluid is a function of stress and viscosity: s h_e,
where h (eta) is the coefficient of viscosity of the
material. The greater the stress, the faster the deformation. Figure 12.4 shows s graphed against e_
for a given material. Unlike elastic deformation,
viscous deformation is permanent.
Because the total strain is partly a function of
time, it is instructive to graph stress and strain
separately against time, as in Fig. 12.5. Examine
the two graphs in Fig. 12.5 carefully, and be sure

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101

stress
removed

stress
applied

t0

t1

t0

t2

t3

t2

t3

time

t1

time

Fig. 12.5 Viscous deformation experiment in which

time is simultaneously graphed against stress (a) and
strain (b).

that you understand how they relate to each

other. We will be using such pairs of graphs
throughout the rest of this chapter. In Fig. 12.5a
stress is shown first applied at t1 and removed at
t2 . In Fig. 12.5b it can be seen that strain is
continuous from t1 to t2 , after which no more
strain occurs.
Strain is commonly measured in percent lengthening or shortening per second, because seconds
are convenient units of time for laboratory experiments. For example, if an object under stress
were shortened from 10 cm to 9 cm in 100 s the
strain rate would be:
10%=100 s
0:1=
100 s
0:001=s
1  10
3 =s. By convention,
shortening is considered to be negative strain,
while lengthening is considered to be positive.
Strain rates in the earths crust, of course,
are many orders of magnitude slower. For example, by measuring the change in distance between points on opposite sides of the San
Andreas fault, a strain rate of 1:5  10
13 =s has
been determined.

Plastic deformation: continuous strain

above a yield stress
(percent lengthening per second)

Fig. 12.4 Stress/strain rate graph of viscous deformation. The slope of the line varies with the viscosity of
the material.

Plastic deformation is similar to viscous deformation, except that flow does not begin until a
threshold stress, or yield stress (sy ), is achieved.
Yogurt, for example, will not flow off a horizontal
table if you dump it out of the carton. It has a yield

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Rheologic Models -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------stress

removed

Yield strength
of material

t0

t2

t1

t3

time

a
Fig. 12.6 Stress/strain rate graph of plastic deformation. Once the yield strength of the material has been
exceeded, behavior is viscous.

stress of about 800 dynes=cm2 , which is greater

than the gravitational force acting on it. If you
place a dish on top of the yogurt it will flow
because the yield strength of the yogurt has been
exceeded. Above the yield stress, stress graphed
against strain rate is like viscous deformation
(Fig. 12.6). Materials that behave in this manner
are called Bingham plastics.
To simulate plastic deformation we will use a
block on a flat surface (Fig. 12.7). Small amounts
of stress may be applied with no movement at all.
There exists a yield stress sy , however, that will
overcome the frictional force on the stationary
block. Once the yield stress is applied, the frictional force is overcome, the block begins to
move, and it continues to move. A block on a
table is not really a case of plastic deformation; a
key difference is that while the block is not
deformed, a plastic body is deformed. However,
the similarity in the relationships between stress,
strain, and time allows us to use the block as an
analog of plastic deformation.
Notice that after the yield stress is applied, the
amount of strain is a function of time. In
Fig. 12.8, stress and strain are separately graphed
against time. Stress is first applied at t1 and
gradually increased until the yield stress is
reached at t2 .

t0

t2

t1

t3

time

Fig. 12.8 Plastic deformation experiment in which time

is simultaneously graphed against stress (a) and strain (b).

Elasticoplastic deformation
Most materials display complex rheologic characteristics that can be simulated with some combination of elastic, plastic, and viscous deformation.
Attach a rubber band to a wooden block and
conduct the experiment shown in Fig. 12.9. Consider the behavior of the rubber band and block as
a unit, and carefully examine how this behavior is
reflected in the s/time and e/time graph pair in the
figure. Notice that the rubber band provides an
elastic component and causes the strain to begin at
t1 , even before the yield stress is reached. When
the stress is removed at t3 , however, the elastic
deformation is recovered and the permanent deformation is a result of the plastic component.

Elasticoviscous deformation
Attach a rubber band to a syringe (as shown with
string in Fig. 12.3b) and experiment with the

a
string

b
Fig. 12.7 Plastic deformation. (a) Schematically represented as a block on a flat surface. (b) Simulated by pulling a
wooden block with a string.

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Rheologic Models

103

t0: at rest

t1: stress applied

t2: stress constant

t3: stress removed

y

t0

t1

t2

t3

t0

t1

t3

t2

Elasticoplastic behavior.

behavior of this unit. This apparatus behaves just

like the elasticoplastic body except that there is no
yield stress that must be overcome before permanent strain begins. An object that behaves this way
is called a Maxwell body.

t0: at rest

In the experiment shown in Fig. 12.10 the rubber band is stretched and fixed, giving the body
instantaneous permanent strain. In the two
graphs, notice that although the strain is instantaneous and permanent, the stress is greatest at t1

stress gradually
decreases

stress
step

Fig. 12.9

stress
removed

stress
step

elastic
deformation
recovered

instantaneous
elastic
deformation ic
n
st
pla matio
r
o
f
de

stress constant

t0

t1

t2

t3

t1: stretched and held

permanent deformation
to system
t2: spring nearing unstressed length
instantaneous elastic
deformation
t0
t3: elastic strain recovered

Fig. 12.10

Elasticoviscous behavior.

t1

t2

t3

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Rheologic Models -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------rubber band

Fig. 12.11

Firmoviscous behavior simulated with a rubber band and syringe.

and gradually decreases until the elastic strain is

completely recovered.

Firmoviscous deformation

t0

stress
removed

stress
step

Combine a rubber band and a syringe as shown in

Fig. 12.11. Neither the elastic nor the viscous component can move without the other. Examine the
stress and strain graphs of Fig. 12.12 and note that
even though the stress is constant, the strain rate
decreases with time as the rubber band lengthens.
When the stress is removed at t2 the strain rate
jumps and then gradually decreases until all of the
strain is recovered. An object that behaves this way
is called a Kelvin body.
The earth can be thought of as a self-gravitating
firmoviscous sphere. For example, when the weight

t1

t2

of glacial ice was removed at the end of the Pleistocene, northern portions of Europe and North
America responded by isostatically rebounding.
This rebound is still occurring, but at a steadily
decreasing rate.

Within every rock is a little dashpot

Under conditions of low temperatures, low pressures, and high strain rates, rocks deform by brittle
deformation mechanisms. (The conditions under
which rocks fracture are explored in Chapter 13;
deformation mechanisms are discussed in Chapter
16.) However, deeper within the earths crust,
where temperatures and pressures are high,
rock deformation occurs by plastic deformation

t0 : at rest

t3

t1: stress applied

decreases
as spring
lengthens

t0

t1

decreases as
spring shortens

t2

t2 : stress removed

t3

t3 : strain recovered

Fig. 12.12

Firmoviscous behavior.

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Fig. 12.13

Rheologic Models

Within every rock is a little dashpot.

mechanisms. The boundary between shallow-crust

brittleness and deeper-crust plasticity is a zone
called the brittleplastic transition.
Even within the brittle upper crust, however, at
low strain rates rocks may deform in such a manner that they appear to flow at the mesoscopic
scale. Such behavior is called ductile behavior,
and it can involve brittle or plastic deformation
mechanisms. Over very long time intervals, rocks
are unable to resist any differential stress at all. On
a large planet with a strong gravitational field and
no active tectonism there would be no mountains.
The rocks would flow like Silly Putty1. An analogous situation exists on Europa, one of the satellites of Jupiter. Europa has an ice crust that is
pockmarked with very few impact craters; it is

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the smoothest known body in the solar system.

The mass of Europa and the rheologic properties
of the ice conspire to erase craters soon after they
form. Within every rock is a little dashpot
(Fig. 12.13).
Many real solids behave like the rheologic
model shown in Fig. 12.14. If stress is applied
and immediately released, the strain is elastic and
is immediately recovered. But if stress is applied
and held for a while, the firmoviscous component
(dashpot and spring) becomes important. This
combination of a Kelvin body and an elastic
body is called a standard linear solid. Such behavior can be seen in an old rubber band that has been
wrapped around a newspaper for several weeks
and is finally taken off; the limp rubber band
slowly recovers some of its strain.

Problem 12.1
On the e/time graph in Fig. G-32a (Appendix G)
show the strain history of a standard linear solid
that would correspond to the stress history in the
s/time graph.

Problem 12.2

t1 : stress applied

t2 : stress released

Fig. 12.14 Rheologic model called a standard linear

solid.

105

The rheologic model shown in Fig. 12.15 behaves

differently at different strain rates. At high strain
rates it behaves elastically (bounces). At moderate
strain rates it behaves elasticoplastically (the dashpot does not have time to work unless the strain
rate is low). And at low strain rates it behaves
elasticoviscously. Experiment with Silly Putty1,
and notice that it shares some of the properties
just described but is not exactly the same as the
model drawn in Fig. 12.15. Silly Putty1 exhibits
the following behavior: it bounces at high strain
rates, stretches with slow partial recovery at moderate strain rates, and flows under gravitational force
(low strain rates).
Draw a rheologic model for Silly Putty1 that
satisfies all of these requirements, and indicate on
your drawing which parts behave in which ways.