Natural Gas Production

NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Module Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
SECTION 1 GAS EXPLORATION
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Seismology as an Exploration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Other Exploration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Review 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
SECTION 2 DRILLING
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Pre-Drilling Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Drilling Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Drilling Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Well Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Review 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
SECTION 3 WELLSITE FACILITIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Wellsite Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Dehydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Testing & Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Freezing & Hydrate Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Measurement & Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Review 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
SECTION 4 PRODUCTION FACILITIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Gathering Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Low-Pressure Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Corrosion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Regulations & Operating Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Review 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
PLEASE NOTE
Operations personnel use a combination of skill, knowledge, and
technology to accomplish specific goals. A key objective of the Gas
Controller Training Program is to promote an understanding of
theoretical basis for operational decisions used on the job every day. This
training program enhances job-related skills by providing relevant and
current information with immediate application for employees.
Information contained in the modules is theoretical. A foundation of
basic information facilitates an understanding of technology and its
application. Every effort has been made to reflect pure scientific
principles in the training program. Nevertheless, in some cases, pure
theory conflicts with the practical realities of daily operations.
Usefulness to the employee is our most important priority during the
development of the materials in the Gas Controller Training Program.
Gas Controller Training Program
2000 Enbridge Technology Inc.
Reproduction Prohibited July 2000
ENBRIDGE TECHNOLOGY INC.
Suite 601, PO Box 398
10201Jasper Avenue
Edmonton, Alberta
Canada T5J 2J9
Telephone +1-780-412-6469
Fax +1-780-412-6460
Reference: G0.1 Natural Gas Production Jan 2003
STUDY SKILLS
Each of the modules in the Gas Controller Training Program is
designed in a Performance Based Self Instructional format. This
means that you are responsible for your own learning and for
ensuring that you are ready to demonstrate your knowledge and
skills. Our focus is on the performance of the necessary skills and
demonstration of the knowledge needed to perform your job.
1. The modules are designed for short but concentrated periods of
study from ten to forty-five minutes each. Remember that
generally one week of self-study replaces 10 hours of in-class
attendance. For example, if you have a three week self-study
block, then you have to account for 30 hours of study time if you
want to keep pace with most learning programs.
2. When you are studying the module, look for connections between
the information presented and your responsibilities on the job.
The more connections you can make, the better you will be able
to recall.
3. There are self-tests at the end of each section in the module.
Habitually completing these tests will ensure your knowledge of
the information. Use the test to measure your understanding. If
you have an incorrect answer, check the information in the section
of the module to find out why the error was made. Remember,
you are responsible for your own performance.
4. Start studying each section of the module by reading the
objectives and the introduction. This provides both the focus for
your learning and a preview of the test items.
5. Each module is prepared to adapt to a number of different
learning styles. Some learners will proceed directly from the
introduction and objectives to the review questions. Then they
will study any topic that is missed. Most learners, however, work
from the introduction through to the end of the text in a
systematic way. Whichever way you choose to learn, you are free
to use the materials as you see fit.
6. Every module has a performance based test. Each item in the test
is related to an objective for each section. To prepare for the test,
you should ensure that all section reviews are completed and
understood. Many learners review the material in the module
before taking the test.
7. To aid your understanding and enhance your time in the learning
activities, new terms, concepts and principles are printed in bold
face along with their definition highlighted in italics. These are
also listed in the Glossary of Terms supplied at the end of the
module.
8. To prepare for the Performance Based test, many have had
success by reading the module Summary and Glossary. Items in
the Glossary are cross-referenced to the place in the module
where they were first introduced. This way, if there is a topic or a
definition that you do not recognize, you can easily find it in the
module.
Natural gas production is a complex process. The first step in the
process is exploration for subsurface hydrocarbons. Once library and
field research locate potential hydrocarbon reservoirs, drilling is
required to confirm their commercial viability.
Drilling activities include pre-drilling, drilling and well completion.
A variety of equipment is available for both conventional and
directional drilling. Gas wells are eventually abandoned when
compression to gathering system pressure is no longer economic.
Gas production involves installation of wellsite facilities that process
the gas before it enters a transmission pipeline. Wellsite equipment is
usually required to separate liquids from the gas, dehydrate the gas
and/or compress the gas to gathering system pressure. Wellsite
equipment is also required to measure and control gas flow. Field
treatment facilities are configured to transport field gas to a
transmission system or to a gas plant for further processing, while
avoiding transmission problems, such as hydrate formation.
Corrosion is another major concern in the gas gathering system.
Corrosion is the result of an electro-chemical reaction, and can be
prevented using various methods including cathodic protection. All
phases of natural gas production are governed by legislation,
regulation and/or accepted operating practice.
This module provides a comprehensive overview of the process of
natural gas production. Controllers can apply this knowledge of field
production and treatment to optimize pipeline operation.
1
INTRODUCTION
This module presents information on the following goals.
It explains common techniques used in the exploration for natural
gas.
It describes various methods used to drill for natural gas.
It explains how wells are completed and eventually abandoned.
It describes the function and operation of facilities found at
wellsites.
It explains operation of production and gathering facilities.
It describes corrosion protection and regulatory features associated
with pipeline transportation of natural gas.
FUNDAMENTALS OF NATURAL GAS
2
GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
MODULE GOALS
PREREQUISITES
3
Geologists and geophysicists study the changes in rocks, which may
be buried up to several thousand feet below the surface. Their
expertise guides the search for hydrocarbon reservoirs. A well-
developed theory or intuition may direct the search for natural gas to
areas where there are large tracts of sedimentary rock. In the early
days of exploration, wells were often drilled on mere hunches. These
wells were known as wildcat wells. Today, with the growing market
for natural gas, the high cost of drilling, and advances in earth
sciences and technology, finding gas is not so much guesswork as
detective work.
Often, the modern search is directed as much by library research as
by field exploration. A review of published information sometimes
confirms the presence of oil and gas. Once explorers have convinced
managers and investors that oil or gas deposits likely exist in an area,
further exploration work is undertaken to confirm their presence.
Should this information not be available from regulatory agencies or
previous surveys, one or more of the exploration methods described
in this section are used to develop a picture of the underground
formations.
After completing this section of the module, you will be able to:
Recognize the role of seismology in locating underground gas
formations.
Identify and compare common techniques used to locate gas
reservoir formations.
GAS EXPLORATION
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1
The earths crust is composed of layers that vary in density and
thickness. Seismology is a technique that uses sound or shock
waves, such as those from a controlled explosion or a repeated
pounding, to measure a variety of characteristics of each layer of
rock in the earths crust in a study area. Energy released below the
surface, such as in an explosion, travels in all directions. As the
energy strikes each subterranean layer, part of the energy is reflected
to the surface where it can be detected and recorded. By analyzing
variations in energy reflection, geologists and geophysicists obtain
data to compile a map of subsurface rock formations.
Sedimentary rock was formed in layers at the bottom of an ancient
ocean, as the weight of the water compressed the sand, silt and clay
at the bottom. Because sedimentary rock and gas deposits were both
formed at the bottom of ancient oceans, they are often found
together. Different types of rock distort and reflect an energy wave in
different ways (see Figure 1). It is therefore possible to distinguish
between various types of rock layers. The reflected energy waves are
recorded and later evaluated to determine the characteristics of the
subsurface formations.
Figure 1
Seismology in the Field
An explosive charge is detonated and several detectors in the area record the
sound waves reflected off layers of rock in the earths crust. A computer is used
to generate a 2-D or 3-D picture of the underground strata.
4
SEISMOLOGY AS
AN EXPLORATION
METHOD
Instead of explosives, a technique called vibroseis is sometimes used.
In this method, a surface vibrator generates low-frequency sound
waves by pounding the earth.
By examining the map of the various subsurface layers, geologists
can identify the likely characteristics of the rocks. The distortions,
fractures, faults, and formations can thus be located. This process
will show the likely source rocks for hydrocarbon formation.
The caprocks and reservoir locations can then be pinpointed. (Details
of reservoir formation and location are presented in the module
FUNDAMENTALS OF NATURAL GAS). Seismology is the most commonly
used technique of oil and gas exploration.
Over the years, with the application of high speed digital computers,
the results of seismic surveys have become more detailed and more
precise. Digital mapping has in fact revolutionized oil and gas
exploration. Two- and three-dimensional images of the underground
formations can be prepared.
Three-dimensional seismic imaging can compile data from several
thousand locations over a large area. A computer can then convert
these data into a three-dimensional picture of the underground
formations. Three-dimensional seismic imaging is especially useful
in areas where the gas deposits are small and complicated. 3-D
imaging, however, is very expensive, and is not normally used until
more traditional 2-D methods have already established that oil or gas
is likely to be present.
While seismology is certainly the most commonly used oil and gas
exploration technique, other technologies are also used. The following
technologies are some of those often used in combination with
seismology:
surface geology
geochemistry
gravity survey
magnetic survey
radar
infrared sensing.
5
OTHER
EXPLORATION
METHODS
Surface geology is the oldest method of oil exploration. Its accuracy,
however, is limited. In the early days of exploration hydrocarbons
were found at ground level. Wells were then drilled at that point.
Other surface features, such as salt- or sulphur-water seepages are
also indicators of oil and gas possibility.
Soil samples from holes 10 to 30 feet (3 to 10 metres) deep can be
analyzed for hydrocarbon content. Often a halo effect will be
observed around commercial oil and gas reservoirs. The highest
concentrations of soil hydrocarbons may be found around the
periphery of the deposit.
Gravity meters are devices that measure variations in the earths
gravitational field. These variations are too small to be noticed by
human senses but gravity meters are sufficiently sensitive to measure
them. This information is used to determine the depth and nature of
subsurface rock (see Figure 2). Gravimetric readings are also used in
combination with seismology to make better decisions about the
possible location and extent of reservoirs.
Figure 2
Gravity Survey and Gravity Meter
Variations in the earths gravity can indicate locations of gas deposits. Some
features in the earths crust tend to increase the earths gravity, while others
make it weaker.
6
SURFACE GEOLOGY
GRAVITY SURVEY
GEOCHEMISTRY
Magnetic surveys are carried out with instruments called
magnometers. Magnometers are devices that detect minute fluctu-
ations in the magnetic field that surrounds the earth. These fluctu-
ations can supply information about the shape, size and composition
of subsurface rock. The Magsat, a satellite designed to survey
magnetic features, has gathered significant information from many
faint magnetic fields within the earths crust. Magsat data, used in
combination with other data gathering methods, help geologists and
geophysicists make better decisions about possible locations of oil
and gas reservoirs.
Both ground and airborne radar accurately map features of the earths
surface and provide clues to the nature of the underground formation.
Radar can pierce cloud cover or dense jungle foliage to produce good
quality images of the earths surface.
Infrared sensors are devices that sense minute changes in
temperature. Carried aboard aircraft or satellites, infrared sensors
gather various types of information. Infrared sensing can detect water
intrusions, faults, and buried minerals.
7
MAGNETIC SURVEY
INFRARED SENSING
RADAR
1. What is the most commonly used natural gas exploration
technique is called?
a) Seismology
b) Gravimetric
c) Infrared testing
d) Radar sensing
2. When is three-dimensional imaging especially useful?
a) When a large area must be examined
b) When the gas deposits are small and complicated
c) When good surface images are needed through cloud cover
or jungle foliage
d) When minute changes in temperature must be detected
3. What is an exploration technique using devices that measure
variations in the earths magnetic field called?
a) Gravimetric
b) Radar imaging
c) Infrared sensing
d) Magnetic survey
4. How do infrared sensors sense minute changes?
a) In temperature
b) In color
c) In rock porosity
d) In electricity
Answers are at the end of this module.
8
REVIEW 1
9
SECTION 2
The only way to prove the accuracy of geologists detective work is
to drill. After the research, seismological study and imaging analysis,
a well must be sunk to the suspected reservoir. A variety of drilling
methods, techniques and equipment are available, each with its own
application. When the well reaches the reservoir area, it is tested and
completed. Before any drilling takes place, however, a number of
pre-drilling activities must take place first. These pre-drilling
activities are explained at the beginning of this section of the module.
Identify the procedures involved in pre-drilling activities.
Recognize and compare techniques used in conventional and rotary
drilling.
Identify the components of a typical drilling rig.
Compare vertical, horizontal and slanted drilling operations.
List four procedures of well completion.
DRILLING
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
10
Pre-drilling activities can be divided into two major categories. First,
environmental considerations must be addressed. With the approval
of an Environmental Impact Statement and issuance of a drilling
permit, actual site preparation can begin.
An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is normally prepared
before any work can commence on a site. Several key questions must
be considered in the preparation of the EIS. For example, will any
leaks affect water sources? Does the area have valuable archaeo-
logical/palaeontological resources? Some of the possible environ-
mental considerations include:
water run-off and drainage
wildlife habitat upset
disposal of drill cuttings, and
archaeological studies.
All possible impacts on the environment should be considered and
reported in the EIS. The Environmental Impact Statement may form
part of the drilling permit request. Even if further investigation is
required, once the acceptability of the site for drilling has been
established, site preparation can begin.
Before drilling can begin, the site must be prepared. This preparation
must provide enough space at the site for such facilities as:
the drilling equipment
auxiliary equipment
pipe storage
waste disposal
safety equipment, and
crew quarters.
As well, the site and site access routes must be prepared firmly
enough to withstand the weight of heavy drilling equipment and
material. Aconventional drilling rig capable of drilling to 20,000 feet
(6100 metres) may require as many as 45 semi-trailers to transport
equipment to the drilling site.
PRE-DRILLING
ACTIVITIES
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSIDERATIONS
SITE PREPARATION
Site preparation can include:
preparing an access road to the site
clearing the site of bush and other impediments
levelling the site using bulldozers
digging waste pits, and lining them if necessary, and
constructing crew quarters.
Drilling methods depend on the type of well, the type of rock
formation and the location of the drilling action. An exploration well,
or wildcat well, is one which is drilled to determine whether gas
exists in the sub-surface formation. If an exploration well discovers
gas, several more wells may be drilled to assess the viability of
producing from the formation.
A development well is a well which is drilled in an existing field to
increase production. If development wells are drilled between
existing wells, they are known as infilling wells. If they are at the
edge of the field, these development wells are called step-out or
outpost wells.
Drilling methods and the results obtained from drilling have changed
greatly since the early wells of the mid-nineteenth century. In 1859,
oil was discovered near Petrolia and Oil Springs, Ontario. The
method used at that time was cable-tool drilling. A sharply pointed
bit attached to a cable was repeatedly dropped to punch its way into
the rock. Today, the cable tool method has been replaced by rotary
drilling, as shown in Figure 3. This method facilitates vertical,
slightly angled or directional drilling. Wells can be drilled directly
into gas-bearing formations at depths in excess of 30,000 feet
(9,100 metres).
Rotary drilling is a drilling method in which a bit is attached to a
string of pipe. The bit and string are rotated to drill into the
subsurface rock. A circulating fluid, called drilling mud, removes the
cuttings and provides some lubrication to the rotating bit. By adding
lengths of pipe to the top of the string, lower depths can be reached.
Once the site is prepared, the rotary drilling equipment is set up.
Spudding in, the first step in drilling, is drilling a shallow large-
diameter hole and lining it with a casing set in cement. This surface
casing may extend from 200 to 4,000 feet (60 m to 1,220 m), depending
on the final well depth. The casing helps to prevent contamination of
near-surface formations that may contain fresh water.
11
DRILLING
METHODS
CONVENTIONAL
DRILLING
ROTARY DRILLING
The casing also serves as the point where blowout preventers
(BOPs) are attached. A BOP can be thought of as an extremely
large ON/OFF valve attached by a high-pressure flange to the top of
the surface casing. During normal operations, the blow out
preventers are open and allow the drill pipe to pass through. If
pressure from underground formations forces oil and gas up the
drilled hole, the BOP closes tightly around the drill pipe to keep the
oil and gas from spewing out of the hole. The BOP ensures the
safety of the crew and protects the environment.
Figure 3
Conventional Rotary Drilling
Tripping in or out of a hole refers to the process of lowering or
raising the drill bit out of the hole. The drilling crew uses joints of
pipe, called drill string, which are attached to a high-strength steel
cable to raise and lower the drill bit. The metal cable is wound on a
rotating drum, then travels up to a large stationary pulley, called the
crown block, on top of the derrick. The cable then travels straight
down the center of the derrick, where it is attached to the travelling
block. The travelling block is the largest pulley of the hoisting
system, and has a hook that attaches to the rotating equipment.
12
Crown Block
Runaround Derrick
Gin Pole
Traveling Block
Hook Gooseneck
Swivel
Rotary Hose
Stand Pipe
Kelly
Dog House
Derrick Floor
Rotary Table
Rotary Drive
Draw Works
Diesel Engines
Shale Shaker
Mud Tanks
Mud Tank
Pump Drive
Mud Pumps
Drilling Line
When tripping out, the pulley system pulls two or three 30-foot (9 m)
joints of drill pipe out of the hole, depending on the size of the
drilling rig. Each joint is manually unscrewed from the joint below it
in the drill string. With manual guidance, the pulley system then
carries the joint to a rack where it is carefully arranged in the exact
order in which it was removed from the hole. The process is then
repeated until all the joints have been removed from the hole. To trip
the drill string back in, the process is reversed as one by one the
joints are lowered into the hole.
In turbo-drilling, the mud drives a turbine or turbines attached to the
drill bit. The result is that the bit can have a much higher rotational
speed, and the penetration rate is increased. This method is also used
in directional drilling.
One disadvantage of conventional vertical wells is that they come
into contact with only a small portion of the reservoir. Wells may
also be drilled horizontally, on an angle (slant) or curved (whip-
stock) when it is not possible to locate the drilling rig directly above
the reservoir, or for environmental or other reasons (see Figure 4). A
horizontal well can produce several times as much oil and gas as a
conventional well because it traverses a greater distance through the
reservoir. Directional drilling also means that fewer wells are needed
to produce the same amount of oil and gas.
Figure 4
Directional Drilling
The figure shows from left to right, a conventional well, horizontal well, slant
well, and whip-stock well.
13
TURBO-DRILLING
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
Drilling equipment comes in an array of sizes and configurations.
The smallest rigs are truck-mounted, self-contained units. The largest
are used in off-shore drilling and are ship- or platform-mounted
units. The drilling equipment consists of the hoisting, rotating and
drilling components, all supported on a mast or derrick. The most
visible portion, the derrick, is what people generally call the rig.
Drilling the hole into the ground is accomplished by a rotating drill
bit, which cuts into the rock (see Figure 5). The cuttings are then
removed by the fluid circulating system. There are several types of
drill bits. The most common are steel-toothed rotary bits, polycrys-
talline diamond compact (PDC) bits and diamond bits.
Figure 5
Drill Bit
The roller cone bit shown is one of the most common types
of drill bits in use today.
Special equipment is used to rotate the drill bit. This equipment
consists of:
swivel
rotary table
kelly
rotary drive
kelly bushing, and
drill string.
14
DRILLING
EQUIPMENT
CONVENTIONAL
DRILLING EQUIPMENT
The swivel, attached to the travelling block, allows the rotating
equipment to turn freely without twisting the drill cable. The swivel
also has a pressure seal and opening for circulating drilling fluid
(mud) down through the drill string. The drill string is the length of
pipe that goes from the drilling rig down to the drill bit in the ground.
Attached to the swivel is the kelly, which is a hollow, multi-sided
length of steel pipe, usually square or octagonal. The kelly is attached
to the swivel at one end and to the drill string at the other. The crew
lowers the kelly and multi-sided kelly bushing assembly until they
lock into the rotary table. Motors then turn the rotary table, which
turns the kelly, the attached drill string, and therefore the drill bit at
the bottom of the drill string. Just above the drill bit is a heavy section
of pipe called the drill collar. The purpose of the drill collar is to add
weight to the drill bit to help it drill through the rock.
The drill cable does not extend all the way down the hole. Rather, the
drill cable is only used to lift or lower a distance the length of one to
three joints of drill pipe. When the drill string must be extended as
the hole gets deeper, the drilling crew attaches another section of drill
pipe to the drill string. The new joint of pipe is attached between the
kelly and the top of the down-hole drill string. Each joint of drill pipe
is 30 feet (9 m) long. Up to three joints of drill pipe can be added to
the drill string at a time, depending on the size of the rig. The crew
can drill down a maximum of 90 feet (27 m) before adding additional
joints to the drill string.
The driller raises and lowers the drill string by rotating the drum. The
drum is the central piece of equipment of the drawworks, on which
the drill cable is wound. It controls the raising and lowering of the
travelling block and the weight of the drill-pipe on the bit. Rotating
the drum in one direction lowers the drill string, while rotating it in
the opposite direction raises the drill string.
The rotating drill bit cuts the subsurface rock into fragments called
drill-cuttings. Mud is pumped down through the drill pipe and carries
the drill-cuttings up through the annulus, the space between the drill
pipe and the outside of the hole. As shown in Figure 6, a shale
shaker removes most of the drill cuttings from the mud. A de-silter
and de-sander remove the very small cuttings passed through the
shale shaker. The de-gasser removes any gas from the mud. Clean
mud is then stored in mud pits or tanks before being pumped back
into the drill hole. The weight of the mud prevents pressurized
formation fluids from coming to the surface unexpectedly.
15
Figure 6
Mud Circulation
The rotating drill bit cuts the subsurface rock into fragments called drill-cuttings.
The weight of the mud prevents pressurized formation fluids from coming to the
surface unexpectedly. Clean mud is then stored in mud pits or tanks before
being pumped back into the drill hole.
While conventional or vertical drilling is the shortest path to a
production zone, it is becoming increasingly more common to drill
at a slant or horizontally. Slant or horizontal drilling is especially
popular in environmentally sensitive areas and gives the additional
benefit of reaching a larger area of the gas-producing zone.
More typically, from an upright rig, the first part of the hole is
vertical. Then it kicks off or is deflected so that the bit may end up
several hundred metres offset from its surface entry. Several wells
can be drilled from one site. When the degree of deflection results in
a quick turn, it is called short radius. A gradual deflection gives a
long radius.
16
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
EQUIPMENT
Some rigs are capable of being positioned at a slant. The drilling
proceeds in a straight line slanted from the vertical. In these cases,
the travelling block and swivel do not hang from the crown, but
move on rails. These rigs are frequently used in horizontal drilling as
described below (see Figure 4).
In horizontal drilling, the well is started vertically, then is gradually
deflected until it reaches 90 degrees, becoming horizontal.
Deflections of 3 to 10 degrees over 300 feet (91 m) are not
uncommon.
In this type of drilling, the drill string does not rotate. Instead, the
mud drives a directional motor, or turbine, which in turn rotates the
bit. Special gyroscopic compasses and electronic instrumentation
track and control both the location and direction of the drilling tool
(see Figure 4).
A blowout is an uncontrolled escape of pressurized formation fluids
like oil, water or gas. BOPs are required during drilling to reduce the
possibility of a blowout occurring. A BOP is an arrangement of large,
high-pressure valves at the top of the well, which when closed, form
a pressure-tight seal to prevent the escape of fluids from the well.
A kick is an unexpected entry of pressurized formation fluids into a
well while drilling. A kick can occur if the pressure in the well
relating to the head of the drilling fluid (mud) is less than the
pressure of the formation. A kick can lead to a blowout if not
controlled quickly.
The possibility of fire is an ever-present concern on a drilling rig.
Crews must be trained in fire prevention and fire fighting. However,
in the case of a large or uncontrollable fire resulting from a blowout,
a specially trained crew must be brought in to extinguish it.
When dealing with formations that contain hydrogen sulphide (H
2
S),
any escape of gas presents a particularly hazardous situation. Also
called sour gas, H
2
S is an extremely toxic gas that is also flammable.
In low concentrations, it smells like rotten eggs. Larger concen-
trations quickly overwhelm the sense of smell. The result can be
unconsciousness and death. Rig crews are therefore trained in the use
of H
2
S detectors and Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA).
17
SLANT
HORIZONTAL
BLOWOUT
PREVENTION
Once the reservoir destination area has been reached, the well is
tested and then prepared for production if found to be commercially
viable. Part of well completion is preparation for long-term
operations during production and for eventual abandonment of the
site. The start of the well-completion process is testing to determine
the volume and pressure of the gas.
While the well is being drilled, cuttings and fluids coming out of the
well with the mud are examined by geologists and geochemists to
gain information about the formations and rock structures through
which the well penetrates. Drill Stem Testing (DST) is done to
determine the commercial viability. The drill string may be tripped
out and a string of test tools added. The drill string is tripped back
into the hole. With the string in place, the test tools isolate the
potential pay zone. Gas can then flow to the surface in a controlled
environment. Observations of the formation pressure and the flow
rate of the gas are used to evaluate the potential of the well. If it is
determined that the well is not viable, it is abandoned.
Once it has been determined that a well is viable, the well is prepared
for production. This is called well completion (see Figure 7). The
drill string is replaced with steel casing that lines the total length of
the well bore. This is cemented in place by forcing cement down the
casing and back to the surface through the annular space around it.
18
WELL
COMPLETION
DRILL STEM TESTING
WELL COMPLETION
Figure 7
Well Completion
This figure shows casing, tubing and a Christmas tree installed at a well. The
gas production is normally taken from the casing. An intermediate casing is
often used to avoid problems in formation pressure during drilling operations.
Aperforating gun is then lowered on a wire line to the production
zone. The perforating gun makes perforations in the casing, cement
and surrounding formation and the high formation pressure forces gas
into the casing, as shown in Figure 8. Perforations provide a free path
for gas flow into the production casing. Tubing is then installed for the
removal of liquids.
19
Figure 8
Perforations
A perforation gun blows holes through the casing and cement, allowing gas to
enter the well casing.
Sometimes gas in the formation may not flow readily due to poor
permeability. If the formation is reactive to acid, a process known as
acidizing is employed. In acidizing, acid with preferential reaction
to the formation rather than to the casing, is pumped down the
production casing, through the perforations and into the formation.
The acid etches channels in the formation and increases porosity.
Another process used to increase permeability is fracturing, whereby
a specially blended high-pressure liquid is pumped into the
perforations, breaking up the formation much like driving a wedge
into the formation. Fracturing is followed by the addition of sand or
other granular material, known as proppant, to the fluid. The porous
material holds (props) open the fracture when the pressure is
removed. The propped-open fractures enhance gas flow.
20
Preparation of the wellsite before the construction of facilities is
similar to the preparation of the site before drilling. In this case,
however, the site is more permanent. The access road is improved to
prepare it for regular use over a period of years. Depending on the
area, the site may be fenced in. Fencing is usually required in
populated areas or where cattle or wildlife are present. A gravel bed
is usually laid around the wellhead and facilities.
Should DST indicate that a gas well is not potentially viable, it is
called a dry hole. The well is plugged with cement, abandoned
without further effort and the site restored.
A producing well is abandoned at the end of its economically
productive life. When the pressure in the well is depleted and the gas
no longer freely flows into the gathering system, either a compressor
is installed or the well is abandoned. Eventually, the pressure in the
well falls so low that using a compressor is no longer economical, at
which point the well has to be abandoned.
Regulatory bodies stipulate the procedures that must be followed
when abandoning a well. Normally, the well must be filled with mud
and a cement plug must be used to separate the lower portion of the
well from all potable water reservoirs through which the well passes.
The upper portion of the well must also be cemented and capped.
The area surrounding the well must be cleaned of all foreign
material, and any contaminated soil must be removed and disposed
safely. Current regulations require restoration of the area around the
wellsite to its natural condition.
21
WELLSITE
PREPARATION
WELL ABANDONMENT
CONSIDERATIONS
1. What is normally completed before beginning to drill a well?
a) Blowout preventer (BOP)
b) Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
c) Self-contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)
d) Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC) bits
2. What does a wellsite preparation include?
a) Hiring the drilling contractor
b) Pigging the line
c) Spudding in the rig
d) Preparing the access roads
3. What is drilling mud used for?
a) To fill the space in the annulus, while at the same time
cooling the rotating bit
b) To cool the rotating bit, while at the same time carrying the
weight of the drill string
c) To carry the drill cuttings away from the shale shaker, while
at the same time filling the space in the annulus
d) To remove the cuttings, while at the same time providing
some lubrication to the drill bit
4. What is a large ON/OFF valve attached by a high pressure
flange to the top of the casing?
a) It is a blowout preventer
b) It is an annulus
c) It is a kelly
d) It is a drill string
5. What is the advantage of wells that are drilled on an angle or
horizontally?
a) They use less casing for a given length of drill string
b) They manually trip out through the pulley system
c) They pass through a greater distance of the reservoir
d) They avoid areas not part of the leasehold
22
REVIEW 2
23
6. What does the kelly, that is a hollow, multi-sided length of
steel pipe connects with?
a) It connects drill string and the swivel
b) It connects travelling block and the rotary table
c) It connects drill string and the crown block
d) It connects drill bit and the drill collar
7. Drill Stem Testing (DST) is done to test what?
a) To test commercial viability of the gas well
b) To test durability of the drill string
c) To test density of the circulating mud
d) To test intensity of the gas flare
8. What happens in normal gas well completion?
a) DST increases porosity in the reservoir formation
b) fracturing the rock formation and adding proppant enhances
gas flow
c) acidizing fractures the rock to close the reservoir formation
d) fracturing perforates the casing and closes the reservoir
formation
25
Wellsite facilities control gas flow from the wellhead and treat the
gas by removing entrained liquids and particulates. Wellsite gas is
usually treated before entering the transmission pipeline.
Both pressure and temperature in the reservoir formation are higher
than at the wellsite. Condensation of water vapour and hydrocarbons
can occur. These hamper operation and can damage instrumentation.
Sulphur, in the form of H
2
S, may be present in the gas at the
wellhead. Since H
2
S is hazardous to personnel and to the pipeline, it
must be removed.
This section describes the purpose and operation of wellhead
equipment, including separators, filters and dehydrators. This section
also presents information on wellhead testing, sampling and
measurement equipment, as well as flow and pressure control.
Identify the features and functions of a typical gas wellsite facility.
Describe three common methods of gas dehydration.
Define two sampling techniques used to analyze gas quality.
Explain the importance of measuring and controlling sulphur
content and dew point in natural gas.
Name three methods of freezing and hydrate prevention.
Identify the purpose of three types of control devices at a wellsite.
WELLSITE FACILITIES
SECTION 3
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
26
Wellsite facilities include all of the equipment and piping located
inside the fence that encloses the area. The piping and equipment
located at the wellsite are required in order to:
control the flow of gas from the wellhead
treat the gas coming out of the well
separate any liquids from the gas
temporarily store the liquids separated from the gas, and
remove any solid particles from the wellhead gas.
Another group of facilities that may be located at a wellsite are
separators. Separators remove liquids from the gas. Entrained liquids
must be removed before the gas can be transmitted to distribution or
to storage.
Sample testing and sampling facilities may be provided at the
wellsite, although full quality analysis is not usually accomplished
here. Instead, samples are collected for analysis at a remote
laboratory site. Finally, gas production is monitored and controlled at
the wellsite. Both flow and pressure are reported to a controller.
Each of these groups of facilities will be described in greater detail.
We will begin with the piping and facilities connected to the wellhead.
At the wellsite, the wellhead is connected to piping, vessels and
instrumentation (see Figure 9). Regulations stipulate the distance that
the wellhead must be located from the vessels. The pipe connecting
the wellhead to these vessels is above ground. It must, therefore,
contain an expansion loop. The expansion loop ensures that the pipe
does not suffer excessive stress from expansion and contraction due
to temperature change.
WELLSITE
FACILITIES
PIPING
27
SEPARATORS
Figure 9
Typical Wellsite Facilities at a Gas Well
Piping is shown in green, and instrumentation in blue.
A separator removes liquid from wellhead gas (refer to Figure 10).
A separator is similar to a scrubber, except that it is designed to
remove larger quantities of liquid from the gas. Gas with entrained
liquid enters the separator from the side and near the top. A mist
extractor is normally installed at the top of the separator. Liquid
droplets are trapped in the fine mesh of the mist extractor. When the
droplets grow large enough, they precipitate and fall to the bottom of
the separator, while the gas passes through the mist extractor, and
exits at the top of the vessel. The liquid collects at the bottom and
exits through a valve, which opens when the liquid reaches a pre-
determined level.
The separated liquids are then piped to a tank. When the level in the
tank reaches a specified limit, a signal is sent to the Control Centre to
alert the Controllers, who arrange for a tank truck to drain the tank. If
the tank is not drained before a second level switch in the tank is
activated, the wellsite control system closes the Emergency
Shutdown (ESD) valve to shut in the well. The tank must be drained
and the ESD valve manually reopened before production can
continue.
At some sites, liquid accumulation may be piped out if volumes
warrant and if equipment is in place.
28
Figure 10
Liquid-Gas (2-Phase) Separator
The gas from the separator may be dehydrated in a glycol contactor.
(A more complete drawing of the glycol dehydration system is shown
in Figure 14 later in this module). Both the separator and the
dehydrator have a pressure relief valve and a drain. The pressure
relief valve opens automatically if the pressure in the vessel exceeds
a safe limit. The drain is usually used only to empty a vessel
completely for maintenance purposes.
Gas leaving the separator and/or dehydrator is measured by an orifice
flow meter. The gas then flows through a pressure control valve
before entering the pipeline. The pressure control valve ensures that
the pressure of the gas entering the pipeline does not exceed the
pipeline pressure limits. The controller for this valve may be pre-set
or may accept input from the flow meter and from the Control Centre.
GAS DEHYDRATION
29
GAS TREATING
STORAGE & DISPOSAL
OF PRODUCED LIQUIDS
SCRUBBING
Gas separation and dehydration facilities can be located either at the
wellsite or at a location central to several wells. Separators
accumulate a quantity of water and/or liquid hydrocarbons. There are
several options for the removal of these liquids. They may be stored
in tanks for periodic removal by a tank truck or pumped through a
pipeline for injection into a disposal well. Alternatively, the liquids
might be treated to separate the heavy hydrocarbons and water. The
water may be injected into an oil reservoir to enhance recovery.
Natural gas is mainly methane but also contains particulates, water
and heavier hydrocarbons. Heavier hydrocarbons are those with five
or more carbon atoms in each molecule. Often, these heavy
hydrocarbons are called pentanes plus or C
5+
. Many of these
hydrocarbons were in a gaseous state as a result of the elevated
temperatures in the reservoir. At the surface, these C
5+
hydrocarbons
cool and condense into liquid. These liquids may cause further
problems, such as hydrate plugging. The gas is treated to remove
these hydrocarbons. Removal techniques may be applied at the
wellsite, field compression station or at a gas plant.
Entrained solids (particulates) and liquids in produced gas cause
problems if not controlled or removed. For example:
at the wellsite, gas is often withdrawn from the main stream for use
as fuel and in instrumentation. Solids and liquids in the gas can
foul burners and instruments; therefore, they must be removed.
compressors can be damaged by particulates and liquids, so
scrubbers are installed at compressor inlets.
flow measurement equipment designed for gas provides erroneous
readings if liquids are present in the gas.
solids in the gas can erode metal surfaces over time. The effect is
much like sand blasting.
water may freeze in the piping, blocking flow and/or damaging the
pipe.
liquids may collect in low areas, forming slugs of liquid, which can
cause severe equipment and transmission problems.
For these reasons, gas scrubbers and separators are used to remove
entrained solids and liquids from the gas stream.
30
Gas enters a cyclone scrubber tangentially and acquires a spiral
motion (see Figure 11). The gas is forced to change direction to exit
the vessel. The entrained liquid and solid particles, with their greater
inertia, are unable to change direction and are forced to separate from
the gas stream and fall to the bottom of the scrubber.
Figure 11
Cyclone Scrubber
Filters work by passing the gas through a medium with very small
passages (see Figure 12). Any particle that is larger than the size of
the passages becomes trapped within the filter and is removed from
the gas stream. The filter must be occasionally cleaned or replaced.
Filters are normally used to remove solid particles. Some, known as
filter/ separators, are designed to remove liquids as well.
CYCLONE SCRUBBER
FILTERS
31
DEHYDRATION
Figure 12
Particulate Filter
Gas enters the particulate filter at the inlet. Each of the filter tubes in the bundle
is encased in a filter or sock. Passing through the filter passages removes any
particles that may be entrained in the gas. The filtered gas exits the filter
through the filter tubes to the outlet chamber. Pressure gauges are provided to
indicate the degree of filter plugging by monitoring upstream and downstream
pressure.
A sufficient concentration of water molecules must be present in
order for hydrates to form. Therefore, an obvious method of
preventing hydrate formation is to remove (dehydrate) water
molecules from the gas. There are three common methods used to
dehydrate gas:
line heaters hydrates are prevented from forming and water
from freezing by passing the natural gas through a bath of hot
water and glycol.
glycol absorption a method of gas dehydration in which the
molecules of one substance fill the gaps between molecules of
another substance.
solid desiccant adsorption a method of gas dehydration in which
small particles of one substance are attracted to the surface of
larger particles of another.
32
Just as raising the temperature of water prevents it from freezing,
raising the temperature of natural gas and water vapour prevents
hydrates from forming. A common application of this principle is the
line heater. A line heater is a hot bath of water and glycol through
which the natural gas pipe passes (see Figure 13). The temperature
of the gas is then raised to a level above the hydrate formation
temperature. The gas re-enters the pipeline at an elevated
temperature to prevent hydrate formation or water freezing in the
pipeline.
Figure 13
Line Heater
Gas is burned in the fire tube to heat the glycol/water bath. Gas is circulated
through the hot bath in a bundle of tubes. This transfers the heat of the burner
to the gas to help prevent hydrate or water formation.
In glycol dehydration, wet gas (gas containing water vapour) and
a glycol solution are contacted in, counter-current flow in a packed
vessel. Normally, di-ethylene glycol (DEG) or tri-ethylene glycol
(TEG) is used. As shown is Figure 14, the gas enters the contactor at
the bottom and naturally rises, while the glycol enters at the top and
naturally falls. The water entrained in the gas stream is absorbed by
the glycol solution.
GLYCOL DEHYDRATION
LINE HEATERS
33
SOLID DESICCANT
Figure 14
Schematic Diagram of Glycol Dehydration
The rich glycol (containing water) leaves the contactor at the bottom, while
dry gas exits at the top and leaves the system. The rich glycol is heated in a
reboiler so that the water it absorbed vaporizes and is vented to atmosphere.
The lean glycol is then re-circulated to the top of the contactor to begin the
cycle again.
A solid desiccant dehydrator uses a substance called an adsorbent,
which attracts water molecules to its surface. Some desiccants, on
saturation, may be regenerated by dry air or heat. An example of this
form of desiccant is silica gel. This product is often found packaged
with consumer goods to protect them from water vapour.
Solid desiccant dehydrators are not common at wellsites. Gas wells
with low flow rates may use dehydrators with calcium chloride. Dry
calcium chloride is solid. As it adsorbs water it becomes a thick
slurry which cannot be regenerated. The slurry must be periodically
disposed of and the solid desiccant replaced.
The solid desiccant method is effective at removing water vapour and
preventing hydrate formation. It is adaptable to different operating
conditions. There are, however, higher operating costs, since the
calcium chloride must be replaced periodically.
If a regenerative solid desiccant system is used, operating cost
becomes relatively high. Wellsite dehydration is therefore usually
accomplished with glycol dehydrators.
34
Quality analyses are done at both the wellsite and at a remote lab.
Operators collect gas samples at the wellsite and send them to the
lab in a sample bottle. A sample bottle is a container, normally
constructed of high-strength steel, which must be able to withstand
the pressure of the pipeline.
Gas samples are taken by attaching the sample bottle to a pipe
nipple. Opening valves on the nipple and on the sample bottle
enables gas to flow into the bottle. When the pressure in the bottle
reaches the pressure in the pipe, the valves are closed and the bottle
removed. This sample is called a spot sample.
In some instances, it is desired to obtain an average sample over a
period of time. In these cases, an automatic device allows small
amounts of gas into the bottle over a specified period of time, until
the pressures have equalized. This is called continuous sampling
and gives a sample which is representative of the period over which
the sample was drawn.
Sulphur content in natural gas leads to corrosion of pipelines.
Pipeline companies specify upper limits for the amount of sulphur
that can be present in gas. Sulphur is normally removed from the gas
at a gas plant rather than at the wellsite. Chemical and electronic
means are available for determining the amount of sulphur in the
gas. However, electronic methods are now more common. Sulphur is
most often found in natural gas as hydrogen sulphide (H
2
S) or sour
gas, which is extremely toxic as well as corrosive in the presence of
water. All facilities have H
2
S alarms to warn workers to take
corrective or emergency action if H
2
S concentrations exceed a pre-
set limit.
The dew point is the temperature at which liquid condenses from the
gas at a given pressure. The gas stream usually has different dew
points for water vapour and hydrocarbons. Pipeline companies
specify maximum dew points for gas entering their system and gas
producers must treat their gas to reduce the dew point to these
specifications. Dehydration reduces the water dew point, while
removing heavier hydrocarbons reduces the hydrocarbon dew point.
For further information on the importance of dew point in the
transmission, storage and distribution of natural gas, see the module
FUNDAMENTALS OF NATURAL GAS.
SULPHUR CONTENT
DEW POINT CONTROL
TESTING &
SAMPLING
35
FREEZING &
HYDRATE
PREVENTION
Adevice to determine the dew point is shown in Figure 15.
Additional information on this device is included in the module
GAS MEASUREMENT.
Figure 15
A Device to Determine the Dew Point
Ice forms when water is cooled below its freezing point. Ice deposits
in a pipe or pipeline can partially or completely block the flow. Water
expands when frozen and can burst pipes if allowed to accumulate.
Hydrates may form when natural gas and water exist together under
certain conditions. Hydrates are not a chemical compound. There are
no chemical bonds between the gas and water molecules in hydrate
molecules. Rather, hydrates occur when hydrocarbon molecules
occupy spaces, or voids, between water molecules. Hydrates have the
general appearance of packed snow. The problem caused by hydrates
is a partial or complete blockage of the pipeline.
36
Some common methods for preventing hydrate and ice formation
include:
addition of inhibitors to gas
increasing the gas temperature (i.e., with the use of a line heater)
dehydration of the gas (for example, with a glycol dehydration
system).
Inhibitors are substances that act as anti-freeze to lower the freezing
point of water. They also serve to reduce the temperature at which
hydrates form. Examples of inhibitors are methanol, ethanol and iso-
propanol. If inhibitors are injected into the gas, the formation of
hydrates may be prevented. These substances exhibit a preferential
attraction to water molecules, preventing the water molecules from
freezing or forming hydrates. A disadvantage of the use of inhibitors
is the cost of the injected substances, which are not normally
recovered.
Necessary controls depend on the equipment at the wellsite, but
some controls are common to most locations.
At the wellhead, there may be an Emergency Shutdown (ESD)
valve. This valve is automatic and is actuated by on-site instrumen-
tation in case of an abnormal condition. The ESD valve can also be
closed manually if required.
Regulatory bodies normally stipulate the maximum rate at which a
well may produce. The operator, too, may wish to control the rate of
production. Production rate control may be implemented to reduce
entrainment or to comply with contract restriction. With low or
depleting pressure or at very high flow rates, heavier hydrocarbons
vaporize into the gas stream. If not removed, these heavy
hydrocarbons create operational problems. Flow controllers at the
wellsite are used to restrict the rate of gas withdrawal. These
controllers may be instructed by local setpoints or by an external
signal from a Control Centre or office.
The production flow controller is usually tied in with the pressure
controller.
MEASUREMENT &
CONTROL
EQUIPMENT
ADDITION OF
INHIBITORS
PRODUCTION RATE
CONTROL
37
PRESSURE CONTROL
The pressure at wellsites and in the pipeline must be carefully
controlled for proper operation, as well as to avoid risks to personnel,
equipment and the environment. Pressure control is usually
accomplished using a pressure control valve (see Figure 16). For
example, a pipeline may have a maximum operating pressure of
500 psig (3440 kPa). The gas pressure might be 1000 psig (6895 kPa)
after passing through all the wellsite facilities. Apressure control valve
is used to throttle the gas to the required pressure so that it does not
exceed the pipeline limit.
Figure 16
Pressure Control Valve
A pressure control valve has a controller, which determines the amount of
throttling necessary. This controller can receive input from multiple sources,
such as pressure taps, flow meters or a remote Control Centre.
38
All pressure vessels are required by law to be protected by one or
more pressure relief valves, as shown in Figure 17. These valves are
designed to open when the pressure in the vessel exceeds a pre-set
limit. This is to prevent the vessel from rupturing due to excessive
pressure. At a remote location, such as a gas well, relief valves may
vent to the atmosphere. Flaring, where possible, prevents explosive
or toxic gas from accumulating in any particular area.
Figure 17
Pressure Relief Valve
When the pressure at the valve inlet exceeds a limit (set using the screw
shown at the top) the valve is forced to open. This prevents the pressure in a
vessel from rising so high as to cause the vessel to rupture.
39
REVIEW 3
1. What must be done to entrained solids and liquids found in
the gas that comes out of the ground?
a) They will be removed from the gas
b) They will be frozen to precipitate out of the gas
c) They will be scrubbed and filtered to remain with the gas
d) They will be extruded using a mist extractor
2. What does the cyclone scrubber remove from the gas
stream?
a) It removes entrained liquids and solid particles
b) It removes hydrogen sulphide (H
2
S)
c) It removes small particles
d) It removes hydrate formations
3. What is the vessel, that includes a mist extractor designed to
knock liquid droplets out of the gas stream, precipitating the
liquid at the bottom and extracting the dry gas at the top,
called?
a) It is called cyclone scrubber
b) It is called solid desiccant filter
c) It is called 2-phase separator
d) It is called glycol dehydration unit
4. How do line heaters prevent the formation of hydrates?
a) By removing solid particles from the gas
b) By increasing gas temperature
c) By absorbing water vapour from the gas
d) By removing hydrocarbon liquids from the gas
5. What are the two most common methods of wellsite
dehydration?
a) They are a liquid desiccant and a glycol dehydrator
b) They are heating using a line heater with a solid desiccant
c) They are removal of liquids in a separator and a glycol
dehydrator
d) They are glycol dehydrators and solid desiccant
40
6. Wht is the Emergency Shutdown (ESD) valve?
a) It is automatic and actuated by instrumentation at the site
b) It is used by the Controller to throttle the gas to the required
pipeline pressure
c) It is designed to open when the pre-set pressure in the vessel
is exceeded
d) It boosts the flow rate of the gas to the pressure required for
the pipeline
41
PRODUCTION FACILITIES
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
SECTION 4
SECTION 4
Field treatment of natural gas may include one or more of the
following processes: separation of liquids, dehydration and
compression. This section discusses possible configurations for
transporting field gas to a transmission system.
Corrosion is a major concern in pipeline operation. The corrosion
process is explained in this section, as are methods for preventing
both internal and external pipeline corrosion.
This section of the module concludes with a review of regulations
and operating practices for natural gas production facilities.
List the components and functions of a typical gathering system.
Identify the need for and types of pressure control.
Relate the causes of gas pipeline corrosion to their methods of
control.
Identify the typical operating practices specified by regulations.
42
GATHERING
FACILITIES
Before entering the gathering system, produced gas may be treated
by:
separating oil, hydrocarbon liquids and/or water at the wellsite or a
treatment facility, or
dehydrating the gas at the wellsite or a treatment facility.
In addition, gas may have to be compressed in order to enter the
gathering system.
As shown in Figure 18, a typical configuration for a large gas field
could consist of:
dehydrators at individual wellsites
multiple pipelines leading from the wellsites to a field compressor
station
a higher-capacity pipeline transporting the gas from the
compressor station to a gas plant
a gas plant that removes H
2
S from the gas, if necessary, and
removes the heavier hydrocarbons from the gas
compression facilities to increase pressure so that the gas can enter
the main transmission pipeline
a transmission line transports gas from production to a distribution
network or to a storage facility. A transmission line may also
transport gas from a storage facility to a distribution network.
Figure 18
Typical Gathering System Configuration
43
LOW-PRESSURE
PRODUCTION
CORROSION
CONTROL
The need for compression is determined mainly by the pressure of
the gas at the wellhead. If wellhead pressure is high enough to allow
the gas to flow at the desired rate into the gathering or transmission
lines, no compression is necessary.
It is more economical to transport gas at elevated pressures. It is,
therefore, desirable for compressors to be located at individual gas
wells. However, this is done only if economically viable. Wellsite
compressors may be small and skid-mounted. Compressors must be
large enough to compress the gas enough to enter the pipeline.
At some facilities, gas from a number of wells flows to a single
compressor station. Here, the pressure is boosted so that it can enter
a larger-capacity gathering line or a transmission pipeline. It is
usually more economical to have one large compressor rather than
several small ones. This kind of compression is known as production
compression.
Corrosion is an ever-present concern in any well casing or pipeline.
Corrosion can occur inside the pipe as a result of corrosive liquids or
gases, and on the outside of the pipe because of a corrosive
environment. Internal corrosion occurs when components of the gas
combine with water vapour to form corrosive fluids. Carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulphide (CO
2
and H
2
S) in the pipe are particularly
likely to cause corrosion in the presence of water vapour. Gas
production companies must implement measures to protect their
pipelines from corrosion.
Corrosion is the result of an electro-chemical reaction. An electro-
chemical reaction occurs in a chemical cell such as an electrical
battery. Three elements are required to cause corrosion.
First, an anode or an electron donor is needed for an electro-
chemical reaction to start.
Next, a cathode or an electron receiver must be present for an
electro-chemical reaction to continue.
Finally, an electrolyte or a medium through which ion transfer can
occur completes the requirements. For corrosion to occur, all three
must be present, along with an appropriate conductor. In a
laboratory setting, such an electro-chemical reaction can be
demonstrated (see Figure 19).
44
Figure 19
In the laboratory beaker, two electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte. The
zinc anode corrodes, while the iron cathode does not. The conventional electric
current flow is from the positively charged cathode to the negative anode
through a conductor. The flow of electrons is in the opposite direction. The
anode, as the electron donor, is negatively charged. The cathode, as the
receiver of the electrons, is positively charged. The result of the donation of
electrons by the anode is the formation of free ions of zinc. These negatively
charged ions move through the electrolyte to the positively charged cathode.
The anode, therefore, corrodes as a result of the electric current.
Buried pipe is usually coated to protect against all types of corrosion.
Pipe can vary in composition as can the surrounding soil conditions.
The result of any breakdown in coating protection can be the
formation of an electro-chemical cell. In such a case, one part of the
pipe can become an anode. Another part of the same pipe can be a
cathode. The pipe itself serves as the conductor. The electrolyte,
which is formed by the earth salts in solution with the moisture in the
ground, is the medium of ion transfer that facilitates corrosion at the
anode.
45
INTERNAL CORROSION
PROTECTION
EXTERNAL
CORROSION
PROTECTION
The most effective method of preventing internal pipeline corrosion
is by removing all water from the gas, thereby removing the path of
electron transfer. Another method is the introduction of inhibitors
into the gas. Corrosion inhibitors prevent corrosion on the inside of
the pipe in the event that the gas or a chemical in the gas is acting
as the electrolyte. Inhibitors work by preventing chemical reactions
at both the anode and the cathode. One of the more common
inhibitors does this by exhibiting an attraction for oxygen ions.
Oxygen ions are often involved in the corrosion process and the
inhibitor prevents the oxygen ions from participating in chemical
reactions. This prevents corrosion from occurring.
Coatings are used on the outside of buried pipe to prevent external
corrosion from groundwater and soil. Coatings can be paint, enamel
or tar. Common modern coatings are extruded polyethylene (yellow-
jacket) and fusion-bonded epoxy. The coating isolates the pipe from
the groundwater, effectively removing the electrolyte from the
chemical cell. Without the electrolyte in contact with the metal pipe,
corrosion cannot take place. Coatings are not perfect, however, and
small imperfections, also known as holidays, allow external
corrosion to take place. Additional corrosion protection is therefore
necessary.
Cathodic Protection (CP) is a way of controlling the direction of
electron flow through the chemical cell. An anode bed (often made
of graphite) is buried in the ground near the pipeline. Low resistivity
wires are connected to both the anode bed and the pipe. An external
voltage source from a device called a rectifier, which converts an
alternating current (AC) from normal power lines into direct current
(DC), is applied. The ground completes the circuit through what is
called an impressed current system (refer to Figure 20). The applied
voltage forces the flow of current through the electrolyte from the
anode bed to the pipe, which is now the cathode. Thus, the anode
bed will corrode instead of the pipe. The anode bed must be replaced
periodically.
46
Figure 20
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
An external DC voltage source (converted from AC power lines by a rectifier)
impresses current on the pipe via the anode bed.
47
Figure 21
Sacrificial Anode Protection
A sacrificial anode (zinc) provides the current, protecting the pipe from
corrosion.
Another method of cathodic protection is the use of a sacrificial
anode. In this method, a metal anode such as pure zinc, which is
more susceptible to corrosion than iron, is connected to the pipe with
insulated wire and is buried alongside the pipeline. The electro-
chemical reaction then takes place in the electrolyte. The zinc anode
is consumed by the corrosion process and must be replaced on
depletion. This method of cathodic protection is used where there is
no external source of electricity, or where an impressed current
system is impractical.
48
LICENSING &
PERMITTING
REGULATIONS &
OPERATING
PRACTICES
SIGNAGE
Regulatory bodies keep track of all oil and gas pipelines and
facilities in their area. Such factors as pipe specifications, maximum
operating pressure, location, and other operating practices may be
controlled by regulatory bodies.
No pipeline or facility can be constructed, operated or abandoned
without a license or permit. In this way, regulatory bodies ensure the
correct procedures are followed by the companies that own and
operate the facilities. Accurate records must always be kept for all
oil and gas pipelines and facilities.
Facilities and pipelines are required to have signage. The names of
the owner and operator of any facility or pipeline must be displayed
on all signs, along with an emergency phone number at which the
operator may be contacted. Regulatory bodies may also require
wellsites and above-ground facilities to have their location posted. In
Western Canada, which is the source of most Canadian production
gas, the location is identified by a series of numbers called a legal
subdivision or LSD. In Eastern Canada, locations are given by
townships and concessions.
Pipeline signs must indicate the contents of the pipeline (e.g., Sour
Gas, High Pressure Natural Gas, or Crude Oil). All posted
information must be centrally located and accessible to operators and
potential users. All signs must be kept in good repair and be clearly
legible.
If any pipeline operation or associated equipment poses a threat to
human safety, that information must appear on the sign. Warning
signs are required for high pressure pipelines and sour gas pipelines
because of the hazard presented. Signage is also required at cathodic
protection stations.
49
ENVIRONMENTAL &
EMERGENCY PLANS
GENERAL DESIGN
STANDARDS
All oil and gas companies are required to have a written emergency
plan to cover various situations including environmental incidents.
Emergency plans specify the personnel responsible for particular
actions. Notification and evacuation procedures for residents in the
vicinity of any facilities must be included in the plans. If human life
or the environment is threatened, it may be necessary to implement an
emergency procedure immediately. The plans for these procedures
must be known in advance.
Training for emergencies is also required by law in some areas, and
sometimes mock emergencies are staged. Mock emergencies serve
two purposes:
to practice the procedures that are in place, and
to find ways of improving the procedures.
Most oil and gas workers are trained in fire-fighting, first aid, CPR
(cardiopulmonary resuscitation), and H
2
S procedures to protect
themselves and their co-workers in the event of an emergency.
Design standards for pipelines and facilities have been developed by
organizations such as the CSA (Canadian Standards Association),
ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), API (American
Petroleum Institute) and ANSI (American National Standards
Institute). While these bodies have no regulatory authority in
themselves, national and provincial/state laws usually require
adherence to their standards. These standards specify minimum
requirements for designs of pipelines and facilities. For example, if a
pipeline of a certain diameter is to be built to a certain design
pressure, the standards specify the grade of pipe that must be used. If
the pipe is to be used for sour gas, or at low temperatures, then the
standards specify special materials for pipe and fittings.
In areas where a pipeline leak can cause major damage (such as
environmentally sensitive areas and populated areas) the pipe that is
used is de-rated. This means that its maximum allowable pressure is
rated at less than it would normally be. This procedure allows an
extra factor of safety and decreases the possibility of a leak.
50
THIRD-PARTY DAMAGE
INSPECTIONS
An ever-present concern for gas companies is damage to pipelines
and facilities. Damage can be caused by many different activities.
Construction crews are frequently responsible for damage to
pipelines. For example, earthwork for road-building is carried out
over pipeline rights of way. Excavating a trench for a new pipeline
on the same right of way as an existing line can be hazardous and has
been known to damage the existing line.
Farming operations do not normally affect a pipeline, but deep tillage
may go deep enough to damage a pipeline. Drilling for any reason is
a potential source of damage to a pipeline. Water wells, post holes,
anode placement, and seismic surveys are some possible examples.
All pipelines must be inspected regularly. Regulatory bodies
determine the types and frequency of inspection. Pipeline companies
use light planes and helicopters to fly over their lines to search for
signs of leaks. On a specified cycle, the lines are walked. This is an
inspection at ground level where personnel travel along the length of
the right-of-way looking for leaks. Signs of leaks include odours,
and/or dying or dead vegetation. The personnel on the ground carry
gas detectors.
Cathodic protection systems are also regularly inspected to assure
that the protection systems are functioning properly and to determine
if the anodes require replacement.
An expensive, but very informative, method of internal inspection is
the use of a device called a smart pig. A smart pig travels inside the
pipeline and, using electronic sensors, examines the wall thickness of
the pipe. It produces a record that identifies variations in wall
thickness and signs of corrosion at various locations for the entire
distance recorded by the pig. Smart pigs are especially useful in the
inspection of sour gas pipelines to determine if any internal corrosion
has occurred.
51
REVIEW 4
1. Why are compressors located at a central station?
a) To regulate the gas flow into the pipeline
b) To control the liquid flow into the pipeline
c) To boost the gas flow to pipeline pressure
d) To throttle the gas flow to pipeline pressure
2. What causes corrosion inside the pipe?
a) An electro-chemical reaction between different liquid
coatings
b) A flow of current from a cathode to an anode through an
electrolyte
c) The formation of chemicals from the combination of CO
2
and H
2
S with water vapour
d) The electro-chemical reaction of different combinations of
CO
2
and H
2
S reacting with the pipe coatings
3. A metal such as pure zinc, which has a higher potential than
steel pipe, is attached to the pipeline with insulated wire and
buried alongside the pipeline. What is this process is
termed?
a) Cathodic protection
b) Oxidation
c) Yellow jacket coating
d) Rectifier protection
4. Why are walking inspections are carried out?
a) To monitor construction activities
b) To perform smart pig runs
c) To check for pipeline leaks from the ground
d) To inspect pipeline maintenance activities
52
SUMMARY
SECTION 1 GAS EXPLORATION
Seismology is a technique that uses sound or shock waves to
measure characteristics of each layer of rock in the earths crust in
a study area in order to compile a map of the subsurface
formations.
Seismology is the most commonly used technique in oil and gas
exploration.
The application of high-speed digital computers now enables the
preparation of two- and three-dimensional images of underground
formations.
While useful, 3-D imaging is very expensive, and is normally
used only after 2-D methods have established the likelihood of oil
and gas formations in an area.
Other exploration techniques used in combination with
seismology include surface geology, geochemistry, radar, and
infrared sensing.
The gravity survey technique measures variations in the earths
gravitational field to determine the depth and nature of subsurface
rock.
Magnetic surveys detect minute fluctuations in the magnetic field
surrounding the earth. These fluctuations supply information
about the shape, size and composition of the subsurface rock.
SECTION 2 DRILLING
Drilling is necessary to confirm the accuracy of exploration work.
Pre-drilling activities include preparation of an Environmental
Impact Statement (EIS) and site preparation.
Site preparation includes construction of access roads, clearing
and levelling, waste disposal, and building crew quarters.
Wells can be drilled vertically, slightly angled or directionally at
depths in excess of 30,000 feet.
Conventional drilling methods include rotary drilling, in which a
bit is attached to a string of pipe and rotated. Turbo-drilling is
also used in both conventional and directional drilling.
53
Directionally drilled wells may produce more oil and gas because
they travel a greater distance through the reservoir.
Drilling equipment includes the drill bit, drill string, swivels, and
kelly. Rotary drive for the system is provided by motors. In turbo-
drilling, mud is pumped down the hole to drive one or more
turbines.
A Blowout Preventer (BOP) is required during drilling and well
completion to prevent uncontrolled escape of pressurized
formation fluids.
Well completion should include preparation for both production
and eventual abandonment.
Well completion activities include drill stem testing, preparation
for production and perforation of the casing.
Gas wells are eventually abandoned when production is no longer
economical.
SECTION 3 WELLSITE FACILITIES
Gas wellsite facilities are required to control gas flow from the
wellhead and treat the gas by removing liquids and solids.
Wellsite separators may be installed to remove liquid
hydrocarbons and water from the gas.
Testing, sampling and measurement equipment is usually installed
at the wellhead.
Wellsite gas treating equipment must be installed a minimum
distance from the wellhead, as stipulated by regulations.
Liquids may be separated from the gas stream. These liquids may
be transported from the wellsite via truck or pipeline.
Gas scrubbers and separators remove entrained solids and liquids.
Cyclone scrubbers and separators are both used, with the latter
being more common.
Filters remove solid particles from the gas.
Line heaters increase gas temperature to inhibit the formation of
hydrates.
54
Dehydration prevents hydrate formation by removing water
molecules from the gas. Glycol dehydration is the most common
method of gas dehydration. Solid desiccants may be used in some
applications.
Dew point is the temperature at which liquid condenses out of the
gas. Gas usually has different dew points for water vapour and
hydrocarbons.
Sulphur in natural gas leads to corrosion. In addition, H
2
S or sour
gas is toxic.
Hydrates form when water and natural gas exist together under
high pressure and low temperature conditions. Hydrates can be
avoided by heating and/or dehydrating the gas, or by adding
inhibitors.
Equipment at the wellhead controls the rate of well production and
gas pressure as the gas enters the pipeline.
SECTION 4 PRODUCTION FACILITIES
Gas is usually treated before entering the gathering system. Field
treatment may include separation of liquids and/or dehydration.
Compression may also be necessary for field gas to enter the
gathering system. Often, several wells flow to a common
compressor.
Corrosion can occur on both the inside and the outside of a gas
pipeline. Components of the gas can combine to form corrosive
fluids.
Corrosion results from an electro-chemical reaction involving an
anode (electron donor), a cathode (electron receiver), and an
electrolyte. Electrons flow through a conductor from the anode to
the cathode, causing corrosion at the anode.
Internal pipeline corrosion can be prevented by removing water
from the gas or by using inhibitors.
Cathodic protection prevents external corrosion by reversing the
flow of electrons in the electro-chemical reaction. The sacrificial
anode is a method of cathodic protection.
55
Regulatory bodies keep track of oil and gas pipelines and
facilities. Regulatory bodies stipulate requirements for licenses,
design specifications, signage, and emergency planning.
Legislation usually requires that gas production facilities adhere to
accepted design standards. Legislation may also cover third-party
damage and inspection procedures.
56
GLOSSARY
acidizing
a process whereby acid with preferential reaction to the formation
rather than to the casing, is pumped down the production casing,
through the perforations and into the formation. (p. 20)
annulus
the space between the drill pipe and the outside of the hole. (p. 15)
anode
an electron donor necessary to begin an electro-chemical reaction.
(p. 41)
blowout
an uncontrolled escape of pressurized formation fluids, such as oil,
water or gas. (p. 17)
blowout preventer (BOP)
a type of valve attached to the top of a wells surface casing that
serves to protect the crew and the environment from possible
spewing oil and gas. (p. 12)
cathode
an electron receiver needed for an electro-chemical reaction to
continue. (p. 41)
Cathodic Protection (CP)
an external anti-corrosion method relying on a source of electricity
that reverses the normal flow of electrons from an external anode to
the pipe so that the external anode corrodes instead of the pipe.
(p. 43)
coatings
substances such as paint, enamel or tar used on the outside of buried
pipe to prevent external corrosion caused by contact with
groundwater and soil. Common types of paint used in coatings are
fusion-bonded epoxy and extruded polyethylene. (p. 43)
continuous sampling
a sampling procedure consisting of allowing small amounts of gas
into a sampling bottle over a specified period of time to achieve an
average sample. (p. 32)
corrosion inhibitors
chemical substances that are introduced into the gas in order to
prevent corrosion inside of the pipe. (p. 43)
57
de-gasser
a piece of equipment that removes any gas from the drilling mud.
(p. 15)
de-rated pipe
pipe whose maximum pressure rating is less than its actual capacity.
This pipe is used as a safety measure in environmentally sensitive or
populated areas where a pipeline leak could cause major damage.
(p. 47)
derrick
the visible portion of a drilling well. Also called a rig. (p. 14)
de-silter/de-sander
pieces of equipment that remove the very small cuttings passed
through the shale shaker. (p. 15)
development well
a well drilled in an existing field to increase production. (p. 11)
dew point
the temperature at which liquid condenses from the gas at a given
temperature. (p. 32)
drill bit
a rotating device that cuts into the ground and loosens it, so that the
cuttings can be removed by the fluid circulating system. (p. 14)
drill collar
heavy section of pipe just above the drill bit that adds weight to the
drill bit to help it push through rock. (p. 15)
Drill Stem Testing (DST)
a procedure carried out after a well is drilled to determine its
commercial viability. (p. 19)
drill string
the length of pipe that goes from a drilling rig down to the drill bit in
the ground. (p. 15)
drilling mud
a circulating fluid that removes cuttings and provides lubrication to
the rotating bit during rotary drilling. (p. 11)
drum
central piece of equipment of the drawworks, on which the drill cable
is wound. It controls the raising and lowering of the travelling block
and the weight of the drill-pipe on the bit. (p. 15)
58
dry hole
a well that is not economically viable. (p. 20)
electrolyte
a medium through which ion transfer can occur. (p. 41)
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
a mandatory, pre-drilling report detailing all potential impacts of
drilling on a given site. (p. 10)
exploration well
a well drilled to detect the presence of gas in a rock formation; also
known as a wildcat well. (p. 11)
fracturing
a process in which a specially blended high-pressure liquid is
pumped into the perforations, breaking up the formation much like
driving a wedge into the formation. (p. 20)
glycol absorption
a method of dehydrating gas in which the molecules of one substance
fill the gaps between molecules of another substance. (p. 29)
glycol dehydration
a process used to dehydrate gas in which wet gas and glycol are
contacted in counter-current flow in a packed vessel. (p. 30)
gravity meter
a device used to measure variations in the earths gravitational field.
(p. 6)
hydrates
substances that may form when natural gas and water exist together
under certain conditions. (p. 33)
infilling well
a development well drilled between existing wells. (p. 11)
inhibitors
substances that act as anti-freeze to lower the freezing point of water.
(p. 34)
kelly
the multi-sided piece of steel that is attached to the drill string at one
end and to the swivel at the other end. (p. 15)
kelly bushing
a multi-sided component that locks into the rotary table. (p. 15)
59
kick
an unexpected entry of pressurized formation fluids into a well while
drilling. (p. 17)
line heater
a hot bath of water and glycol through which the natural gas pipe
passes. (p. 30)
magnometer
a device, often used in magnetic surveys, that can detect minute
fluctuations in the earths magnetic field. (p. 7)
proppant
following fracturing, the addition of sand or other granular material to
the fluid. The porous material holds (props) open the fracture when
the pressure is removed. (p. 20)
rectifier
a device that converts alternating current (AC) from normal power
lines into direct current (DC). (p. 43)
rotary table
a piece of equipment that turns the kelly, the drill string and drill bit.
(p. 15)
sacrificial anode
a form of external corrosion protection where a metal anode
(e.g., zinc) having a higher potential than steel pipe is used. This type
of cathodic protection does not require an external source of
electricity (p. 45)
sample bottle
a container, normally constructed of high-strength steel, used to take a
sample of gas from the pipeline. (p. 32)
seismology
an exploratory method that uses the reflection of sound or shock
waves to map the various layers of the earths crust. (p. 4)
separator
a piece of equipment designed to remove liquid from the gas. (p. 25)
shale shaker
a piece of equipment that removes most of the drill cuttings from the
mud. (p. 15)
60
smart pig
electronic device that travels inside of pipelines to inspect and
provide an accurate and informative record of variations in wall
thickness and signs of corrosion at various locations along the pipe.
(p. 48)
solid desiccant adsorption
method of gas dehydration in which small particles of one substance
are attracted to the surface of larger particles of another. (p. 29)
sour gas (H
2
S)
hydrogen sulphide, an extremely toxic and flammable gas. (p. 17)
spot sample
a sample taken at one point in time. (p. 32)
spudding in
the drilling of a shallow, large-diameter hole lined with a casing set
in cement. As the first step in rotary drilling, it serves to prevent
contamination of near-surface formations that may contain water.
(p. 11)
swivel
an attachment to the travelling block that allows the rotating
equipment to turn freely without twisting the drill cable. (p. 15)
travelling block
the largest pulley of the hoisting system in rotary drilling, its hook
attaches to the rotating equipment. (p. 12)
tripping in or out
in rotary drilling is the process of lowering (tripping in) or raising
(tripping out) the drill bit in the hole. (p. 12)
turbo-drilling
a type of drilling whereby the mud pumped down the hole drives a
turbine or turbines that are attached to the drill bit. (p. 13)
vibroseis
a particular technique of seismology that uses a surface vibrator to
send low frequency sound waves through the earths surface. (p. 5)
well completion
the testing and preparation of a well after it is found to be
commercially viable. (p. 19)
61
ANSWERS
REVIEW 1 REVIEW 2 REVIEW 3 REVIEW 4
1. a 1. b 1. a 1. c
2. b 2. d 2. a 2. c
3. d 3. d 3. c 3. a
4. a 4. a 4. b 4. c
5. c 5. c
6. a 6. a
7. a
8. b

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