Denotation and Connotation

Denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word, the "dictionary definition." For example,
if you look up the word snake in a dictionary, you will discover that one of its denotative
meanings is "any of numerous scaly, legless, sometimes venomous reptilesKhaving a long,
tapering, cylindrical body and found in most tropical and temperate regions."
Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the associations that are connected to a certain word
or the emotional suggestions related to that word. he connotative meanings of a word exist
together with the denotative meanings. he connotations for the word snake could include
evil or danger.
!oets often deviate from the denotative meanings of words to create fresher ideas and images.
"uch deviations from the literal meanings are called figures of speech or figurative language.
#f you giddily whisper to your classmate that the introduction to literature class is so
wonderful and exciting that the class sessions seem to only last a minute, you are using a
figure of speech. If you say that our textbook is your best friend, you are using a figure of
speech. here are many different kinds of figures of speech, such as metaphors, similes,
personification, hyperbole, understatement, paradox, and pun. #t$s important that you
understand several kinds of figures of speech.
A simile is a comparison between two dissimilar ob%ects using a word like as or like to
connect them. For example, if you say, "my boyfriend is like a watermelon in the summer,"
you are creating a simile that compares your boyfriend with a watermelon. #f on the other
hand you are mad at your boyfriend and say, "he$s like a typhoon in the house," you$re
comparing your boyfriend with a typhoon.
A metaphor is similar to a simile, except that a metaphor compares two dissimilar ob%ects
without using a word like as or like. #f you write, "my boyfriend is an angel" or "my
motorcycle is a bomb on wheels," you are creating metaphors.
#f you present an inanimate ob%ect, animal, or abstraction with human &ualities and
characteristics, as though it were a person, you are using personification. #f you tell yourself
that you have to put your new pencil back in the pencil box because it$s lonely and wants to
go home, you are personifying your pencil. #f you say that you have to talk sweetly to your
computer because it is temperamental, you are personifying your pencil.
Figures of Speech(2): verbal Irony
#rony involves a contradiction. "#n general, irony is the perception of a clash between
appearance and reality, between seems and is, or between ought and is" '(arper (andbook).
*erbal irony++""aying something contrary to what it means" '(arper (andbook). #n daily
language, being ironic means that you say something but mean the opposite to what you say.
",h, how lucky we are to have ", -./0 online materials offered by the #ntroduction to
1iterature class2" you said, and you might mean it, or you might be %ust ironic. #f you are
ironic, there is a contradiction between your literal meaning and your actual meaning++and
this is what we call verbal 'rhetoric) irony. 3hen the narrator in "hirley 4ackson$s "he
1ottery" says, ".lthough the villagers had forgotten the ritual and lost the original black box,
they still remembered to use stones," the tone is ironic because the villagers seem civili5ed,
but they are actually barbaric.

6
7esides verbal irony, we have two other kinds of irony8 dramatic irony and situational
irony. "9ramatic irony"++"saying or doing something while unaware of its ironic contrast
with the whole truth. 9ramatic irony, named for its fre&uency in 9rama, is a verbal irony
with the speaker$s awareness erased" ++ so that the irony is on the speaker him:herself, but not
what s:he talks about.
here are a lot of examples in 9ramatic -onologues. For instance, when the duke in "-y
1ast 9uchess" says of the late duchess, "here she is, as if alilve," the irony is on him because
the duchess #" dead 'though seems alive). (ere the irony is not the duke$s; it is on him
because he thought he posesses her, though he cannot ++ alive or dead.

"ituational irony++ "events turning to the opposite of what is expected or what should be. he
ironic situation ++the "ought" upended by the is ++ is integral to dramatic irony"'(arper
(andbook). #n .lanis -orissete$s "#ronic," we can see a lot of situational ironies ++ or ironies
of fate.
yperbole 'sometimes called overstatement) occurs when you exaggerate a point that you are
trying to make. #f you say that the lights in our classroom are too bright because they are
brighter than ten thousand suns, you are using an example of hyperbole. ,r if you say that
you$re so hungry you could eat a million cookies and six gallon of ice cream, you$re using
hyperbole.
,thers8
<nderstatement is related to hyperbole in that understatement is the opposite of hyperbole8
understatement implies more than is actually stated. 1et$s say on the exam over short stories,
you receive a grade of 6== when the class average is >6. #f one of your classmates ask you
how you did on the test and you reply, "# did okay," that is understatement.
. sentence that contains a paradox seems initially to have contradictory elements in it but
after some reflection those elements later make sense. o say, for example, that morning is the
darkest time for me is paradoxical since mornings are bright and full of light but they seem
mentally "dark" to me because #$m a night+person.
. pun is a play on words that occurs when one word is used that reminds you of another word
or words. 0ou can, for example, use a word that looks like or sounds like another word. For
example, if my dad says, "he is the son and all the world to me," there is a pun on the words
son and sun.
http8::www.iwant?help.us:images:@onnotationA9enotation.pdf
Functional Style is a system of interrelated language means serving a definite aim in
communication. #t is the coordination of the language means and stylistic devices which
shapes the distinctive features of each style and not the language means or stylistic devices
themselves.
Bach style, however, can be reco&ui5ed by one or more leading features which are especially
conspicuous. For instance the use of special terminology is a lexical characteristics of the
style of scientific prose, and one by which it can easily be recogni5ed.
. style of language can be fined as a system of coordinated, interrelated and inter+coordinated
language means intended to full+fill a specific function of communication and aiming at a
defined effect. "tyle of language is a historical category.
?
he Bnglish literary system has evolved a number of styles easily distinguishable one from
another. hey are not homogeneous and fall into several variants of having some central point
of resemblance or better to say. .ll integrated by the invariant C i.e. the abstract ideal system.
!hey are8
6) ,fficial'documents and papers);
?) "cientific 'brochures, articles, other scientific publications);
D) !ublicistic 'essay, public speech);
E) /ewspaper style'mass media);
F) 7elles+lettres style'genre of creative writing);
Bach of mentioned here styles can be expressed in two forms8 written and oral.
"tylistics is a sides that examines the complex of stylistically marked elements of any
language level.
6) scientific style is employed in professional communication to convey some information.
#tGs most conspicuous feature is the abundance of terms denoting ob%ects, phenomena and
processes characteristics of some particular field of science and techni&ue. .lso precision
clarity logical cohesion.
?) ,fficial style is the most conservative one. #t uses syntactical constructions and archaic
words. Bmotiveness is banned out of this style.
D) !ublicistic style is famous for its explicit pragmatic function of persuasion directed at
influencing the reader in accordance with the argumentation of the author.
E) /ewspaper style C special graphical means are used to attract the readers attention.
F) 7elles+lettres style C the richest register of communication besides its own language means,
other styles can be used besides informative and persuasive functions, belles+lettres style has a
uni&ue task to impress the reader are aesthetically.
http8::studentguide.ru:shpargalki+po+angli%skomu+ya5yku:bilet+functional+styles+and+
functional+stylistics.html
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How to read a film
Heading a Film he /arrative Films can be compared to written texts. @ontain many narrative
elements8 !lot : story @haracters "etting !oint of view hemes : -essage.
The diffrences between novels and movies are8
"ovels can have multiple points of view, no lenght limit, no limits to settings characters, can
be imaginative and only in print.
#ovies often need a linear plot line, limited time frame to tell the story, budget often limits of
locations to be filmed, characters costumes, have to be visually reali5ed, can use visuals and
audio. 'sound tracks, sound effects)
he process of turning a novel into a script includes some stages as8
+ the screenwriter decides what parts of the story to tell;'transform narration in
dialogue)
+ a producer determines a budget;
+ a director chooses locations, actors, camera angles and other elements;
+ actors interpret characters;
+ editors cut and arrange scenes, addmusic, effects
*isual 1iteracy is the ideea of beeing able to read non+printed texts, to read a picture as a
poem or a short story.
o understand the concept of visual literacy you have to be able to read a picture like you
would a text; understand how camera angles, lighting, focus and cropping all affect your
response; understanding that all media is a construct, u have to be able to form a meaning
from picture.
he basic ideas of ,,the language of filmI
$acing% directorGs choice of what to show and how;
,ne of the tools that the director has is ,,camerra angles,, which can be8
Close up- shows mostly faces, creats intimacy the connection between characters by showing
cropped up;
-edium "hots in which you can see most of the actors body, shows personal relationships, u
can see the distance betwwen the characters, body language, the director can show you
without telling you how the characters are connected.
1ong shots+ also called JwideI or JestablishingI shots, shows context, setting you see the
character but you also see where they are and what happens around them.
homas 7erger identifies specific grammar that itGs used in * :film and has to do with
signifier 'shot)'close+up, medium shot, full shot) definition'face only most of the body setting
and characters, camera looks up camera looks down) and signified'what itGs shows and how
the cameras moves) 'intimacy, personal relationship, context, scope public distance, social
relationship). he director uses this technics as the writer uses literary technics.
Lightining is crucial in creating the mood and the atmosphere, source of light 8 below, above,
harsh:bright or soft:shadowed.
"ymbolism cand be find in films also in a visual way and opening credits which sets mood
gives you the impression of &uiet reflective, mementos of childhood, pocketwatchK time
passed, images sounds pacing all contribute.
"ound effects C in addition to music:soundtrack set mood, create setting8 scratching branches
from a tree, wind, crow or orther bird call, creaking chairs.
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