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Chapter 1
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF ANTENNA
1.0 DEFINITION OF ANTENNA
Antenna is a structure that is generally a metallic object, used to convert high
frequency current into electromagnetic waves and vice versa. It acts
as a transitional structure between free space and guiding device.
Basically it may be defined as a usually a metallic device for
radiating or receiving radio waves. IEEE standards define antenna
or aerial as a means for radiating or receiving radio waves.
Electric and magnetic field radiation from an antenna form the electromagnetic
field and this field is responsible for then transmission and reception
of electromagnetic energy through free space.
1.1 PROPERTIES OF ANTENNA
! Antennas radiate through currents."esigns consist of controlling current to
produce the desired radiation distribution, called its pattern.
! Antenna converts bound circuit fields into propagating electromagnetic waves.
! #he si$e of antennas ranges from micro miniature to gigantic depending upon
required radiation pattern and gain.
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1.2 HOW ANTENNA RADIATES
%onsidering a voltage source connected to a transmission line which is
connected to an antenna. Applying a voltage on a two conductors
transmission line creates an electric field between the conductors.
#he electric lines of force have a tendency to act on the free electron
and displace them from the conductor. #he movement of the charges
creates a current that in turn creates magnetic field intensity, and
thus magnetic lines of forces created associated to them. #he
creation of time&varying electric and magnetic field form
electromagnetic waves that travel along the transmission line. If we
remove part of antenna, the open ends can form free&space waves.
#he wave when travels through transmission line and antenna is
said to be guided wave, but when it gets detached from the antenna
it is 'nown as free&space wave.
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(igure ).) source, transmission line, antenna and detachment of electric line

*ines of forces created between the arms of a small center&fed dipole in the
first quarter of the period during which time the charge has reached
its ma+imum value and the lines have traveled outwardly a radial
distance of quarter of wavelength.
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(igure ).,-a.

"uring the ne+t quarter of the period, the original three lines travel an additional
quarter wavelength and the charge density on the conductors begins
to diminish.
(igure )., -b.
#he lines of force created by the opposite charges are three and travel a
distance of quarter wavelength during second quarter of the first
half. #he end result is that three lines of forces pointed upward in
the first quarter wavelength and the same number of lines in
downward direction in the second quarter wavelength. /ince there is
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no net charge on antenna, then lines of force must have been detach
themselves from the conductor and to unite together to form closed
loops.
(igure )., -c.
1.3 WHY WE USE ANTENNA
0e use antennas to transfer signals when no other way is possible such as
communication with a missile or over rugged mountain terrain.
%ables are e+pensive and ta'e a long time to install, but large path
losses of antenna system lead us to believe that cables runs better.
LOSSES OVER DISTANCE
"I/#A1%E -23. 0A4E56I"E *7// -dB. Antenna path loss -dB.
, 89.: ;;
: <;.; 9:
= ));., 9<.=
1.4 ANTENNA PARAMETERS
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A parameter is defined in mathematics as a quantity that can vary but is held
constant in particular problem so that the effect of some other
variable may be studied, uncontaminated by any variation of the
parameter. /o in order to study the performance of an antenna we
consider overleaf parameters
1.4.1 RADIATION PATTERN
An antenna>s radiation pattern is defined as, graphical representation of the
radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space
coordinates. ?adiation properties include radiation intensity, field
strength and polari$ation.

(igure ).8 %oordinates /ystem for Antenna Analysis
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1.4.2 RADIATION PATTERN LOBES
A radiation lobe is a, portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of
relatively wea' radiation intensity.

(igure ).: ?adiation @attern
3ajor lobeA *obe containing the direction of ma+imum radiation is called main
lobe. In some antennas, such as split&beam antennas there may e+ist
more than one major lobe.
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Figure 1.5 Radition pattern of an Antenna
Minor o!"# Any lobe e+cept major lobe is called minor lobe.
Si$" o!"# *obe in direction other than the intended lobe. 6sually side lobes are
adjacent to major lobe.
B%&' o!"# 3inor lobe, which occupies a hemisphere opposite to that of major
lobe is called bac' lobe.
1.4.3 RADIATION POWER DENSITY
#he quantity used to describe the power associated with the an electromagnetic
wave is the instantaneous pointing vector defined as
0 B E + C
0 B instantaneous pointing vector
E B instantaneous electric field intensity
C B instantaneous magnetic field intensity
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#he total power crossing a closed surface can be obtained by integrating the
normal component of the poynting vector over the entire surface.

1.4.4 RADIATION INTENSITY
?adiation intensity in a given direction is defined as the power radiated from
an antenna per unit solid angle. #he radiation intensity is a far
field parameter.
6 B r
,
0rad
1.4.( POLARI)ATION
Electric vector has particular direction in space for all antennas. #his
orientation of electric field in space is 'nown as polari$ation.
@olari$ation of a wave can be defined in terms of wave radiated or
received by an antenna in given direction. @olari$ation
characteristics of an antenna can be represented by it polari$ation
pattern, which can be defined as the spatial distribution of
polari$ations of field vector e+cited by an antenna ta'en over its
radiation sphere.
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Po%ri*%+ion i, -.r+/"r &%,,i-i"$ %,#
LINEAR POLARI)ATIONA
A wave is linearly polari$ed at a given point in space if the electric field vector
at that point is always oriented along the same straight line at every
instant of time. #hey are usually oriented so that the polari$ation is
either hori$ontal or vertical. /ometimes the choice is made on the
basis of necessity, at other times by preference based on technical
advantages, and sometimes there is no basis for choice.
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4arious e+amples at various frequencies have been cited out for comparison
between hori$ontal and vertical polari$ations. A
). At very low frequencies -e.g. below )DDD'c. it is practically impossible to
radiate a hori$ontally polari$ed wave successfully because it will be
virtually cancelled by the radiation from the image of the antenna in
earth and also vertically polari$ed waves propagate much
successfully at these frequencies.

At the frequencies range of about E:3c to ;9D3c hori$ontal polari$ation is
adopted in order to ma+imi$e the signal to noise ratio because the
ma+imum man&made noise signals are vertically polari$ed.
At the microwave frequencies -above )DDD3c., the preference is given on the basis
of advantage in one or other. In communication systems it is of
course to have the antennas with same polari$ation for transmitting
and receiving.
CIRCULAR POLARI)ATION#
In circular polari$ation, electric vector F appears to rotate with screw motion
about $ Ga+is. #his type of polari$ation results when two linearly
polari$ed waves are combined.
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%ircular polari$ation has advantages in some 4C(, 6C( and microwave
applications.
For E0%12",
In transmission of 4C( and low&6C( signals through ionosphere, rotation of
the polari$ation vector occurs, the amount of rotation being
generally unpredictable. /o in comparison to linearly polari$ed
wave, it is advantageous to use circularly polari$ed wave that can
receive either polari$ation. #he ma+imum efficiency is reali$ed in
the case if both the antennas are circularly polari$ed.
#his feature is applied for transmission and reception between the earth and an
artificial satellite or space probe.
In microwave radar communication, to minimi$e the clutter echoes received
from raindrops, in relation to the echoes from targets such as
aircrafts etc., circular polari$ation is found advantageous.
1.4.3 DIRECTIVITY
It is the ma+imum directive gain, and directive gain is defined as the ratio of
the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the
radiation intensity averaged over all directions.

" B directivity
"o B ma+imum directivity
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6 B radiation intensity
6ma+ B ma+imum radiation intensity
6o B radiation intensity of isotropic source
@rad B total radiated power
1.4.4 ANTENNA 5AIN
5ain is the measure of ability of antenna to direct the input power into radiation
a particular direction. 0aves are emitted in direction perpendicular
to the antenna a+is. #he ratio of the intensity, in a given direction, to
the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted
by the antenna was radiated isotropically.
power input total
esity radiation
5ain
int 4
=
).:.; A1#E11A E((I%IE1%H
#he total antenna efficiency is used to ta'e into account losses at the input
terminal and within the structure of the antenna. /uch losses may be
due to A
). ?eflections because of the mismatch between the transmission line and the
antenna.
,. %onduction and dielectric losses.
eo B er ec ed
eD B total efficiency
er B radiation efficiency
ec B conduction efficiency
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ed B dielectric efficiency
1.4.6 BEAMWIDTH
#he range of frequency over which an antenna operates satisfactorily is defined
as its bandwidth. Bandwidth alone is not the only parameter for
antenna>s wor'ingI there are many parameters, which account to
the satisfactory operation of an antenna. #he principal one>s are
input impedance, radiation efficiency, power gain, beamwidth, beam
direction, polari$ation and side lobe level. But all these factors are
not involved in every case, because one or more can be critical. /o
we usually use two basic factors namely pattern bandwidth -antenna
pattern. and impedance bandwidth -input impedance..
@attern bandwidth comprises of parameters li'e beamwidth, gain, side lobe
level and beam direction, whereas input impedance, radiation
resistance and efficiency are associated with impedance bandwidth.

1.( TYPES OF ANTENNAS
Wir" An+"nn%,
Antennas consisting of an unbro'en single straight wire are classed as wire
antennas if their length is substantially greater than a half
wavelength.
#hey are seen normally everywhere on automobiles, buildings, ships, aircraft
and so on. #here are various shapes of wire antenna such as a
straight wire -dipole., loop and heli+.
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(igure ).= 0ire Antenna %onfigurations
#he single terminated wire used as non& resonant antenna will not be effective for
hori$ontal polari$ation because of its small fraction of a wavelength
height.
A2"r+.r" An+"nn%,
#hese antennas are very useful for aircraft and spacecraft because they can be
very easily flush mounted on the s'in of the aircraft or spacecraft. In
addition they can be covered with dielectric material to protect them
from environment.

(igure ).< @yramidal horn antenna
Mi&ro,+ri2 An+"nn%,
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#hese antennas consist of metallic patch on a grounded substrate. #hese are low
profile, conformable to planar and non&planar surfaces, simple and
ine+pensive to fabricate using modern printed circuit technology,
mechanically robust and very versatile in terms of resonant
frequency, polari$ation, pattern and impedance.
(igure ).; ?ectangular 3icrostrip antenna
So+ An+"nn%,
If a narrow slot li'e opening is cut in a large flat sheet of metal, and properly
connected to a source of ?( power, it radiates in a patter having
resemblance to patter of a dipole of same dimensions.
Arr%7 An+"nn%,
#hese are the antennas in which there is more than one element of similar
properties. #hese are required in many applications in which the
radiation pattern is not achieved by a single element. #hese types of
antennas find their application in the areas where highly directive
patterns are required. #he fields from the elements of array interfere
constructively in the desired directions and interfere destructively in
remaining space.
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(igure ).9-a. 3icrostrip @atch Array(igure ).9 -b. Hagi 6da Array
R"-"&+or An+"nn%,
#hese antennas consist of a reflector in the shape of a paraboloid of revolution
together with a feed horn. #hese are used to receive or transmit
electromagnetic waves from or to a geostationary satellite. Another
form of reflector is corner reflector.
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(igure ).)D ?eflector antennas
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(igure ).)) @arabolic reflector antennas
L"n, An+"nn%,
#hey can be used in most of the same applications as the parabolic reflectors,
especially at higher frequencies. #heir dimensions and weight
become e+ceedingly large at lower frequencies. *ens antennas are
classified according to the material from which they are
constructed, or according to their geometrical shape.
(eatures li'e directivity and gain of a lens antenna are better than those of any
other antenna at same frequency.
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C/%2+"r 2
MICRO STRIP ANTENNAS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
3icrostrip antennas -often called patch antennas. are widely used in the
microwave frequency region because of their simplicity and
compatibility with printed&circuit technology, ma'ing them easy to
manufacture either as stand&alone elements or as elements of
arrays. In its simplest form a microstrip antenna consists of a patch
of metal, usually rectangular or circular -though other shapes are
sometimes used. on top of a grounded substrate, as shown in (igure
<&). In this chapter the basic principles of operation are discussed,
and %A" formulas are given for the microstrip antenna. #he %A"
formulas are fairly accurate for thin substrates and illustrate the
basic principles. (or thin substrates the %A" formulas may even be
accurate enough for final design purposes. (or thic'er substrates
these formulas can still be used for initial design wor', with full&
wave simulation tools used to complete the final design.
Hi,+or7
#he origin of microstrip antennas apparently dates bac' to )9E8, when
"ecamps pro&posed the use of microstrip feed lines to feed an array
of printed antenna elements. #he printed antenna elements
introduced there were not microstrip patches, but flared planar
horns. #he microstrip patch antenna was first introduced by 3unson
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in a symposium paper in )9<,, which was followed by a journal
paper in )9<:. #hese papers discussed both the wrap around
microstrip antenna and the rectangular patch. /hortly after
3unson>s symposium paper, Cowell also discussed rectangular
patch antennas in another symposium paper in which he credits
3unson with the basic idea by referencing a private
communication .In a later journal paper, Cowell introduced the
circular patch as well as the circularly polari$ed patch antenna.
/oon after the introduction of the microstrip antenna, papers
appeared describing methods of analysis for these antennas,
including the transmission&line model, the cavity model, and the
spectral&domain method. A good review of the early history of
microstrip antennas is provided in the article by %arver and 3in'.
A discussion of microstrip antennas may be found in a variety of
boo's devoted to this type of antenna as well as in more general
antenna boo's and handboo's.
F""$ M"+/o$,
4arious methods may be used to feed the microstrip antenna, as shown in
(igure <&, for the rectangular patch. #he coa+ial probe feed shown
in (igure <&,a is one of the most common feeds for a stand&alone
element. #he inset feed in (igure <&,b is common for array
applications. #he pro+imity&coupled feed in (igure <&,c requires
multilayer fabrication,
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MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS
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but reduces spurious radiation from the feed line. #he aperture&coupled feed
shown in (igure <&,d has the advantage of eliminating feed&line
radiation -at the e+pense of some bac' radiation from the aperture.
and also allows for relatively thic' substrates, since probe reactance
is not an issue.
A$8%n+%9", %n$ Di,%$8%n+%9",
3icrostrip antennas usually have the important advantage of being low profile,
and if the substrate is thin enough, they may also be conformable,
meaning that the substrate can be bent to fit a curved surface,
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ma'ing the antenna very unobtrusive. Because the lateral si$e of a
microstrip antenna on a substrate board is typically on the order of
a half wavelength in the dielectric, si$e considerations usually
dictate that these antennas are used in the 6C( frequency band or
higher, up through millimeter&wave frequencies, with microwave
frequency applications being the most common. #he main
disadvantages of microstrip antennas include potentially lower
radiation efficiency compared with other antennas -although this
depends significantly on the substrate permittivity and thic'ness.
and small bandwidth .#hese issues are discussed further ne+t and in
/ection <.9
R%$i%+ion E--i&i"n&7 %n$ B%n$:i$+/;
?adiation efficiency depends largely on the substrate permittivity and thic'ness.
A substrate that has a higher permittivity or that is thic'er will
suffer from increased surface&wave e+citation, which will lower the
efficiency. -6sing a foam substrate is a simple way to eliminate
surface&wave e+citation. ?emoving the substrate outside of the
patch cavity will also eliminate surface&wave e+citation.. 7n the
other hand, if the substrate is too thin, the efficiency will be low due
to conductive and dielectric losses. Assuming a typical #eflon
substrate -er B ,., with a loss tangent of D.DD). and copper for the
patch and ground plane with a conductivity of 8.D J )D< /Km, the
radiation efficiency is ma+imum for a substrate thic'ness of about
D.D,l D, reaching about 9D percent. 0hen using a foam substrate,
the efficiency continuously increases with increasing substrate
thic'ness, approaching )DD percent for thic'er substrates. 3ore
information on improving efficiency may be found in /ection <.9.#he
bandwidth increases with the substrate thic'ness and inversely with
the substrate permittivity, so bandwidth is made larger by using
thic'er low&permittivity substrates -e.g., a thic'er foam substrate.
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at the e+pense of increased lateral si$e and vertical thic'ness. (or a
coa+ially fed microstrip antenna, the substrate thic'ness is limited
by the inductance of the feeding coa+ial probe, which increases
directly with increasing substrate thic'ness. (or a typical substrate
material such as #eflon and a ED&L coa+ial feed cable, the probe
reactance will become sufficiently large when the substrate
thic'ness is about D.D);l D to render the antenna non&resonant
unless a matching element is used. #his limits the achievable
bandwidth of a simple coa+ially fed microstrip antenna. (or a
#eflon substrate and copper conductors, the ma+imum bandwidth
-/0? M ,. of a rectangular microstrip antenna having a typical
widthKlength -0K*. ratio of ).E will be about ,.E percent, reached
when the substrate thic'ness is about D.D,El D. (or a typical
substrate thic'ness of D.D)l D, the bandwidth is about ).E percent.
3any speciali$ed techniques have been developed to increase
the bandwidth of a microstrip antenna. #hese include either using
thic' foam substrates along with aperture&coupled feeds to avoid
the probe reactance limitation, or using capacitive elements to
compensate for the probe inductance. Even further increases may
be achieved by using configurations that e+hibit dual or multiple
resonances, including stac'ed resonators or antennas surrounded
by parasitically coupled elements. Antennas that have special
geometries may also be used to greatly increase the bandwidth. By
using these techniques, band&widths e+ceeding )DD percent have
been achieved.
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C/%2+"r 3
T/" 1%+/"1%+i&% 1"+/o$ .,"$ !7 HFSS
In Bri"-
C(//N uses a numerical technique called the (inite Element 3ethod -(E3..
#his is a procedure
where a structure is subdivided into many smaller subsections called finite
elements.
#he finite elements used by C(// are tetrahedra, and the entire collection of
tetrahedra is
called a mesh. A solution is found for the fields within the finite elements, and these
fields
are interrelated so that 3a+well>s equations are satisfied across inter&element
boundaries.
Hielding a field solution for the entire, original, structure. 7nce the field solution
has been
found, the generali$ed /&matri+ solution is determined.
In 2i&+.r"
28 | P a g e
In D"+%i
3athematically, C(// solves for the electric field E using equation -)., subject to
e+citations
and boundary conditions.
-).
0here
C(// calculates the magnetic field H using equation -,.,


#he remaining electromagnetic quantities are derived using the constitutive
relations.
#he above clearly implies that C(// thin's in terms of electric and magnetic
fields and not
the more common concepts of voltages and currents. As a result, it is very
important that
an C(// simulation encompasses a volume within which electric and magnetic
fields e+ist.
#hese volumes generally include conducting materials as well as the dielectric
materials,
including air, that surround the conductors.
In practice, to calculate the fields and /&matri+ associated with a structure with
ports, C(// derives a finite element matri+ using the above field equations. #he
following shows, in principle, the procedure that C(// follows.
). "ivide the structure into a finite element mesh using tetrahedral elements.
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,. "efine testing functions 0n, for each tetrahedron, resulting in thousands of
basis functions
8. 3ultiply field equation -). by a 0n and integrate over the solution volume
-8.
#his procedure yields thousands of equations for nB),,,O,1
3anipulating the 1 equations, using 5reen>s theorem and the divergence theorem
yieldsA

-8a.
for nB),,,O,1 writing,

-:.rewrites -8a. as
-E.
,
for nB),,,O,1
Equation -E. then has the form

-=.
or
-<.
In the matri+ equation, A is a 'nown 1+1 matri+ that includes any applied
boundary
condition terms, while b contains the port e+citations, voltage and current
sources and incident waves.
7nce you have solved for +, from equation < above, you 'now E.
)D @age Ansoft, **% An Introduction to C(//A (undamental @rinciples, %oncepts,
and 6se the above procedure implies that the solution process used by C(// is
30 | P a g e
straightforward and reasonably simple. Cowever, this is not the case, and it is very
important to note that the field solution process utili$ed by C(// is actually an
iterative process. C(// uses the above process repeatedly, changing the mesh in a
very deliberate manner, until the correct field solution is found. #his repetitive
process is 'nown as the adaptive iterative solution process and is a 'ey to the
highly accurate results that C(// provides. #his process will be described in the
ne+t section.
As an e+ample of this, consider a simple waveguide structure. Initially, C(//
will calculate the modes that can e+ist in the cross&section that serves as the
e+citation port of the waveguide.#hese modes depend on the port cross&section
si$e, and port composition. C(// uses a two dimensional (E3 solver to calculate
these modes. #his initial calculation is referred to as theport solution. 7nce the
port modes are 'nown, they are used to specify the b matri+.
7nce the right hand side of equation <. has been determined, C(// computes
the full threedimensional electromagnetic fields within the solution volume using
the adaptive solution process. 0hen the final fields have been determined, C(//
derives the generali$ed /& matri+for the entire model.
1oteworthy is the fact that the gamma results, and characteristic wave
impedance Po, that C(// produces for a given simulation are actually determined
by the port solution, and apply in a strict sense only to the transmission line that is
the wave port.#he adaptive solution process and its importance to C(//
In Bri"-
#he adaptive solution process is the method by which C(// guarantees that a
final answer to a given E3 problem is the correct answer. It is a necessary part of
the overall solution process and is the 'ey reason why a user can have e+treme
confidence in C(//>s accuracy.
31 | P a g e
In Picture
32 | P a g e
In D"+%i
#he adaptive analysis is a solution process in which the mesh is refined
iteratively.
?efinement of the mesh is locali$ed to regions where the electric field solution
error is high. #his adaptive refinement increases the solution>s accuracy with each
adaptive solution. #he user sets the criteria that control mesh refinement during
an adaptive field solution. 3ost C(// problems can only be accurately solved by
using the adaptive refinement process.
), @age Ansoft, **% An Introduction to C(//A (undamental @rinciples, %oncepts,
and 6se (ollowing is the general process followed during an adaptive analysisA
). C(// generates an initial, geometrically conformal, mesh.
,. 6sing the initial mesh, C(// computes the electromagnetic fields that e+ist
inside the structure when it is e+cited at the solution frequency. -If you are running
a frequency sweep, an adaptive solution is performed only at the specified solution
frequency..
8. Based on the current finite element solution, C(// determines the regions of the
problem domain where the e+act solution has a high degree of error. A pre&defined
percentage of tetrahedra in these regions isare refined. #etrahedra are refined by
creating a number of smaller tetrahedra that replace the original larger element.
:. C(// generates another solution using the refined mesh.
E. C(// recomputes the error, and the iterative process -solve &Q error analysis &Q
refine. repeats until the convergence criteria are satisfied or the requested number
of adaptive passes is completed.
=. If a frequency sweep is being performed, C(// then solves the problem at the
other frequency points without further refining the mesh.
#he above process will create a geometrically conformal, and electromagnetically
appropriate,mesh for any arbitrary C(// simulation. #his ensures that C(// will
provide the correct result to a given simulation.
3athematically, the error is computed along the following lines.
*et Eappro+ be the solution to step ,. above. #his value is inserted bac' into
yielding.
33 | P a g e
-;.
-9.
(or each tetrahedron in the mesh, the residue function is evaluated. A percentage
of the tetrahedra with high residue values are selected and refined.
#he computational volume and its parts
In Bri"-
#he computational volume, or solution space, is the volume within which C(//
e+plicitly calculates all E3 fields. Any field quantities that are outside this volume
can be derived from the fields within it.
In 2i&+.r",

In D"+%i
#he computational volume consists of all the regions and objects within which
a user wants to determine the electromagnetic fields. #he outermost surfaces,
or faces, of the computational volume are generally referred to as outer faces or
outside boundaries. #hese faces are the outermost boundaries of the model, and
34 | P a g e
C(// e+plicitly calculates all fields within the solution space they define. All field
quantities that are calculated by C(// outside this volume are derived from the
fields within the solution space.
): @age Ansoft, **% An Introduction to C(//A (undamental @rinciples, %oncepts,
and 6se @age )E
#he si+ general steps in an C(// simulation
In Bri"-
#here are si+ main steps to creating and solving a proper C(// simulation.
#hey areA
). %reate modelKgeometry
,. Assign boundaries
8. Assign e+citations
:. /et up the solution
E. /olve
=. @ost&process the results
In Pi&+.r",
In D"+%i
35 | P a g e
Every C(// simulation will involve, to some degree, all si+ of the above steps.
0hile it is not necessary to follow these steps in e+act order, it is good modeling
practice to follow them in a consistent model&to&model manner.
S+"2 On"A #he initial tas' in creating an C(// model consists of the creation of the
physical model that a user wishes to analy$e. #his model creation can be done
within C(// using the 8" modeller. #he 8" modeller is fully parametric and will
allow a user to create a structure that is variable with regard to geometric
dimensions and material properties. A parametric structure, therefore, is very
useful when final dimensions are not 'nown or design is to be tuned.
Alternatively, a user can import 8" structures from mechanical drawing pac'ages,
such as /olid0or'sR, @roKER or Auto%A"R. Cowever, imported structures do not
retain any history of how they were created, so they will not be parameteri$able
upon import. If parameteri$ation of the structure is desired, a user will need to
manually modify the imported geometry so that parameteri$ation is possible.
S+"2 T:oA #he assignment of boundaries generally is done ne+t. Boundaries are
applied to specifically created ," -sheet. objects or specific surfaces of 8" objects.
Boundaries have a direct impact on the solutions that C(// providesI therefore,
users are encouraged to closely review the section on Boundaries in this document.
S+"2 T/r""A After the boundaries have been assigned, the e+citations -or ports.
should be applied. As with boundaries, the e+citations have a direct impact on the
quality of the results that C(// will yield for a given model. Because of this, users
are again encouraged to closely review the section on e+citations in this document.
0hile the proper creation and use of e+citations is important to obtaining
the most accurate C(// results, there are several convenient rules of thumb that a
user can follow. #hese rules are described in the e+citations section.
S+"2 Fo.rA 7nce boundaries and e+citations have been created, the ne+t step is to
create a solution setup. "uring this step, a user will select a solution frequency, the
desired convergence criteria, the ma+imum number of adaptive steps to perform,
a frequency band over which solutions are desired, and what particular solution
and frequency sweep methodology to use.
S+"2 Fi8"A 0hen the initial four steps have been completed by an C(// user, the
36 | P a g e
model is now ready to be analy$ed. #he time required for an analysis is highly
dependent upon the model geometry, the solution frequency, and available
computer
resources. A solution can ta'e from a few seconds, to the time needed to get a
coffee, to an overnight run. It is often beneficial to use the remote solve capability
of C(// to send a particular simulation run to another computer that is local to
the
user>s site. #his will free up the user>s @% so it can be used to perform other wor'.
S+"2 Si0A 7nce the solution has finished, a user can post&process the results.
@ostprocessing of results can be as simple as e+amining the /&parameters of the
device modelled or plotting the fields in and around the structure. 6sers can also
e+amine the far fields created by an antenna. In essence, any field quantity or /,H,P
parameter can be plotted in the post&processor. Additionally, if a parameteri$ed
model has been analy$ed, families of curves can be created.
All of the above topics will be discussed in greater detail in the following sections
of this document.)= @age Ansoft, **% An Introduction to C(//A (undamental
@rinciples, %oncepts, and use the three solution types
In Bri"-
0hen using C(//, a user must initially specify what type of solution C(//
needs to calculate.
#here are three types of solutions availableA
). "riven 3odal
,. "riven #erminal
8. Eigenmode
#he solution type can be selected by clic'ing on C(// in the main menu bar,
selecting /olution type, and selecting the desired type from the menu.
In 2i&+.r",
37 | P a g e


%oplanar 3icrostrip structure analy$ed using "riven 3odal /olution #ype
showing
odd mode of propagation E&fieldplot and /&matri+ data. %oupled %avity resonator
analy$ed using Eigenmode solver showing first Eigen frequency field plot and first
four Eigen frequency data.%oplanar 3icrostrip structure analy$ed using "riven
#erminal /olution #ype showing differential mode E&field plot and /&matri+ data.
In D"+%i
C(// has three solution types. #raditionally, the "riven 3odal solution type is
used for most C(// simulations, especially those that include passive, high&
frequency structures such as microstrips, waveguides, and transmission lines.
(or simulations that deal with /ignal Integrity, the newest solution type, "riven
#erminal 3ode, is used. #hese simulations generally include models that have
multi&conductor transmission lines.
#he driven modal and driven terminal solution types are similar and rely on the
same mathematical calculations when solving a given problem. #he difference in
the two solution types is in the types of results that are available to a user.
/imulations that use the driven modal solution type yield /&matri+ solutions that
38 | P a g e
will be e+pressed in terms of the incident and reflected powers of waveguide
modes.
#he /&matri+ that is given by the driven terminal type, however, is e+pressed in
terms of terminal voltages and currents.
As a practical e+ample, if C(// is used to model a pair of coplanar, parallel
microstrip transmission lines, then the driven modal solution will yield results in
terms of the even and odd modes that propagate on the structure. By contrast, the
driven terminal mode solution will give the common and differential mode results.
#he eigenmode solver will provide results in terms of eigenmodes or resonances of
a given structure. #his solver will provide the frequency of the resonances as well
as the fields at a particular resonances.

C/%2+"r<4

DESI5N AND FABRICATION OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA
O!="&+i8"#
#o design and fabricate a linearly polarised rectangular Ksquare microstrip
patch antenna on a given substrate of thic'ness D.<=, mm and dielectric constant
8., at a frequency of ;9D 3C$ and ,.E5C$. And measure the antenna parameters
li'e return loss and radiation pattern.
Bri"- In+ro$.&+ion A
39 | P a g e
3icrostrip antennas find many applications as they are low profile, light weight,
conformable to surface and ine+pensive to manufacture using printed&circuit
technology. (or a rectangular patch, the length * of the element is usually * M SgK,
-where Sg is the guide wavelngth on the substrate.. #hic'er substrates with lower
dielectric constant provide better efficiency and larger bandwidth but at the
e+pense of larger element si$e. #hin substrates with higher dielectric constants
lead to smaller element si$es, minimi$e coupling, but are less efficient and have
relatively smaller bandwidths.
(igure& microstrip antenna
#he field variation across the length of the patch is shown in figure
)-b.. #he normali$ed impedance along the length of the patch is shown in figure ,,
ma+imum resistance at the edges is typically )ED G 8DD ohms and the centre is a
short circuit.
40 | P a g e
(ig., 1ormali$ed Impedance along the length of the patch
D",i9n Pro&"$.r"#
S+"2 1
%alculate the width of the patch as
B89.E,mm
S+"2 2
%alculate the effective dielectric constant
(or -0Kh Q ).
>2.16
S+"2 3
%alculate the length correction due to fringing
41 | P a g e
BD.E)9mm
S+"2 4
#he length of the patch can now be calculated as
B8,.))mm
S+"2 (
#he feed point position for ED 7hms can be calculated using the following
e+pression
0here ?in - yByD. is ED 7hms and ?in - yBD . is roughly given as -1eglecting the
mutual coupling of the slots.
42 | P a g e
Alternatively the patch can also be fed using a quarter wave microstrip line as an impedance
transformer, or using an inset feed, pro+imity fed etc.
Si1.%+ion#
7nce the dimensions are obtained the antenna can be simulated on a commercially
available ,.E" or a 8" E3 simulator. And further optimi$ation and fine tuning of
dimensions can be carried out to bring the resonance bac' at the desired frequency with
acceptable return loss.
M%,' 5"n"r%+ion %n$ An+"nn% F%!ri&%+ion#
*ayout generation can be done in intellicad or autocad software for preparing the mas'.
7nce the mas' is pinted on a transparent sheet, the patch can be fabricated using
conventional photolithography process.
T",+ ? M"%,.r"1"n+#
#he return loss for the patch antenna can be measured on a networ' Analy$er. #he E&
plane and C&plane patterns can be measured in a far&field test set up -preferably in an
anechoic chamber. with a standard gain antenna as a transmitting antenna and the
Antenna under test as a receiving antenna mounted on a pedestal.

DIMENSIONS AND PARAMETERS#<
DIMENSIONS OF PATCH#<

*E15#CB8Emm
B?EA#CB8,mm
CEI5C#BD.DEmm
DIMENSIONS OF FEED LINE#<
?A"I6/BD.,Emm
*E15#CB,.)Emm
DIMENSIONS OF TEFLON COVERIN5#<

?A"I6/BD.;Emm
CEI5C#B,.)mm


RESULTS AFTER SIMULATION#<
RETURN LOSS#<
In telecommunications, return loss is the loss of power in
the signal returned/reflected by a discontinuity in a transmission line or optical fiber.
This discontinuity can be a mismatch with the terminating load or with a device
inserted in the line. It is usually expressed as a ratio in decibels (dB)
where RL(dB) is the return loss in dB, P
i
is the incident power and P
r
is the
reflected power.
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VSWR#<
VSWR tand for Voltage Standing Wave Ratio! and i a"o
referred to a Standing Wa#e Ratio $SWR%. VSWR i a
fun&tion of t'e ref"e&tion &oeffi&ient! ('i&' de&ri)e t'e
po(er ref"e&ted fro* t'e antenna. +f t'e ref"e&tion &oeffi&ient
i gi#en ), ! t'en t'e VSWR i defined ), t'e fo""o(ing
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5AIN PLOT#<
The gain can be defined as a ratio of the signal transmitted in the >maximum>
direction to that of a standard or reference antenna. This may sometimes be called
the >forward gain>. The figure that is obtained is then normally expressed in
decibels (dB). In theory the standard antenna could be almost anything but two
types are generally used. The most common type is a simple dipole as it is easily
available and it is the basis of many other types of antenna. In this case the gain is
often expressed as dBd i.e. gain expressed in decibels over a dipole.
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3D POLAR PLOT#<
The resulting &2 pattern looAs Aind of liAe a donut or a bagel with the antenna
sitting in the hole and radiating energy outward. The strongest energy is radiated
outward, perpendicular to the antenna in the x/y plane.
RADITION PATTERN#<
Bn isotropic radiator is a hypothetical lossless antenna that radiates its energy
e)ually in all directions. This imaginary antenna would have a spherical radiation
pattern and the principal plane cuts would both be circles (indeed, any plane cut
would be a circle).
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REFERENCES
@1A BALONIS
@2A L.V. BLABE
DEFENECE RESEACH AND DEVELEOPMEN OR!ANISAION

!ene"i" and !ro#t$
DRDO (a for*ed in 1958 fro* t'e a*a"ga*ation of t'e t'en a"read, fun&tioning .e&'ni&a"
/e#e"op*ent 0ta)"i'*ent $./0% of t'e +ndian Ar*, and t'e /ire&torate of .e&'ni&a"
/e#e"op*ent 1 Produ&tion $/./P% (it' t'e /efen&e S&ien&e 2rgani3ation $/S2%. /R/2 (a t'en
a *a"" organi3ation (it' 10 eta)"i'*ent or "a)oratorie. .oda,! /R/2 i a net(or4 of 51
"a)oratorie ('i&' are deep", engaged in de#e"oping defene te&'no"ogie &o#ering #ariou
di&ip"ine! "i4e aeronauti&! ar*a*ent! e"e&troni&! &o*)at #e'i&"e! engineering ,te*!
intru*entation! *ii"e! ad#an&ed &o*puting and i*u"ation! pe&ia" *ateria"! na#a" ,te*! "ife
&ien&e! training! infor*ation
,te* and agri&u"ture. Preent",! o#er 5000 &ientit and a)out 25!000 ot'er &ientifi&! te&'ni&a" and
upporting peronne" )a&4 t'e 2rgani3ation.
/efene 0"e&troni& App"i&ation 5a)orator, $/0A5% &a*e into e6iten&e on 23
rd
Fe)ruar, 1965 a t'e
t'en 7i*a"a,an Radio Propagation 8nit $7RP8% at 9uoorie. /uring t'e "at 33 ,ear! /0A5 'a
gro(n into a *a:or ,te* "a)orator, of /R/2. ;eide radio propagation tudie! /0A5 'a entered
into ne( area of &o**uni&ation.