1. What is resolving power and why is it important in biology? a. Resolving power, or resolution, is the measure of clarity of an object. It is important to biology because we would not be able to see the structure of certain objects if it was not at optimal resolving power.
2. How does an electron microscope work and what does is the difference between a scanning and transmission electron microscope? a. An electron microscope focuses a beam of electrons through a specimen. b. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is commonly used to analyze the surface of an object, using an electron beam to scan its surface. A transmission electron microscope (TEM) sends the electron beam through the specimen, allowing it to see the internal structure.
3. Describe the process and purpose of cell fractionation. a. The purpose of cell fractionization is to isolate cell components for better research. b. Cell tissue is placed in a centrifuge where x1000 gravity or more is applied, isolating the cell parts.
4. Label the prokaryotic cell below list structure and function.
5. Why is surface area to volume such an important concept as it applies to the size of a cell?
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6. For each of the structures below note the specific structure and the function of the organelle or part of the organelle.
a. Nucleus contains the majority of the genes; largest and central organelle; i. Nuclear envelope 1. double envelope of membrane enclosing nucleus; 2. perforated by pores; 3. continues with the ER; ii. Nuclear lamina 1. netlike array of protein filaments 2. maintains shape of nucleus 3. supports nucleus iii. Chromosomes 1. structures that carry DNA 2. located inside nucleus 3. coils of chromatin iv. Chromatin 1. complex of proteins & DNA 2. coils up to form chromosomes 3. each cell has specific number of chromosomes v. Nucleolus 1. specialized structure inside nucleus 2. formed from various chromosomes; 3. rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is formed here 4. proteins assembled with rRNA form into small & large ribosomes b. Ribosomes made up of rRNA & proteins; carry out protein synthesis; not enclosed in membrane like the nucleolus; i. Free ribosomes 1. suspended in cytosol 2. synthesize proteins for cytosol ii. Bound ribosomes 1. attached to ER/nuclear envelope 2. synthesis proteins for export c. Endoplasmic reticulum accounts for more than half of all membrane in a eukaryotic cell; runs along nuclear envelope; synthesizes protein for export; i. Smooth ER 1. synthesizes lipids, including oils, phospholipids and steroids 2. enzymes here help detoxify 3 3. stores calcium ions ii. Rough ER 1. ribosomes are attached to its surface 2. rich in glyceroproteins 3. transport vesicles bud off from transitional ER, a portion of the rough ER 4. grows membranes d. Golgi Apparatus i. products of ER are modified, stored, and then shipped to other destinations ii. consists of flattened membranes sacs iii. Golgi apparatus has two poles: cis and trans: cis is for receiving, located near ER, trans is for shipping iv. products of ER are modified from cis to trans; e. Lysosomes i. membrane sac of enzymes that animal cells use to digest macromolecules ii. work best in acidic environments iii. recycles own material; iv. made by rough ER; v. lysosomes fused with food vacuoles and break down polysaccharides into simple sugars; f. Vacuoles - digestive enzymes similar to lysosomes i. Food 1. formed by phagosytosis (consumption of smaller organisms) 2. typically fuse with lysosomes, digesting food ii. Contractile 1. freshwater protosists typically have them 2. pump excess water out of cell iii. Central w/tonoplast 1. found in mature plants 2. enclosed by membrane called tonoplast 3. develops by fusion w/ other smaller vacuoles 4. tonoplast is semi-permeable 5. used for storage of proteins, byproducts, pigments, and even poisons;
g. Endomembrane system flow of membranes & lipids through system; synthesize, transport, then digest
h. Mitochondria organelles that convert energy to usable forms; site of cellular 4 respiration; not part of endomembrane system; not created by ER ribosomes; contain its own ribosomes and small DNA
i. Mitochondrial matrix enclosed by inner membrane; contains many enzymes & DNA;
ii. Cristae infoldings inside the inner membrane; divides mitochondria into two internal parts: narrow region inbetween outer & inner membranes
i. Plastids Closely related collection of plant organelles
i. Amyloplast colorless plastids that store starch
ii. Chromoplast have colored pigments
iii. Chloroplast site of photosynthesis; separated from cytosol by 2 membranes, creating an intermembrane; divided into three spaces: the intermembrane, the stroma, and the thylakoid;
1. thylakoids interconnected membrane system
2. stroma fluid inside the chloroplasts, surrounding the granums; contains DNA & ribosomes
j. peroxisomes specialized metabolic compartment bound by a single membrane; contains enzymes that transfer hydrogen to oxygen, releasing hydrogen peroxide; has many metabolic functions; found in all leaf cells
k. cytoskeleton network of fibers extending through the cytoplasm; gives cell mechanical support; can be quickly dismantled and relocated inside cell; composed of three parts: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
i. microtubules thickest of the three parts of the cytoskeleton; found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells; constructed by globular protein called tubulin; grows by adding tubulin to its ends; serve as support and tracks for organelles w/ motor proteins to move; responsible for separation of chromosomes during cell division; compression resisting;
1. centrosomes and centrioles centrosome is mictrotubule- organizing center found near nucleus that microtubules grow out 5 of; centrioles are found inside centrosome, each composed of nine sets triplet microtubules arranged in a ring; not essential for functions
2. cilia and flagella (include basal body) locomotive parts that protrude from certain cells; can move fluid when cell is attached to membrane; flagella are limited to one or few per cell, where cilia are abundant; both have microtubule cores; microtubule doublets are arranged in a ring with two single microtubules in the center, 9 + 2 arrangement; anchored by basal body, which is structurally identical to a Centriole; attached motor proteins are called dynein;
3. dynein walking responsible for the bending of the of cilia and flagella; dynein grips doublets, releases, the doublets move up then the dyein grips again, repeat; this allows for movement;
ii. microfilaments also called actin filaments; twisted double strain of actin subunits; form structural networks; bears tension of pulling forces; supports cell, giving it a gel like consistency;
1. actin globular protein that forms microfilaments;
2. myosin motor proteins that act as arms that walk along these microfilaments; muscle contractions result from myosin and actin sliding past eachother;
3. pseudopodia cellular extensions that extend and contract;
4. cytoplasmic streaming circular flow of cytoplasm within cells; speeds the distribution of materials within a cell;
iii. intermediate filaments specialized for bearing tension, such as the microfilaments; each is constructed differently and by a keratin subunit; are more permanent than microtubules and microfilaments;
l. Cell walls extracellular structure of plant cells; protects, maintains shapes, and prevents excess water uptake; much thicker than plasma membranes;
i. Primary cell wall thin and flexible; secreted by a young plant cell;
6 ii. Middle lamella thin layer made of sticky polysaccharides called pectins; glues the primary and secondary wall together;
iii. Secondary cell wall strong, durable matrix that offers protection & support;
m. Extracellular matrix found in animals cells; made of glycoproteins (proteins w/ covalently bonded carbohydrates, usually short chains of sugars);
i. Collagen glycoprotein that forms strong fibers outside of cell; half of the protein in human body;
ii. Proteoglycans glycoproteins that are attached to integrins;
iii. Fibronectin another binding glycoprotein;
iv. Integrins membrane proteins that are bound to ECM on one side and to proteins attached to microfilaments on the other;
n. What are intercellular junctions and why are they important? i. Intercellular junctions are important because they provide molecular and chemical communication between cells.
o. Contrast plasmodesmata, tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. i. Plasmodesmata are perforated channels on plant call walls; cystosol passes through these channels and connects the chemical environments; ii. Tight junctions are neighboring cell membranes that are very tight together, bound by specific proteins; prevent leakage of fluids; iii. Desmosomes function as rivets. Fastening cells together; intermediate filaments anchor these to the cytoplasm; iv. Gap junctions provide channels from one cell to another for which small molecules may pass.