Meheret Anulo

Physio 12
Dr. Reyes
12 September 2014
Problem set 1: Answers
1.The information in DNA is transferred to a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule by way of a
process called transcription. During transcription, the DNA of a gene serves as a template
for complementary base-pairing, and an enzyme called RNA polymerase II catalyzes the
formation of a pre-mRNA molecule, which is then processed to form mature mRNA . The
resulting mRNA is a single-stranded copy of the gene, which next must be translated into a
protein molecule. Within all cells, the translation machinery resides within a specialized
organelle called the ribosome. In eukaryotes, mature mRNA molecules must leave
the nucleus and travel to the cytoplasm, where the ribosomes are located. On the other hand, in
prokaryotic organisms, ribosomes can attach to mRNA while it is still being transcribed.
2. Cells regulate enzyme activity through two methods: allosteric inhibition and competitive
inhibition. Allosteric inhibition is when something (an ion, an organic chemical, etc.) bonds to a
site on the enzyme (not on the active site), and changes the shape of the enzyme. An example of
Allosteric inhabitation is: Phosphofructokinase (PFK) catalyzes the rate-limiting step in
glycolysis and is the most important control point. It is also the first irreversible step that is
unique to the glycolytic pathway. PFK is allosterically inhibited by ATP, so glycolysis is slowed
when cellular ATP concentrations are high. ATP binds to a site on PFK distinct from the active
site, causing a conformational change.
Competitive inhibition is when something (an ion, an organic chemical, etc.) enters the active
site so that the true substrate cannot enter into the enzyme to have a reaction. An example would
be: Ethanol is metabolized in the body by oxidation to acetaldehyde, which is in turn further
oxidized to acetic acid by aldehyde oxidase enzymes.
3. 1. Absolute refractory period is the interval during which a second action potential absolutely
cannot be initiated, no matter how large a stimulus is applied or how strong the stimulus may be.
This is caused by the inactivation of Na+ channels, and they remain inactivated until the system
hyperpolarizes.

2. Relative refractory period is the interval immediately following the absolute refractory period,
during which initiation of a second action potential is inhibited but not impossible. K+ ions are
moving out of the cell and this causes a brief period of hyper polarization, so until the K+ returns
to normal levels it will take a greater stimulus to create another AP.
4. The resting membrane potential is not an equilibrium potential as it relies on the constant
expenditure of energy for its maintenance. It is a dynamic diffusion potential that takes this
mechanism into accountwholly unlike the equilibrium potential, which is true no matter the
nature of the system under consideration. The resting membrane potential is dominated by the
ionic species in the system that has the greatest conductance across the membrane. For most cells
this is potassium. As potassium is also the ion with the most negative equilibrium potential,
usually the resting potential can be no more negative than the potassium equilibrium
potential. The Electrically positive side is Chamber A.
5.
6. The ability to sustain an exercise task such as running or cycling requires that the energy
utilization within the active muscle (i.e., the rate of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) breakdown) is
fully matched by energy supply processes (i.e., ATP resynthesis). If the energy demand is not
met, muscle fatigue ensues. During any physical activity that can be sustained for longer than a
few minutes, this energy provision is supplied primarily by aerobic metabolism, i.e., the
consumption of oxygen to drive the oxidation of carbohydrates and fatty acids. The mitochondria
within the muscle fibers respond to chemical signals produced during the contractions by using
the energy derived through oxygen consumption to resynthesize ATP from
adenosinediphosphate (ADP) plus phosphate (the products of ATP breakdown). This process
requires a sufficient delivery of oxygen to the active muscle fibers and an adequate fuel supply
within the cell to support oxygen consumption. These fuels include carbohydrates (glycogen and
glucose) and fatty acids supplied from within the cell or from the circulation. Oxygen must be
derived from an adequate blood flow and must diffuse from the red blood cells in the capillaries
to the mitochondria in the muscle fibers. Thus, disruption in energy provision could occur if fuel
supplies within the muscle fibers are exhausted and/or if the circulation does not provide an
adequate supply of fuels or oxygen. Participation in endurance types of exercise training causes
muscular adaptations that influence these processes controlling energy provision. Such training
adaptations serve to redesign muscle and lead to an improved capacity for oxygen exchange
between capillary and tissue and to an improved control of metabolism within the muscle fibers.