Dbms Lab Manual Regulation 2013

VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur-603 202, Kancheepuram District, Tamilnadu

(!!iliated t" nna #ni$ersit%, &hennai'
Department of
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
DBMS LAB MANUAL
Prepared by
Mr.R.Senthil
() *+,,
Dept "! -T,
./&(
Subject Code & Name: -T6302 D1MS 2a3
Year / Semester : -- 4 ---
Degree & Branch : B.Tech IT
(s )er nna #ni$ersit% S%lla3us #nder 2003 Regulati"ns'
SYLLABUS
(&"mm"n t" -n!"rmati"n Techn"l"g% 5 &"mputer Science /ngineering'
0( &reati"n "! a data3ase and 6riting S72 8ueries t" retrie$e in!"rmati"n !r"m the data3ase(
2( )er!"rming -nserti"n, Deleti"n, M"di!%ing, ltering, #pdating and .ie6ing rec"rds 3ased "n c"nditi"ns(
3( &reati"n "! .ie6s, S%n"n%ms, Se8uence, -nde9es, Sa$e p"int(
:( &reating an /mpl"%ee data3ase t" set $ari"us c"nstraints(
;( &reating relati"nship 3et6een the data3ases(
6( Stud% "! )24S72 3l"ck(
<( =rite a )24S72 3l"ck t" satis!% s"me c"nditi"ns 3% accepting input !r"m the user(
>( =rite a )24S72 3l"ck that handles all t%pes "! e9cepti"ns(
?( &reati"n "! )r"cedures(
00( &reati"n "! data3ase triggers and !uncti"ns
00( Mini pr"@ect (pplicati"n De$el"pment using +racle4 M%s8l '
a' -n$ent"r% &"ntr"l S%stem(
3' Material Re8uirement )r"cessing(
c' A"spital Management S%stem(
d' Rail6a% Reser$ati"n S%stem(
e' )ers"nal -n!"rmati"n S%stem(
!' =e3 1ased #ser -denti!icati"n S%stem(
g' Timeta3le Management S%stem(
h' A"tel Management S%stem
LAB EQUIPMENTS
Aard6are and S"!t6are re8uired !"r a 3atch "! 30 studentsB
Hardware:
30 )ers"nal &"mputers
Software:
Front end B .14.& CC4D. "r /8ui$alent
Back end B +racle 4 S72 4 M%S724 )"st,ress 4 D12 "r /8ui$alent
Platform B =ind"6s 2000 )r"!essi"nal4E)
+racle ser$er c"uld 3e l"aded and can 3e c"nnected !r"m indi$idual )&s(
2
OBJECT!ES:
The "t#dent "ho#ld $e made to:
2earn t" create and use a data3ase
1e !amiliariFed 6ith a 8uer% language
Aa$e hands "n e9perience "n DD2 &"mmands
Aa$e a g""d understanding "! DM2 &"mmands and D&2 c"mmands
GamiliariFe ad$anced S72 8ueries(
1e /9p"sed t" di!!erent applicati"ns
O%TCOMES:
&t the end of the co#r"e' the "t#dent "ho#ld $e a$le to:
Design and implement a data3ase schema !"r a gi$en pr"3lem-d"main
)"pulate and 8uer% a data3ase
&reate and maintain ta3les using )24S72(
)repare rep"rts(
REFERE(CE:
sp"ken-tut"rial("rg
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR LABORATORY CLASSES
)O*S
=ith"ut )ri"r permissi"n d" n"t enter int" the 2a3"rat"r%(
=hile entering int" the 21 students sh"uld 6ear their -D cards(
The Students sh"uld c"me 6ith pr"per dress c"de(
Students sh"uld sign in the 2+,-N R/,-ST/R 3e!"re entering int" the la3"rat"r%(
Students sh"uld c"me 6ith "3ser$ati"n, rec"rd n"te, class n"tes, and la3 rele$ant 3""k t" the la3"rat"r%(
Students sh"uld maintain silence inside the la3"rat"r%(
!ter c"mpleting the la3"rat"r% e9ercise, make sure t" shutd"6n the s%stem pr"perl%(
)O(T*S
Students 3ringing the 3ags inside the la3"rat"r%((
Students 6earing slippers insides the la3"rat"r%(
Students using the c"mputers in an impr"per 6a%(
Students scri33ling "n the desk and mishandling the chairs(
Students using m"3ile ph"nes inside the la3"rat"r%(
Students making n"ise inside the la3"rat"r%(
(TRO)%CTO( TO S+,
S+,B
3
Structured 8uer% language pr"n"unced as (S/7#/2'( This language is used t" c"mmunicate t" "racle
data3ase(
)ata$a"e Mana-ement S."tem /)BMS0B
-t is a s"!t6are it helps t" manage the data3ase management s%stem sh"uld a3le t" per!"rm the
!"ll"6ing acti$ities $er% easil%(
0( -nserting the ne6 data(
2( #pdating the e9iting data(
3( Deleting unnecessar% data(
:( Retrie$ing the re8uire data(
data3ase al"ng 6ith the s"!t6are 6hich helps t" manage( The data3ase is called data3ase
management s%stem (D1MS'(
D1MS 6hich is 3ased "n relati"nal the"r% is called as relati"nal data3ase management s%stem(
E1am2le" of R)BMSB
0( +R&2/
2( S72 S/R./R
3( D12
:( MHS72
;( SH1S/
6( T/R DT
<( MS &&/SS
S+, Command"
The S72 language is su3di$ided acc"rding t" their !uncti"ns as !"ll"6s
)), 3 )ata )efinition ,an-#a-e
)M, 3 )ata Mani2#lation ,an-#a-e
)R,4)+, - )ata Retrie5al ,an-#a-e 4 )ata +#er. ,an-#a-e
)C,0 3 )ata Control ,an-#a-e
TC,0 3 Tran"action Control
)ata )efinition ,an-#a-e /)),0:
4
Data De!initi"n 2anguage (DD2' "r Schema De!initi"n 2anguage, statements are used t" de!ine the data3ase
structure "r schema(
CRE&TE - t" create "3@ects in the data3ase
&,TER - alters the structure "! the data3ase
)ROP - delete "3@ects !r"m the data3ase
TR%(C&TE - rem"$e all rec"rds !r"m a ta3le, including all spaces all"cated !"r the rec"rds are rem"$ed
COMME(T - add c"mments t" the data dicti"nar%
RE(&ME - rename an "3@ect
)ata Mani2#lation ,an-#a-e /)M,0:
Data Manipulati"n 2anguage (DM2' statements are used !"r managing data 6ithin schema "3@ects(
(SERT - insert data int" a ta3le
%P)&TE - updates e9isting data 6ithin a ta3le
)E,ETE - deletes all rec"rds !r"m a ta3le, the space !"r the rec"rds remain
MER6E 3 %PSERT "perati"n (insert "r update'
C&,, - call a )24S72 "r Da$a su3pr"gram
E7P,&( P,&( - e9plain access path t" data
,OC8 T&B,E - c"ntr"l c"ncurrenc%
)ata Retrie5al ,an-#a-e 4 )ata +#er. ,an-#a-e /)R,4)+,0:
SE,ECT - retrie$e data !r"m the a data3ase
)ata Control ,an-#a-e /)C,0:
)ata Control ,an-#a-e (D&2' statements( S"me e9amplesB
6R&(T - gi$es userIs access pri$ileges t" data3ase
RE!O8E - 6ithdra6 access pri$ileges gi$en 6ith the ,RNT c"mmand
Tran"action Control /TC,0:
Transacti"n &"ntr"l (T&2' statements are used t" manage the changes made 3% DM2 statements( -t all"6s
statements t" 3e gr"uped t"gether int" l"gical transacti"ns(
COMMT 3 sa$e 6"rk d"ne
S&!EPO(T - identi!% a p"int in a transacti"n t" 6hich %"u can later r"ll 3ack
RO,,B&C8 - rest"re data3ase t" "riginal since the last &+MM-T
SET TR&(S&CTO( - &hange transacti"n "pti"ns like is"lati"n le$el and 6hat r"ll3ack segment t" use
5

Fiq: SQL Architecture:
R#le":
0( +racle reser$ed 6"rds cann"t 3e used(
2( #ndersc"re, numerals, letters are all"6ed 3ut n"t 3lank space(
3( Ma9imum length !"r the ta3le name is 30 characters(
:( T6" di!!erent ta3les sh"uld n"t ha$e same name(
;( =e sh"uld speci!% a uni8ue c"lumn name(
6( =e sh"uld speci!% pr"per data t%pe al"ng 6ith 6idth(
<( =e can include Jn"t nullK c"nditi"n 6hen needed( 1% de!ault it is LnullM(
>( -t is a c"mmand 3ased language(
?( -t is n"t case sensiti$e(
00( /$er% c"mmand sh"uld end 6ith LNM(
00( /$er% c"mmand starts 6ith J$er3K(
02( -t is similar t" /nglish( This language is de$el"ped in the %ear 0?<2( Mr(&+DD, 3% -1M
de$el"ped 3% J-1MK(
6
WORDS TO REMEMBER
This appendi9 lists 6"rds that ha$e a special meaning t" +racle( /ach 6"rd pla%s a speci!ic r"le in the c"nte9t in 6hich it appears( G"r
e9ample, in an -NS/RT statement, the reser$ed 6"rd -NT+ intr"duces the ta3les t" 6hich r"6s 6ill 3e added( 1ut, in a G/T&A "r S/2/&T
statement, the reser$ed 6"rd -NT+ intr"duces the "utput h"st $aria3les t" 6hich c"lumn $alues 6ill 3e assigned(
Oracle Re"er5ed 9ord"
The !"ll"6ing 6"rds are reser$ed 3% +racle( That is, the% ha$e a special meaning t" +racle and s" cann"t 3e rede!ined( G"r this
reas"n, %"u cann"t use them t" name data3ase "3@ects such as c"lumns, ta3les, "r inde9es(
&&/SS &+MM/NT G2+T -S +)T-+N STRT #N-+N
DD &+M)R/SS G+R 2/./2 +R S/2/&T #N-7#/
22 &+NN/&T GR+M 2-K/ +RD/R S/SS-+N #)DT/
2T/R &R/T/ ,RNT 2+&K )&TGR// S/T #S/R
ND &#RR/NT ,R+#) 2+N, )R-+R SAR/ .2-DT/
NH DT/ A.-N, ME/ET/NTS )R-.-2/,/S S-O/ .2#/S
RRH2/N D/&-M2 -D/NT-G-/D M-N#S )#12-& SM22-NT .R&AR
S D/G#2T -MM/D-T/ M+D/ R= S721#G .R&AR2
S& D/2/T/ -N N+TG+#ND R/NM/ S#&&/SSG#2 .-/=
#D-T D/S& -N&R/M/NT N+=-T R/S+#R&/ SHN+NHM =A/N/./R
1/T=//N D-ST-N&T -ND/E N#22 R/.+K/ SHSDT/ =A/R/
1H DR+) -N-T-2 N#M1/R R+= T12/ =-TA
&AR /2S/ -NS/RT +G R+=-D TA/N
&A/&K /E&2#S-./ -NT/,/R +GG2-N/ R+=21/2 T+
&2#ST/R /E-STS -NT/RS/&T +N R+=N#M TR-,,/R
&+2#MN G-2/ -NT+ +N2-N/ R+=S #-D
Oracle 8e.word"
The !"ll"6ing 6"rds als" ha$e a special meaning t" +racle 3ut are n"t reser$ed 6"rds and s" can 3e rede!ined( A"6e$er, s"me might e$entuall%
3ec"me reser$ed 6"rds(
DM-N &+#NT G+R/-,N M-N/ET/NTS )R/&-S-+N S72/RR+R
GT/R &#RS+R G+RTRN M-N.2#/ )R-MRH S72STT/
22+&T/ &H&2/ G+#ND M+D#2/ )R-.T/ STT/M/NTP-D
N2HO/ DT1S/ G#N&T-+N M+#NT )R+&/D#R/ STT-ST-&S
R&A-./ DTG-2/ ,+ N/ET )R+G-2/ ST+)
R&A-./2+, D1 ,+T+ N/= 7#+T ST+R,/
#TA+R-OT-+N D/& ,R+#)S N+R&A-./2+, R/D S#M
., D/&2R/ -N&2#D-N, N+&&A/ R/2 S=-T&A
1&K#) D-S12/ -ND-&T+R N+&H&2/ R/&+./R SHST/M
1/,-N D-SM+#NT -N-TRNS N+ME.2#/ R/G/R/N&/S T12/S
1/&+M/ D+#12/ -NSTN&/ N+M-N.2#/ R/G/R/N&-N, T12/S)&/
1/G+R/ D#M) -NT N+N/ R/S/T2+,S T/M)+RRH
12+&K /&A K/H N++RD/R R/STR-&T/D TAR/D
1+DH /N12/ 2N,#,/ N+R/S/T2+,S R/#S/ T-M/
&&A/ /ND 2H/R N+RM2 R+2/ TR&-N,
&N&/2 /S&)/ 2-NK N+S+RT R+2/S TRNS&T-+N
&S&D/ /./NTS 2-STS N#M/R-& R+221&K TR-,,/RS
&AN,/ /E&/)T 2+,G-2/ +GG S./)+-NT TR#N&T/
&AR&T/R /E&/)T-+NS MN,/ +2D S&A/M #ND/R
&A/&K)+-NT /E/& MN#2 +N2H S&N #N2-M-T/D
&2+S/ /E)2-N ME +)/N S/&T-+N #NT-2
&+1+2 /E/&#T/ MEDTG-2/S +)T-M2 S/,M/NT #S/
&+MM-T /ET/NT ME-NSTN&/S +=N S/7#/N&/ #S-N,
&+M)-2/ /ET/RN22H ME2+,G-2/S )&K,/ SAR/D =A/N
&+NSTR-NT G/T&A ME2+,A-ST+RH )R22/2 SN)SA+T =R-T/
7
&+NSTR-NTS G2#SA ME2+,M/M1/RS )&T-N&R/S/ S+M/ =+RK
&+NT/NTS GR//2-ST METRNS )&T#S/D S+RT
&+NT-N#/ GR//2-STS ME.2#/ )2N S72
&+NTR+2G-2/ G+R&/ M-N )2- S72&+D/
P,4S+, Re"er5ed 9ord"
The !"ll"6ing )24S72 ke%6"rds ma% re8uire special treatment 6hen used in em3edded S72 statements(
1+RT &2#ST/R D/2/T/ A.-N, N#22 R/S+#R&/ T12/
&&/)T &2#ST/RS D/2T -D/NT-G-/D N#M1/R R/T#RN T12/S
&&/SS &+2#TA D/S& -G N#M1/RP1S/ R/./RS/ TSK
DD &+2#MNS D-,-TS -N +G R/.+K/ T/RM-NT/
22 &+MM-T D-S)+S/ -ND/E +N R+221&K TA/N
2T/R &+M)R/SS D-ST-N&T -ND/E/S +)/N R+=-D T+
ND &+NN/&T D+ -ND-&T+R +)T-+N R+=21/2 TR#/
NH &+NSTNT DR+) -NS/RT +R R+=N#M TH)/
RRH &+#NT /2S/ -NT/,/R +RD/R R+=TH)/ #N-+N
RRH2/N &RSA /2S-G -NT/RS/&T +TA/RS R#N #N-7#/
S &R/T/ /ND -NT+ +#T S./)+-NT #)DT/
S& &#RR/NT /NTRH -S )&K,/ S&A/M #S/
SS/RT &#RR.2 /E&/)T-+N 2/./2 )RT-T-+N S/2/&T .2#/S
SS-,N &#RS+R /E&/)T-+NP-N-T 2-K/ )&TGR// S/)RT/ .R&AR
T DT1S/ /E-STS 2-M-T/D )+S-T-./ S/T .R&AR2
#TA+R-OT-+N DTP1S/ /E-T 2++) )R,M S-O/ .R-N&/
., DT/ G2S/ ME )R-+R SM22-NT .-/=
1S/PT12/ D1 G/T&A M-N )R-.T/ S)&/ .-/=S
1/,-N D/1#,+GG G2+T M-N#S )R+&/D#R/ S72 =A/N
1/T=//N D/1#,+N G+R M2S21/2 )#12-& S72&+D/ =A/R/
1-NRHP-NT/,/R D/&2R/ G+RM M+D R-S/ S72/RRM =A-2/
1+DH D/&-M2 GR+M M+D/ RN,/ STRT =-TA
1++2/N D/G#2T G#N&T-+N NT#R2 R/2 STT/M/NT =+RK
1H &A/&K ,/N/R-& N/= R/&+RD STDD/. E+R
&S/ &2+S/ ,+T+ N/ET.2 R/2/S/ S#1TH)/
&AR D/G-N-T-+N ,RNT N+&+M)R/SS R/MR S#M
&ARP1S/ D/2H ,R+#) N+T R/NM/ T1#TA
Oracle Re"er5ed (ame"2ace"
&"ntains a list "! namespaces that are reser$ed 3% +racle( The initial characters "! !uncti"n names in +racle li3raries are restricted t"
the character strings in this list( 1ecause "! p"tential name c"n!licts, use !uncti"n names that d" n"t 3egin 6ith these characters(
G"r e9ample, the S72QNet Transparent Net6"rk Ser$ice !uncti"ns all 3egin 6ith the characters RNS,R s" %"u need t" a$"id naming !uncti"ns
that 3egin 6ith RNS(R
(ame"2ace ,i$rar.
+ +&- !uncti"ns
S !uncti"n names !r"m S722-1 and s%stem-dependent li3raries
E e9ternal !uncti"ns !"r E applicati"ns "nl%
,/N K) 2 N N& ND N2 NM NR NS NT NO TT& #)- -nternal !uncti"ns
S+, O2erator"
&n "perat"r is a reser$ed 6"rd "r a character used primaril% in an S72 statementIs =A/R/ clause t" per!"rm
"perati"n(s', such as c"mparis"ns and arithmetic "perati"ns( +perat"rs are used t" speci!% c"nditi"ns in an S72
statement and t" ser$e as c"n@uncti"ns !"r multiple c"nditi"ns in a statement(
rithmetic "perat"rs
&"mparis"n "perat"rs
8
2"gical "perat"rs
+perat"rs used t" negate c"nditi"n(
&rithmetic o2erator"
ssume $aria3le a h"lds 00 and $aria3le 3 h"lds 20, thenB
Operator Description Example
+ Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator a + b will give 30
- Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand fro left hand operand a - b will give -!0
" #ultiplication - #ultiplies values on either side of the operator a " b will give $00
% &ivision - &ivides left hand operand b' right hand operand b % a will give $
( #odulus - &ivides left hand operand b' right hand operand and returns reainder b ( a will give 0
Com2ari"on o2erator"
O2erator )e"cri2tion E1am2le
S &hecks i! the $alues "! t6" "perands are e8ual "r n"t, i! %es then c"nditi"n 3ec"mes true( (a S 3' is n"t
true(
TS &hecks i! the $alues "! t6" "perands are e8ual "r n"t, i! $alues are n"t e8ual then c"nditi"n 3ec"mes true( (a TS 3' is true(
UV &hecks i! the $alues "! t6" "perands are e8ual "r n"t, i! $alues are n"t e8ual then c"nditi"n 3ec"mes true( (a UV 3' is true(
V &hecks i! the $alue "! le!t "perand is greater than the $alue "! right "perand, i! %es then c"nditi"n 3ec"mes
true(
(a V 3' is n"t
true(
U &hecks i! the $alue "! le!t "perand is less than the $alue "! right "perand, i! %es then c"nditi"n 3ec"mes true( (a U 3' is true(
VS &hecks i! the $alue "! le!t "perand is greater than "r e8ual t" the $alue "! right "perand, i! %es then c"nditi"n
3ec"mes true(
(a VS 3' is n"t
true(
US &hecks i! the $alue "! le!t "perand is less than "r e8ual t" the $alue "! right "perand, i! %es then c"nditi"n
3ec"mes true(
(a US 3' is true(
TU &hecks i! the $alue "! le!t "perand is n"t less than the $alue "! right "perand, i! %es then c"nditi"n 3ec"mes
true(
(a TU 3' is !alse(
TV &hecks i! the $alue "! le!t "perand is n"t greater than the $alue "! right "perand, i! %es then c"nditi"n
3ec"mes true(
(a TV 3' is true(
,o-ical o2erator"
O2erator )e"cri2tion
22 The 22 "perat"r is used t" c"mpare a $alue t" all $alues in an"ther $alue set(
ND The ND "perat"r all"6s the e9istence "! multiple c"nditi"ns in an S72 statementIs =A/R/ clause(
NH The NH "perat"r is used t" c"mpare a $alue t" an% applica3le $alue in the list acc"rding t" the c"nditi"n(
1/T=//N The 1/T=//N "perat"r is used t" search !"r $alues that are 6ithin a set "! $alues, gi$en the minimum $alue and the ma9imum $alue(
/E-STS The /E-STS "perat"r is used t" search !"r the presence "! a r"6 in a speci!ied ta3le that meets certain criteria(
-N The -N "perat"r is used t" c"mpare a $alue t" a list "! literal $alues that ha$e 3een speci!ied(
2-K/ The 2-K/ "perat"r is used t" c"mpare a $alue t" similar $alues using 6ildcard "perat"rs(
N+T The N+T "perat"r re$erses the meaning "! the l"gical "perat"r 6ith 6hich it is used( /gB N+T /E-STS, N+T 1/T=//N, N+T -N, et
+R The +R "perat"r is used t" c"m3ine multiple c"nditi"ns in an S72 statementIs =A/R/ clause(
-S N#22 The N#22 "perat"r is used t" c"mpare a $alue 6ith a N#22 $alue(
#N-7#/ The #N-7#/ "perat"r searches e$er% r"6 "! a speci!ied ta3le !"r uni8ueness (n" duplicates'(
SQL Functions
SOL has many but-n functons for performng cacuatons on data.
S+, &--re-ate F#nction"
S72 aggregate !uncti"ns return a single $alue, calculated !r"m $alues in a c"lumn(
AVG() - Returns the average vaue
COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
9
FIRST() - Returns the rst vaue
LAST() - Returns the ast vaue
MAX() - Returns the argest vaue
MIN() - Returns the smaest vaue
SUM() - Returns the sum
S+, Scalar f#nction"
S72 scalar !uncti"ns return a single $alue, 3ased "n the input $alue(
UCASE() - Converts a ed to upper case
LCASE() - Converts a ed to ower case
MID() - Extract characters from a text ed
LEN() - Returns the ength of a text ed
ROUND() - Rounds a numerc ed to the number of decmas speced
NOW() - Returns the current system date and tme
FORMAT() - Formats how a ed s to be dspayed
S+, Strin- F#nction"
S72 string !uncti"ns are used primaril% !"r string manipulati"n( The !"ll"6ing ta3le details the imp"rtant string
!uncti"nsB
(ame )e"cri2tion
10
S&--(' Returns numeric $alue "! le!t-m"st character
1-N(' Returns a string representati"n "! the argument
1-TP2/N,TA(' Returns length "! argument in 3its
&ARP2/N,TA(' Returns num3er "! characters in argument
&AR(' Returns the character !"r each integer passed
&AR&T/RP2/N,TA(' s%n"n%m !"r &ARP2/N,TA('
&+N&TP=S(' Returns c"ncatenate 6ith separat"r
&+N&T(' Returns c"ncatenated string
&+N.(' &"n$erts num3ers 3et6een di!!erent num3er 3ases
/2T(' Returns string at inde9 num3er
/E)+RTPS/T(' Returns a string such that !"r e$er% 3it set in the $alue 3its, %"u get an "n string and !"r e$er% unset 3it, %"u get an "!! string
G-/2D(' Returns the inde9 (p"siti"n' "! the !irst argument in the su3se8uent arguments
G-NDP-NPS/T(' Returns the inde9 p"siti"n "! the !irst argument 6ithin the sec"nd argument
G+RMT(' Returns a num3er !"rmatted t" speci!ied num3er "! decimal places
A/E(' Returns a string representati"n "! a he9 $alue
-NS/RT(' -nserts a su3string at the speci!ied p"siti"n up t" the speci!ied num3er "! characters
-NSTR(' Returns the inde9 "! the !irst "ccurrence "! su3string
2&S/(' S%n"n%m !"r 2+=/R('
2/GT(' Returns the le!tm"st num3er "! characters as speci!ied
2/N,TA(' Returns the length "! a string in 3%tes
2+DPG-2/(' 2"ads the named !ile
2+&T/(' Returns the p"siti"n "! the !irst "ccurrence "! su3string
2+=/R(' Returns the argument in l"6ercase
2)D(' Returns the string argument, le!t-padded 6ith the speci!ied string
2TR-M(' Rem"$es leading spaces
MK/PS/T(' Returns a set "! c"mma-separated strings that ha$e the c"rresp"nding 3it in 3its set
M-D(' Returns a su3string starting !r"m the speci!ied p"siti"n
+&T(' Returns a string representati"n "! the "ctal argument
+&T/TP2/N,TA(' s%n"n%m !"r 2/N,TA('
+RD(' -! the le!tm"st character "! the argument is a multi-3%te character, returns the c"de !"r that character
)+S-T-+N(' s%n"n%m !"r 2+&T/('
7#+T/(' /scapes the argument !"r use in an S72 statement
R/,/E) )attern matching using regular e9pressi"ns
R/)/T(' Repeats a string the speci!ied num3er "! times
R/)2&/(' Replaces "ccurrences "! a speci!ied string
R/./RS/(' Re$erses the characters in a string
R-,AT(' Returns the speci!ied rightm"st num3er "! characters
R)D(' ppends string the speci!ied num3er "! times
RTR-M(' Rem"$es trailing spaces
S+#ND/E(' Returns a s"unde9 string
S+#NDS 2-K/ &"mpares s"unds
S)&/(' Returns a string "! the speci!ied num3er "! spaces
STR&M)(' &"mpares t6" strings
S#1STR-N,P-ND/E(' Returns a su3string !r"m a string 3e!"re the speci!ied num3er "! "ccurrences "! the delimiter
S#1STR-N,(', S#1STR(' Returns the su3string as speci!ied
TR-M(' Rem"$es leading and trailing spaces
#&S/(' S%n"n%m !"r #))/R('
#NA/E(' &"n$erts each pair "! he9adecimal digits t" a character
#))/R(' &"n$erts t" uppercase
S+, (#meric F#nction"
S72 numeric !uncti"ns are used primaril% !"r numeric manipulati"n and4"r mathematical calculati"ns( The !"ll"6ing
ta3le details the numeric !uncti"nsB
(ame )e"cri2tion
1S(' Returns the a3s"lute $alue "! numeric e9pressi"n(
&+S(' Returns the arcc"sine "! numeric e9pressi"n( Returns N#22 i! the $alue is n"t in the range -0 t" 0(
S-N(' Returns the arcsine "! numeric e9pressi"n( Returns N#22 i! $alue is n"t in the range -0 t" 0
TN(' Returns the arctangent "! numeric e9pressi"n(
TN2(' Returns the arctangent "! the t6" $aria3les passed t" it(
1-TPND(' Returns the 3it6ise ND all the 3its in e9pressi"n(
11
1-TP&+#NT(' Returns the string representati"n "! the 3inar% $alue passed t" it(
1-TP+R(' Returns the 3it6ise +R "! all the 3its in the passed e9pressi"n(
&/-2(' Returns the smallest integer $alue that is n"t less than passed numeric e9pressi"n
&/-2-N,(' Returns the smallest integer $alue that is n"t less than passed numeric e9pressi"n
&+N.(' &"n$ert numeric e9pressi"n !r"m "ne 3ase t" an"ther(
&+S(' Returns the c"sine "! passed numeric e9pressi"n( The numeric e9pressi"n sh"uld 3e e9pressed in radians(
&+T(' Returns the c"tangent "! passed numeric e9pressi"n(
D/,R//S(' Returns numeric e9pressi"n c"n$erted !r"m radians t" degrees(
/E)(' Returns the 3ase "! the natural l"garithm (e' raised t" the p"6er "! passed numeric e9pressi"n(
G2++R(' Returns the largest integer $alue that is n"t greater than passed numeric e9pressi"n(
G+RMT(' Returns a numeric e9pressi"n r"unded t" a num3er "! decimal places(
,R/T/ST(' Returns the largest $alue "! the input e9pressi"ns(
-NT/R.2('
Takes multiple e9pressi"ns e9p0, e9p2 and e9p3 s" "n(( and returns 0 i! e9p0 is less than e9p2, returns 0 i!
e9p0 is less than e9p3 and s" "n(
2/ST(' Returns the minimum-$alued input 6hen gi$en t6" "r m"re(
2+,(' Returns the natural l"garithm "! the passed numeric e9pressi"n(
2+,00(' Returns the 3ase-00 l"garithm "! the passed numeric e9pressi"n(
M+D(' Returns the remainder "! "ne e9pressi"n 3% di$ing 3% an"ther e9pressi"n(
+&T('
Returns the string representati"n "! the "ctal $alue "! the passed numeric e9pressi"n( Returns N#22 i! passed
$alue is N#22(
)-(' Returns the $alue "! pi
)+=(' Returns the $alue "! "ne e9pressi"n raised t" the p"6er "! an"ther e9pressi"n
)+=/R(' Returns the $alue "! "ne e9pressi"n raised t" the p"6er "! an"ther e9pressi"n
RD-NS(' Returns the $alue "! passed e9pressi"n c"n$erted !r"m degrees t" radians(
R+#ND('
Returns numeric e9pressi"n r"unded t" an integer( &an 3e used t" r"und an e9pressi"n t" a num3er "! decimal
p"ints
S-N(' Returns the sine "! numeric e9pressi"n gi$en in radians(
S7RT(' Returns the n"n-negati$e s8uare r""t "! numeric e9pressi"n(
STD(' Returns the standard de$iati"n "! the numeric e9pressi"n(
STDD/.(' Returns the standard de$iati"n "! the numeric e9pressi"n(
TN(' Returns the tangent "! numeric e9pressi"n e9pressed in radians(
TR#N&T/('
Returns numeric e9p0 truncated t" e9p2 decimal places( -! e9p2 is 0, then the result 6ill ha$e n" decimal
p"int(
LIST OF EPERIMENTS
:. Creation of a data$a"e and writin- S+, ;#erie" to retrie5e information from the data$a"e.
1.1)ata )efinition ,an-#a-e /)),0.
a( &R/T/
3( 2T/R
c( DR+)
d( TR#N&T/
e( R/NM/
!( &+MM/NT
1.2)ata Mani2#lation ,an-#a-e /)M,0
a( -NS/RT
3( #)DT/
c( D/2/T/
12
d( S/2/&T
<. Performin- n"ertion' )eletion' Modif.in-' &lterin-' %2datin- and !iewin- record" $a"ed on
condition".
=. Creation of !iew"' S.non.m"' Se;#ence' nde1e"' Sa5e 2oint.
=.:. m2lementation of !iew".
3(2( m2lementation of S.non.m"
3(3( m2lementation of Se;#ence
3(:( m2lementation of nde1e"
3(;( m2lementation of Sa5e 2oint.
>. Creatin- an Em2lo.ee data$a"e to "et 5ario#" con"traint".
(a'( )rimar% ke%, (e'(Null, (i'( Disa3le &"nstraints
(3'(G"reign Ke%, W (!'( N"t null, (@'( Dr"p &"nstraints
(c'( &heck, (g' ( De!ault,
(d'( #ni8ue, (h'( /na3le &"nstraints,
?. Creatin- relation"hi2 $etween the data$a"e".
?.: m2lementation of "et o2eration"
?.<. m2lementation of (e"ted +#erie" 4 S#$;#erie"
?.<. m2lementation the Join O2eration"
@. St#d. of P,4S+, $lock.
A. 9rite a P,4S+, $lock to "ati"f. "ome condition" $. acce2tin- in2#t from the #"er.
B. 9rite a P,4S+, $lock that handle" all t.2e" of e1ce2tion".
C. Creation of Proced#re".
:D. Creation of data$a"e tri--er" and f#nction"
:D.: m2lementation of Tri--er" and it" a22lication
13
:D.< m2lementation of F#nction".
::. Mini 2roEect /&22lication )e5elo2ment #"in- Oracle4 M.";l 0
a' -n$ent"r% &"ntr"l S%stem(
3' Material Re8uirement )r"cessing(
c' A"spital Management S%stem(
d' Rail6a% Reser$ati"n S%stem(
e' )ers"nal -n!"rmati"n S%stem(
!' =e3 1ased #ser -denti!icati"n S%stem(
g' Timeta3le Management S%stem(
h' A"tel Management S%stem
Creation of a data$a"e and writin- S+, ;#erie" to retrie5e information from the data$a"e.
E1: (o: D:/:.:0 )&T& )EF(TO( ,&(6%&6E/)),0
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" e9ecute the $ari"us Data De!initi"n 2anguage c"mmands in RD1MS(
OBJECT!E:
!ter c"mpleting the e9ercise the students can a3le t" #nderstand h"6 t" create a ta3le 6ith list "!
!ields, M"di!% a r"6 using 6here clause, Dr"p a ta3le, Delete the un6anted r"6s in a ta3le(
)&T& )EF(TO( ,&(6%&6E
-t is used t" c"mmunicate 6ith data3ase( DD2 is used t"B
14
&reate an "3@ect
lter the structure "! an "3@ect
T" dr"p the "3@ect created(
&,6ORTHM:
Step 0B Start the pr"gram
Step 2B ," t" S72(
Step 3B /nter the user name and pass6"rd(
Step :B &"nnect t" the data3ase(
Step ;B T%pe the c"mmands !"r creating ta3les and per!"rm $ari"us "perati"ns "n the ta3les(
Step 6B The "utput is displa%ed(
Step <B St"p the pr"gram
)), COMM&():
&R/T/
2T/R
DR+)
TR#N&T/
&+MM/NT
R/NM/
CRE&TE T&B,E
&"nstraints are c"nditi"n !"r the data item t" 3e st"red int" a data3ase( There are t6" t%pes "!
&"nstraints $iF(, &"lumn &"nstraints and Ta3le &"nstraints(
T!"#$s
-n relati"nal data3ase s%stems (D1S' data are represented using ta3les (relati"ns'( 8uer% issued
against the D1S als" results in a ta3le( ta3le has the !"ll"6ing structureB
Tuple "r rec"rd 0
Tuple "r rec"rd 2
(
(
(
Tuple "r rec"rd n
ta3le is uni8uel% identi!ied 3% its name and c"nsists "! r"6s that c"ntain the st"red
in!"rmati"n, each r"6 c"ntaining e9actl% "ne tuple ("r rec"rd'( ta3le can ha$e "ne "r m"re c"lumns(
c"lumn is made up "! a c"lumn name and a data t%pe, and it descri3es an attri3ute "! the tuples( The
structure "! a ta3le, als" called relati"n schema, thus is de!ined 3% its attri3utes( The t%pe "!
15
Col#mn : Col#mn < Col#mn n
in!"rmati"n t" 3e st"red in a ta3le is de!ined 3% the data t%pes "! the attri3utes at ta3le creati"n time(
+racle "!!ers the !"ll"6ing 3asic data t%pes:
Sl.(o )ata T.2e )e"cri2tion
: Char/n0 &haracter String ( n is the siFe "! $aria3le( Ma9imum siFe is 2;; characters( The de!ault siFe is 0
< V!%c&!%'(
n)
Character strng . n s the sze of the varabe
= (#m$er Denes Numerc data type wth space for 40 dgt and space for sgn and decma pont
> (#m$er /n0 Numerc varabe.n s the sze of the varabe
? (#m$er/n'd0 Numeric $aria3le(n is the siFe "! $aria3le and d is the siFe i! the decimal p"int
@ Raw/"iGe0 Raw Bnary data of ength sze bytes .Maxmum sze s 32767 bytes.
A nte-er It s same as number data type but vaues w be whoe numbers. Coumns dened wth ths
format not accept decma vaues.
B nte-er/n0 Speces an nteger data type of ength n.
C ,on-
De!ines a character data t%pe upt" 32<603%tes( +ne "ne l"ng c"lumn ma% 3e e!ined !"r ta3le( This t%pe "! c"lumn
ma% n"t 3e used in su3 8ueries, =here clauses "r inde9es(
:D ,on- Raw Same as 2+N, e9cept it c"ntains 3inar% data "r 3%te strings and n"t interpreted 3% )24S72
:: ,OB T.2e LOB varabes can used nterchangeaby wth LONG and LONG RAW varabes. It conssts of
BFILE,BLOB,CLOB and NLOB
:< BF,E It s used to store arge bnary ob|ects n operatng system es outsde the database
:= B,OB The 12+1 datat %pe t" st"re large 3inar% "3@ects in the data3ase, in-line "r "ut-"!-line( /$er% 12+1 $aria3le st"res
a l"cat"r, 6hich p"ints t" a large 3inar% "3@ect( The siFe "! a 12+1 cann"t e9ceed !"ur giga3%tes
:> C,OB
The &2+1 datat%pe t" st"re large 3l"cks "! character data in the data3ase, in-line "r "ut-"!-line( 1"th !i9ed-6idth
and $aria3le-6idth character sets are supp"rted( /$er% &2+1 $aria3le st"res a l"cat"r, 6hich p"ints t" a large 3l"ck
"! character data( The siFe "! a &2+1 cann"t e9ceed !"ur giga3%tes
:? (C,OB
The N&2+1 datat%pe t" st"re large 3l"cks "! N&AR data in the data3ase, in-line "r "ut-"!-line( 1"th !i9ed-6idth
and $aria3le-6idth character sets are supp"rted( /$er% N&2+1 $aria3le st"res a l"cat"r, 6hich p"ints t" a large
3l"ck "! N&AR data( The siFe "! an N&2+1 cann"t e9ceed !"ur giga3%tes(
:@
)&TE
The DT/ datat%pe t" st"re !i9ed-length datetimes, 6hich include the time "! da% in sec"nds since midnight( The
date p"rti"n de!aults t" the !irst da% "! the current m"nthN the time p"rti"n de!aults t" midnight( The date !uncti"n
SHSDT/ returns the current date and time
S72 uses the terms ta3le, r"6, and c"lumn !"r relati"n, tuple, and attri3ute, respecti$el%( ta3le can ha$e
up t" 2;: c"lumns 6hich ma% ha$e di!!erent "r same data t%pes and sets "! $alues (d"mains', respecti$el%(
)"ssi3le d"mains are alphanumeric data (strings', num3ers and date !"rmats(
Sample Data3ases used !"r illustrati"n "! S72 &"mmands is gi$en 3el"6 6ith /R Diagram and c"rresp"nding Relati"nal
M"del 6ith suita3le data entered in the ta3les(
Relati"n 3et6een /mpl"%ee and Department is ="rks is man% *t"-"ne (
DT1S/ !"r /M)2+H// and D/)RTM/NT /ntities
EMP Ta3le gi$en 6ith sample Data
EMP(O E(&ME JOB M6R HRE)&TE S&, COMM )EPT(O
16
<36? SM-TA &2/RK <?02 0<-D/&->0 >00 20
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN <6?> 20-G/1->0 0600 300 30
<;20 =RD S2/SMN <6?> 22-G/1->0 02;0 ;00 30
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <>3? 02-)R->0 2?<; 20
<6;: MRT-N S2/SMN <6?> 2>-S/)->0 02;0 0:00 30
)EPT Ta3le gi$en 6ith Sample Data
)EPT(O )(&ME ,OC
00 &&+#NT-N, N/= H+RK
20 R/S/R&A D22S
30 S2/S &A-&,+
:0 +)/RT-+NS 1+ST+N
+%ERH: D:
+:: =rite a 8uer% t" create a ta3le empl"%ee 6ith empn", ename, designati"n, and salar%(
S.nta1: -t is used t" create a ta3le
S72B &R/T/ U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/',
&+2#MN NM/(2 UDTTH)/V (S-O/' XXX'N
Command:
S72VCRE&TE T&B,E /M) (/M)N+ (%MBER />0'/NM/ !&RCH&R< /:D0' D/S-,NT-N !&RCH&R<
/:D0'S2RH (%MBER /B' <00I
Ta3le created(
Con"traint" with Ta$le Creation:
&"nstraints are c"nditi"n !"r the data item t" 3e st"red int" a data3ase( There are t6" t%pes "!
&"nstraints $iF(, &"lumn &"nstraints and Ta3le &"nstraints(
S.nta1:
Y&+NSTR-NT c"nstraint nameZ
[YN+TZ N#22 4 #N-7#/ 4 )R-MRH K/H\(&"lumnY,c"lumnZ(('
G+R/-,N K/H (c"lumn Y, c"lumZX'
17
R/G/R/N&/S ta3le
Y+N D/2/T/ &S&D/Z
Y&A/&K (c"nditi"n'Z
T&B,E )ESCRPTO(
-t is used t" $ie6 the ta3le structure t" c"n!irm 6hether the ta3le 6as created c"rrectl%(
+%ERH: D<
+<: =rite a 8uer% t" displa% the c"lumn name and data t%pe "! the ta3le empl"%ee(
S.nta1: This is used t" $ie6 the structure "! the ta3le(
S72B D/S& UT12/ NM/VN
Command:
S72V D/S& /M)N
(ame (#llJ T.2e
333333333333333 3333333333333333
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(00'
D/S-,NT-N .R&AR2(00'
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'
+%ERH: D=
+=: =rite a 8uer% !"r create a !r"m an e9isting ta3le 6ith all the !ields
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r create a ta3le !r"m an e9isting ta3le 6ith all !ields(
S72V &R/T/ T12/ UTR,/T T12/ NM/V S/2/&T Q GR+MUS+#R&/ T12/ NM/VN
Command:
S72V &R/T/ T12/ EMP: S S/2/&T Q GR+M EMPN
Ta3le created(
Command:
S72V D/S& /M)0
Name Null] T%pe
---------------- --------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(00'
D/S-,NT-N.R&AR2(00'
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'
18
+%ERH: D>
+>: =rite a 8uer% !"r create a !r"m an e9isting ta3le 6ith selected !ields
S.nta1: S%nta9 !"r create a !r"m an e9isting ta3le 6ith selected !ields(
S72V &R/T/ T12/ UTR,/T T12/ NM/V S S/2/&T /M)N+, /NM/GR+M US+#R&/
T12/ NM/VN
Command:
S72V &R/T/ T12/ EMP< S S/2/&T EMP(O, E(&ME GR+M EMPN
Ta3le created(
Command:
S72V D/S& /M)2
Name Null] T%pe
----------------- --------------------- ----
/M)N+ N#M1/R (:'
/NM/ .R&AR2 (00'
+%ERH: D?
+?: =rite a 8uer% !"r create a ne6 ta3le !r"m an e9isting ta3le 6ith"ut an% rec"rdB
S.nta1: The s%nta9 !"r create a ne6 ta3le !r"m an e9isting ta3le 6ith"ut an% rec"rd(
S72V &R/T/ T12/ UTR,/T T12/ NM/V S S/2/&T Q GR+MUS+#R&/ T12/ NM/V
=A/R/ UG2S/ &+ND-T-+NVN
Command:
S72V &R/T/ T12/ /M)3 S S/2/&T Q GR+M /M) =A/R/0V2N
Ta3le created(
Command:
S72V D/S& /M)3N
Name Null] T%pe
------------------ -----------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(00'
D/S-,NT-N.R&AR2(00'
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'N
19
&,TER K MO)FC&TO( O( T&B,E
T" m"di!% structure "! an alread% e9isting ta3le t" add "ne m"re c"lumns and als" m"di!% the
e9isting c"lumns(
lter c"mmand is used t"B
0( dd a ne6 c"lumn(
2( M"di!% the e9isting c"lumn de!initi"n(
3( T" include "r dr"p integrit% c"nstraint(
+%ERH: D@
+@: =rite a 7uer% t" lter the c"lumn /M)N+ N#M1/R (:' T+ /M)N+ N#M1/R (6'(
S.nta1: The s%nta9 !"r alter 5 m"di!% "n a single c"lumn(
S72 V 2T/R UT12/ NM/V M+D-GH U&+2#MN NM/VUDTTH)/V(S-O/'N
Command:
S72V2T/R T12/ EMP M+D-GH EMP(O N#M1/R (6'N
Ta3le altered(
20
Command:
S72V D/S& /M)N
Name Null] T%pe
----------------- ----------------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(6'
/NM/ .R&AR2(00'
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'
+%ERH: DA
7<( =rite a 7uer% t" lter the ta3le empl"%ee 6ith multiple c"lumns (/M)N+,/NM/('
S.nta1: T" alter ta3le 6ith multiple c"lumn(
S72 V 2T/R UT12/ NM/V M+D-GH U&+2#MN NM/0VUDTTH)/V(S-O/',
M+D-GH U&+2#MN NM/2VUDTTH)/V(S-O/'XXXX(N
Command:
S72V2T/R T12/ /M) M+D-GH (/M)N+ N#M1/R (<', /NM/.R&AR2(02''N
Ta3le altered(
Command:
S72V D/S& /M)N
Name Null] T%pe
----------------- -------------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(<'
/NM/ .R&AR2(02'
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'N
+%ERH: DB
7>( =rite a 8uer% t" add a ne6 c"lumn in t" empl"%ee
S.nta1: T" add a ne6 c"lumn(
S72V 2T/R T12/ UT12/ NM/V DD (U&+2#MN NM/VUDTTH)/VUS-O/V'N
Command:
S72V 2T/R T12/ /M) DD 7#2-G-&T-+N .R&AR2(6'N
Ta3le altered(
S72V D/S& /M)N
Name Null] T%pe
---------------- ------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(<'
/NM/ .R&AR2(02'
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'
7#2-G-&T-+N .R&AR2(6'
21
+%ERH: DC
+C: =rite a 8uer% t" add multiple c"lumns in t" empl"%ee
S.nta1: S%nta9 !"r add a ne6 c"lumn(
S72V 2T/R T12/ UT12/ NM/V DD (U&+2#MN NM/0VUDTTH)/VUS-O/V,
(U&+2#MN NM/2VUDT TH)/VUS-O/VX'N
Command:
S72V2T/R T12/ /M) DD (D+1 DT/, D+D DT/'N
Ta3le altered(
S72V D/S& /M)N
Name Null] T%pe
----------------- --------------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(<'
/NM/ .R&AR2(02'
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'
7#2-G-&T-+N .R&AR2(6'
D+1 DT/
D+D DT/
REMO!E 4 )ROP
-t 6ill delete the ta3le structure pr"$ided the ta3le sh"uld 3e empt%(
+%ERH: :D
700( =rite a 8uer% t" dr"p a c"lumn !r"m an e9isting ta3le empl"%ee
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r add a ne6 c"lumn(
S72V 2T/R T12/ UT12/ NM/V DR+) &+2#MN U&+2#MN NM/VN
Command:
S72V 2T/R T12/ /M) DR+) &+2#MN D+DN
Ta3le altered(
S72V D/S& /M)N
Name Null] T%pe
----------------- ------------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(<'
/NM/ .R&AR2(02'
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'
7#2-G-&T-+N .R&AR2(6'
D+1 DT/
+%ERH: ::
700( =rite a 8uer% t" dr"p multiple c"lumns !r"m empl"%ee
S.nta1:The S%nta9 !"r add a ne6 c"lumn(
S72V 2T/R T12/ UT12/ NM/V DR+) U&+2#MNNM/0V,U&+2#MN NM/2V,XXX(( N
22
Command:
S72V 2T/R T12/ /M) DR+) (D+1, 7#2-G-&T-+N'N
Ta3le altered(
S72V D/S& /M)N
Name Null] T%pe
------------------ ---------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(<'
/NM/ .R&AR2(02'
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'
RE(&ME
+%ERH: :<
700( =rite a 8uer% t" rename ta3le emp t" empl"%ee
S72V 2T/R T12/ R/NM/ U+2D NM/V T+ UN/= NM/V
Command:
S72V 2T/R T12/ R/NM/ /M) T+ /M)2+H//N
S72V D/S& /M)2+H//N
Name Null] T%pe
------------------- --------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(<'
/NM/ .R&AR2(02'
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'
TR%(C&TE T&B,E
-! there is n" !urther use "! rec"rds st"red in a ta3le and the structure has t" 3e retained then the rec"rds al"ne
can 3e deleted(
S.nta1:
TR#N&T/ T12/ UT12/ NM/VN
E1am2le:
Truncate ta3le /M)N
23
)ROP:
T" rem"$e a ta3le al"ng 6ith its structure and data(
S72V Dr"p ta3leUta3le nameVN
Command:
S72V dr"p ta3le empl"%eeN
RES%,T:
Thus the S72 c"mmands !"r DD2 c"mmands in RD1MS has 3een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%(
)&T& M&(P%,&TO( ,&(6%&6E /)M,0 COMM&()S ( R)BMS
E1: (o: :.<
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" e9ecute and $eri!% the DM2 c"mmands are the m"st !re8uentl% used S72 c"mmands and is used
t" 8uer% and manipulate the e9isting data3ase "3@ects(
)M, /)&T& M&(P%,&TO( ,&(6%&6E0
S/2/&T
-NS/RT
D/2/T/
#)DT/
&,6ORTHM:
STEP :: Start the D1MS(
STEP <: &reate the ta3le 6ith its essential attri3utes(
STEP =: -nsert the rec"rd int" ta3le
STEP >: #pdate the e9isting rec"rds int" the ta3le
STEP ?: Delete the rec"rds in t" the ta3le
STEP @: use sa$e p"int i! an% changes "ccur in an% p"rti"n "! the rec"rd t" und" its "riginal
state(
24
STEP A: use r"ll3ack !"r c"mpletel% und" the rec"rds
STEP B: use c"mmit !"r permanentl% sa$e the rec"rds
(SERT
The S72 -NS/RT -NT+ Statement is used t" add ne6 r"6s "! data t" a ta3le in the data3ase(
n"ert a record from an e1i"tin- ta$le:
+%ERH: D:
70( =rite a 8uer% t" insert the rec"rds in t" empl"%ee(
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r insert rec"rds in t" a ta3le
S+, :L (SERT (TO MT&B,E (&MEL !&,%ESM !&,:' N!&,<*'O..0I
Command:
S72V-NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S (000,IN,RDNI,I2/&T#R/RI,0;000'N
0 r"6 created(
n"ert & Record %"in- S#$"tit#tion Method:
+%ERH: D=
73( =rite a 8uer% t" insert the rec"rds in t" empl"%ee using su3stituti"n meth"d(
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r insert rec"rds int" the ta3le(
S72 BV -NS/RT -NT+ UT12/ NM/V .2#/SU L5c"lumn nameM, L5c"lumn name 2M, X(('N
Command:
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(5/M)N+,I5/NM/I,I5D/S-,NT-NI,I5S2RHI'N
/nter $alue !"r empn"B 002
/nter $alue !"r enameB SR.NN
/nter $alue !"r designatinB 2/&T#R/R
25
/nter $alue !"r salar%B 0;000
0 r"6 created(
old :: -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(5/M)N+,I5/NM/I,I5D/S-,NT-NI,I5S2RHI'
new :: -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(002,ISR.NNI,I2/&T#R/RI,I0;000I'
S72V 4
/nter $alue !"r empn"B 003
/nter $alue !"r enameB )NN/RS/2.M
/nter $alue !"r designatinB SST( )R+G
/nter $alue !"r salar%B 20000
0 r"6 created(
new :: -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(003,I)NN/RS/2.MI,ISST()R+GI,I20000I'
S72V 4
/nter $alue !"r empn"B 00:
/nter $alue !"r enameB &A-NN-
/nter $alue !"r designatinB A+D, )R+G
/nter $alue !"r salar%B :;000
0 r"6 created(
new :: -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(00:,I&A-NN-I,IA+D, )R+GI,I:;000I'
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)N
/M)N+ /NM/ D/S-,NT-N S2RH
----------- ------------ ------------------- --------------
000 N,RDN 2/&T#R/R 0;000
002 SR.NN 2/&T#R/R 0;000
003 )NN/RS/2.M SST( )R+G 20000
00: &A-NN- A+D, )R+G :;000
SE,ECT
SE,ECT Statement is used t" !etch the data !r"m a data3ase ta3le 6hich returns data in the !"rm "!
result ta3le( These result ta3les are called result-sets(
)i"2la. the EMP ta$le:
+%ERH: D<
26
73( =rite a 8uer% t" displa% the rec"rds !r"m empl"%ee(
S.nta1: S%nta9 !"r select Rec"rds !r"m the ta3le(
S+,L SE,ECT P FROM MT&B,E (&MELN
Command:
---------- ------------ ---------- ----------
000 N,RDN 2/&T#R/R 0;000
%P)&TE
The S72 %P)&TE 7uer% is used t" m"di!% the e9isting rec"rds in a ta3le( H"u can use 9HERE
clause 6ith %P)&TE 8uer% t" update selected r"6s, "ther6ise all the r"6s 6"uld 3e a!!ected(
+%ERH: D>
70( =rite a 8uer% t" update the rec"rds !r"m empl"%ee(
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r update rec"rds !r"m the ta3le(
S72V #)DT/ UUT12/ NM/V S/T U&+2#MNN/VSU.2#/V =A/R/ U&+2#MN NM/SU.2#/VN
Command:
S72V #)DT/ /M) S/T S2RHS06000 =A/R/ /M)N+S000N
0 r"6 updated(
---------- ------------ ------------------- ---------------
000 N,RDN 2/&T#R/R 06000
002 SR.NN 2/&T#R/R 0;000
003 )NN/RS/2.M SST( )R+G 20000
00: &A-NN- A+D,)R+G :;000
%2date M#lti2le Col#mn":
+%ERH: D?
7;( =rite a 8uer% t" update multiple rec"rds !r"m empl"%ee(
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r update multiple rec"rds !r"m the ta3le(
S72V #)DT/ UUT12/ NM/V S/T U&+2#MNN/VSU.2#/V =A/R/ U&+2#MN NM/SU.2#/VN
27
Command:
S72V#)DT/ /M) S/T S2RH S 06000, D/S-,NT-NSISST( )R+GI =A/R/ /M)N+S002N
0 r"6 updated(
---------- ------------ -------------------- --------------
000 N,RDN 2/&T#R/R 06000
002 SR.NN SST( )R+G 06000
003 )NN/RS/2.M SST( )R+G 20000
00: &A-NN- A+D, )R+G :;000
)E,ETE
The S+, )E,ETE 7uer% is used t" delete the e9isting rec"rds !r"m a ta3le( H"u can use 9HERE
clause 6ith )E,ETE 8uer% t" delete selected r"6s, "ther6ise all the rec"rds 6"uld 3e deleted(
+%ERH: D@
7;( =rite a 8uer% t" delete rec"rds !r"m empl"%ee(
S.nta1: S.nta1 for delete Record" from the ta$le:
S72V D/2/T/ UT12/ NM/V =A/R/ U&+2#MN NM/VSU.2#/VN
Command:
S72V D/2/T/ /M) =A/R/ /M)N+S003N
0 r"6 deleted(
---------- ------------ --------------------- --------------
000 N,RDN 2/&T#R/R 06000
002 SR.NN SST( )R+G 06000
00: &A-NN- A+D, )R+G :;000
28
RES%,T:
Thus the S72 c"mmands !"r DM2 has 3een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%(
Performin- n"ertion' )eletion' Modif.in-' &lterin-' %2datin- and !iewin- record" $a"ed on
condition".
E1: (o: D<
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" per!"rming inserti"n, deleti"n, m"di!%ing, altering, updating and $ie6ing rec"rds 3ased "n
c"nditi"ns(
&,6ORTHM:
STEP :: Start the D1MS
STEP <: &"nnect t" the data3ase (D1'
STEP =: &reate the ta3le 6ith its essential attri3utes(
STEP >: -nsert the rec"rd int" ta3le 3ased "n s"me c"nditi"n using =A/R/ &2#S/
STEP ?: #pdate the e9isting rec"rds int" the ta3le 3ased "n s"me c"nditi"n
STEP @: Delete the rec"rds in t" the ta3le 3ased "n s"me c"nditi"n
STEP A: #se c"mmit !"r permanentl% sa$e the rec"rds
STEP B: St"p the pr"gram
29
)R,3)&T& RETRE!&, MP,EME(T(6 O( SE,ECT COMM&()S
Command:
S72V &R/T/ T12/ /M)(
/M)N+ N#M1/R (:',
/NM/ .R&AR2 (00',
D+1 .R&AR2(20',
M,R N#M1/R(:',
A-R/DT/ DT/,
S2 N#M1/R(>,2',
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3'
'N
Ta3le created(
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(<36?,ISM-TAI,I&2/RKI,;000,I0<-D/&->0I,I>000I,200'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(<:??,I22/NI,IS2/SMNI,;002,I20-G/1->0I,I3000I,300'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(<;20,I=RDI,IS2/SMNI,;003,I22-G/1->0I,I;000I,;00'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(<;66,ID+N/SI,IMN,/RI,;002,I02-)R->;I,I<;000I,200'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(<;66,IRDI,I+=N/RI,;000,I30-)R-<;I,N#22,000'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(<;66,IK#MRI,I&+/I,;002,I02-DN-><I,I;;000I,300'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(<:??,IRM K#MRI,ISR(S2/SMNI,;003,I22-DN-><I,I02000(;;I,200'N
0 r"6 created(
30
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M) .2#/S(<;20,ISM K#MRI,ISR(S2/SMNI,;003,I22-DN-<;I,I22000I,300'N
0 r"6 created(
THE SE,ECT ST&TEME(T SH(T&7 9TH &))TO(&, C,&%SES:
Select Y Distinct 4 #ni8ue Z ( Qc"lumnname Y s alias\, X(Z
Gr"m ta3lename
Y 6here c"nditi"n Z
Y ,r"up 1H gr"up P3%Pe9pressi"n Z
YAa$ing gr"upPc"nditi"n Z
Y+RD/R 1H [col(s)|expr|numeric_pos\ YS&^D/S&Z YN#22S G-RST^2STZZN
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 M,R A-R/DT/ S2 D/)TN+
------------ ---------------- --------------- ----------- ----------------- -------------- --------------------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK ;000 0<-D/&->0 >000 200
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN ;002 20-G/1->0 3000 300
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;003 22-G/1->0 ;000 ;00
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R ;002 02-)R->; <;000 200
<;66 RD +=N/R ;000 30-)R-<; 000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;002 02-DN->< ;;000 300
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN ;003 22-DN->< 02000(;; 200
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN ;003 22-DN-<; 22000 300
> r"6s selected(
BH %S(6 SE,ECTE) CO,%(MS
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M)N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
----------- ----------- ----------- --------------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
<;66 RD +=N/R
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
> r"6s selected(
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2S;000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
--------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
31
BH %S(6 BET9EE( 4 (OT 4 ( 4 (%,, 4 ,8E
BETWEEN S*nt!+:
S/2/&T column_name(s)
GR+M table_name
=A/R/ column_name 1/T=//N value1 ND value2;
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2 BET9EE( 00000 ND 30000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ------------------- ------------- -------------
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2 (OT BET9EE( 00000 &() 30000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
----------- ---------------- ------------ ------------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
IN S*nt!+
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...);
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2 ( (0000(;,<;000'N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- ----------- -------
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2 (OT ( (0000(;,<;000'N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
6 r"6s selected(
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2 S (%,,N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
----------- ---------- ------------- ---------
<;66 RD +=N/R
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2 S (OT (%,,N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
32
---------- ---------- ------------ ---------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
< r"6s selected(
,8E S.nta1:
GR+M table_name
=A/R/ column_name 2-K/ patternN
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2 ,8E ;;000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- ---------------- ----------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QSRQI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QRRQI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
--------- ----------- ---------- --------------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QR%RQI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- --------- - ---------------- ----------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QR&RQI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
----------- ----------- ------------- ----------
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
<;66 RD +=N/R
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
6 r"6s selected(
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QR,,RQI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ------------ --------------- ------------
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
33
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QRERQI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- -- -------- ---- ------------- ----------
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QR%R&RQI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- - ------------------- ----------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QRFFFQI 44=F
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- ----------- ----------
<;66 RD +=N/R
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QRFJFQI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- ----------- --------
<;66 RD +=N/R
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QFMRQI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
------------ ------------ --------------- --------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QFMQI
n" r"6s selected
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QFFFFRQI 44 >F
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- -------------- ----------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E Q8FFFRQI 44 =F
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- ----------- --------- ----------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ N+T ,8E QRFJFQI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
----------- ----------- --------------- ----------
34
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
< r"6s selected(
RE,&TO(&, OPER&TOR
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2S;;000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2TS;;000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
6 r"6s selected(
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2UV;;000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
6 r"6s selected(
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2V;;000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- ------------------- ----------
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2U;;000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
----------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2US;;000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ------------ -------------------- ----------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
35
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
6 r"6s selected(
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ S2VS;;000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
------------ ---------- ----------------- ---------
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
&() 4 OR
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ D+1SISR(S2/SMNI &() S2S22000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
----------- ------------ ------------------ ----------
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ D+1SISR(S2/SMNI OR S2S22000N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M)
=A/R/ S2S;000 &() (D+1SISR(S2/SMNI OR D+1SIS2/SMNI'N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
OR)ER BH
S.nta1:
S/2/&T column_name,column_name
GR+M table_name
+RD/R 1H column_name,column_name S&^D/S&N
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) OR)ER BH E(&MEN
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
------------ ------------ -------------------- ----------
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<;66 RD +=N/R
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
> r"6s selected(
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) +RD/R 1H /NM/ )ESCI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
----------- ------------ -------------------- ----------
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
36
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;66 RD +=N/R
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
> r"6s selected(
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) +RD/R 1H /NM/ &SCI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
----------- ------------ -------------------- ----------
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R <;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<;66 RD +=N/R
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN 22000
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
> r"6s selected(
TOP
44 TOP clause is n"t in "racle instead "! that RO9(%M
S.nta1
GR+M table_name
=A/R/ R+=N#M US numberN
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ RO9(%M M>I
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
------------ ---------- -------------------- ----------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
S72V S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,D+1,S2 GR+M /M) =A/R/ RO9(%M M> OR)ER BH E(&MEI
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2
----------- ---------- ------------------ ----------
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN 3000
<36? SM-TA &2/RK >000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;000
DISTINCT
S*nt!+:
SELECT DISTINCT coumn_name,coumn_name
FROM table_name;
E1:
S72V S/2/&T )ST(CT D+1 GR+M /M)N
D+1
37
--------------------
&2/RK
S2/SMN
SR(S2/SMN
MN,/R
&+/
+=N/R
6 r"6s selected(
%S(6 &,TER
This can 3e used t" add "r rem"$e c"lumns and t" m"di!% the precisi"n "! the datat%pe(
a0 &))(6 CO,%M(
S.nta1:
alter ta3le Utable_nameV add Ucol datatypeVN
E1:
S72V D/S& /M)N
Name Null] T%pe
------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(00'
D+1 .R&AR2(20'
M,R N#M1/R(:'
A-R/DT/ DT/
S2 N#M1/R(>,2'
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3'
S72V alter ta3le /M) add TE num3erN
Ta3le altered(
S72V D/S& /M)N
Name Null] T%pe
----------------------------------------- ------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(00'
D+1 .R&AR2(20'
M,R N#M1/R(:'
A-R/DT/ DT/
S2 N#M1/R(>,2'
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3'
TE N#M1/R
$0 REMO!(6 CO,%M(
S.nta1:
alter ta3le Utable_nameV dr"p Ucol datatypeVN
E1:
S72V alter ta3le /M) dr"p c"lumn TEN
Ta3le altered(
S72V D/S& /M)N
Name Null] T%pe
------------------------ ----------------- ----------------------------
38
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(00'
D+1 .R&AR2(20'
M,R N#M1/R(:'
A-R/DT/ DT/
S2 N#M1/R(>,2'
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3'
c0 (CRE&S(6 OR )ECRE&S(6 PRECSO( OF & CO,%M(
S.nta1:
alter ta3le Utable_nameV m"di!% Ucol datatypeVN
E1:
S72V alter ta3le /M) m"di!% D/)TN+ num3er(;'N
Ta3le altered(
S72V D/S& /M)N
Name Null] T%pe
------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(00'
D+1 .R&AR2(20'
M,R N#M1/R(:'
A-R/DT/ DT/
S2 N#M1/R(>,2'
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(;'
Q T" decrease precisi"n the c"lumn sh"uld 3e empt%(
d0 M&8(6 CO,%M( %(%SE)
S.nta1:
alter ta3le Utable_nameV set unused c"lumn UcolVN
E1:
S72V alter ta3le /M) set unused c"lumn D/)TN+N
Ta3le altered(
S72V D/S& /M)N
Name Null] T%pe
------------------------ ----------------- --------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(00'
D+1 .R&AR2(20'
M,R N#M1/R(:'
A-R/DT/ DT/
S2 N#M1/R(>,2'
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 M,R A-R/DT/ S2
---------- ---------- -------------------- ---------- --------- ----------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK ;000 0<-D/&->0 >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN ;002 20-G/1->0 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;003 22-G/1->0 ;000
39
? r"6s selected(
/$en th"ugh the c"lumn is unused still it 6ill "ccup% mem"r%(
d0 )ROPP(6 %(%SE) CO,%M(S
S.nta1:
alter ta3le Utable_nameV dr"p unused c"lumnsN
E1:
S72V alter ta3le /M) dr"p unused c"lumnsN
Ta3le altered(
Q H"u can n"t dr"p indi$idual unused c"lumns "! a ta3le(
e0 RE(&M(6 CO,%M(
S.nta1:
alter ta3le Utable_nameV rename c"lumn Uold_col_nameV t" Unew_col_nameVN
E1:
S72V alter ta3le /M) rename c"lumn S2 t" S2RHN
Ta3le altered(
S72V D/S& /M)N
Name Null] T%pe
--------------------- ------ ----------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(00'
D+1 .R&AR2(20'
M,R N#M1/R(:'
A-R/DT/ DT/
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'
(SERT
Method :
6E(ER&, (SERT COMM&():
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M)(/M)N+,/NM/,D+1,M,R,A-R/DT/,S2RH'
.2#/S(0000,IRM#I,IS2/SMNI,;063,I02-DN-><I,I;6:3(;;I'N
0 r"6 created(
Method <
9THO%T SPECFH THE CO,%M(S )ET&,S
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /mp .2#/S(0000,IRM#I,IS2/SMNI,;063,I02-DN-><I,I;6:3(;;I'N
0 r"6 created(
Method =
(SERT(6 )&T& (TO SPECFE) CO,%M(S
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M)(/M)N+,/NM/,D+1' .2#/S(0000,IRM#I,IS2/SMNI'N
0 r"6 created(
Method >
BH CH&(6E THE OR)ER OF CO,%M(S
40
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M)(salar%,/M)N+,/NM/,D+1' .2#/S(3;000,0000,IRM#I,IS2/SMNI'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V select Q !r"m empN
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 M,R A-R/DT/ S2RH
---------- ---------- --------------- -------- -------------- ----------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK ;000 0<-D/&->0 >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN ;002 20-G/1->0 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;003 22-G/1->0 ;000
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R ;002 02-)R->; <;000
<;66 RD +=N/R ;000 30-)R-<;
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;002 02-DN->< ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN ;003 22-DN->< 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN ;003 22-DN-<; 22000
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN ;003 22-DN-<; 22000
0000 RM# S2/SMN ;063 02-DN->< ;6:3(;;
0000 RM# S2/SMN ;063 02-DN->< ;6:3(;;
0000 RM# S2/SMN
0000 RM# S2/SMN 3;000
03 r"6s selected(
Method ?
(SERT 9TH SE,ECT
#sing this 6e can insert e9isting ta3le data t" an"ther ta3le in a single trip( 1ut the ta3le structure sh"uld 3e same(
S.nta1:
-nsert int" Utable1V select Q !r"m Utable2VN
E1:
S72V D/S& /M)
Name Null] T%pe
------------------- ---------------------- ----------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(00'
D+1 .R&AR2(20'
M,R N#M1/R(:'
A-R/DT/ DT/
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'
S72V create ta3le /M)2+H//(/M)PN+,/M)PNM/,/M)PD+1,AR,A-R/DT/,S2RH'
as select Q !r"m /M) 6here 0 S 2N
Ta3le created(
S72V D/S& /M)2+H//
Name Null] T%pe
----------------- ----------------- -------------------------
/M)PN+ N#M1/R(:'
/M)PNM/ .R&AR2(00'
/M)PD+1 .R&AR2(20'
AR N#M1/R(:'
A-R/DT/ DT/
S2RH N#M1/R(>,2'
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//N
n" r"6s selected
41
S72V insert int" /M)2+H// select Q !r"m /M)N
03 r"6s created(
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//N
/M)PN+ /M)PNM/ /M)PD+1 AR A-R/DT/ S2RH
---------- ---------------- -------------------- -------- ---------------- ----------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK ;000 0<-D/&->0 >000
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN ;002 20-G/1->0 3000
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;003 22-G/1->0 ;000
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R ;002 02-)R->; <;000
<;66 RD +=N/R ;000 30-)R-<;
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;002 02-DN->< ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN ;003 22-DN->< 02000(;;
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN ;003 22-DN-<; 22000
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN ;003 22-DN-<; 22000
0000 RM# S2/SMN ;063 02-DN->< ;6:3(;;
0000 RM# S2/SMN ;063 02-DN->< ;6:3(;;
0000 RM# S2/SMN
0000 RM# S2/SMN 3;000
03 r"6s selected(
Method @
M%,TB,E (SERTS
=e ha$e ta3le called D/)T 6ith the !"ll"6ing c"lumns and data
S72V select Q !r"m D/)TN
D/)TN+ DNM/ 2+&
----------- ---------- -------
00 acc"unting ne6 %"rk
20 research dallas
30 sales &hicag"
:0 "perati"ns 3"st"n
CRE&TE ST%)E(T T&B,E
S72V &reate ta3le student(n" num3er(2',name $archar(2',marks num3er(3''N
$0 M%,T (SERT 9TH &,, FE,)S
S72V -nsert all
-nt" student $alues(0,MaM,000'
-nt" student $alues(2,M3M,200'
-nt" student $alues(3,McM,300'
Select Q!r"m dept 6here deptn"S00N
3 r"6s created(
S72V Select Q !r"m studentN
N+ NM/ MRKS
------- -------- ----------
0 a 000
2 3 200
3 c 300
42
c0 M%,T (SERT 9TH SPECFE) FE,)S
S72V insert all
-nt" student (n",name' $alues(:,MdM'
-nt" student(name,marks' $alues(MeM,:00'
Select Q!r"m dept 6here deptn"S00N
3 r"6s created(
N+ NM/ MRKS
------ -------- ---------
0 a 000
2 3 200
3 c 300
: d
e :00
3 c 300
6 r"6s selected(
d0 M%,T (SERT 9TH )%P,C&TE RO9S
S72V insert all
-nt" student $alues(0,MaM,000'
-nt" student $alues(2,M3M,200'
Select Q!r"m dept 6here deptn" V 00N
? r"6s created(
-- This inserts ? r"6s 3ecause in the select statement retrie$es 3 rec"rds (3 inserts !"r each r"6 retrie$ed'
N+ NM/ MRKS
------ ---- -- ---------
0 a 000
2 3 200
3 c 300
: d
e :00
3 c 300
0 a 000
0 a 000
0 a 000
2 3 200
2 3 200
2 3 200
3 c 300
3 c 300
3 c 300
0; r"6s selected(
43
e0 M%,T (SERT 9TH CO()TO(S B&SE)
S72V create ta3le m%t3l0(name $archar2(20',n" num3er(00''N
Ta$le created.
S72V insert int" m%t3l0 $alues(IramI,000'N
: row created.
S72V insert int" m%t3l0 $alues(IsamI,222'N
: row created.
S72V insert int" m%t3l0 $alues(ItamI,333'N
: row created.
S72V select Q !r"m m%t3l0N
(&ME (O
33333333333333333333 3333333333
ram :::
"am <<<
tam ===
S72V create ta3le %"urt3l0(name $archar2(20',n" num3er(00''N
Ta$le created.
Ta$le created.
Ta$le created(
S72V select Q !r"m %"urt3l0N
no row" "elected
no row" "elected
no row" "elected
S72V insert all
6hen n" V 000 then
int" %"urt3l0 $alues(IramuI,0000'
6hen name S IsamI then
int" %"urt3l2 $alues(IsamuI,2222'
6hen name S ItamI then
int" %"urt3l3 $alues(ItamuI,3333'
select Q !r"m m%t3l0 6here n" V 000N
> row" created.
(&ME (O
33333333333333333333 3333333333
ram :::
"am <<<
tam ===
44
(&ME (O
33333333333333333333 3333333333
ram# ::::
ram# ::::
(&ME (O
33333333333333333333 3333333333
"am# <<<<
(&ME (O
33333333333333333333 3333333333
tam# ====
-- This inserts : r"6s 3ecause the !irst c"nditi"n satis!ied 3 times, sec"nd c"nditi"n
satis!ied "nce and the last n"ne(
f0 M%,T (SERT 9TH CO()TO(S B&SE) &() E,SE
45
Ta3le created(
0 r"6 created(
0 r"6 created(
0 r"6 created(
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ram 000
sam 222
tam 333
Ta3le created(
Ta3le created(
Ta3le created(
S72V create ta3le %"urt3l:(name $archar2(20',n" num3er(00''N
Ta3le created(
S72V insert all
6hen n" V 000 then
else
int" %"urt3l: $alues(Ich"ttaI,::::'
select Q !r"m m%t3l0 6here n" V 000N
> row" created.
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ramu 0000
ramu 0000
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
samu 2222
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
tamu 3333
-0 M%,T (SERT 9TH CO()TO(S B&SE) &() FRST
46
Ta3le created(
0 r"6 created(
0 r"6 created(
0 r"6 created(
Ta3le created(
Ta3le created(
Ta3le created(
Ta3le created(
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ram 000
sam 222
tam 333
S72V insert !irst
6hen n"S000 then
select Q !r"m m%t3l0 6here nameSIramIN
0 r"6 created(
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ramu 0000
-- This inserts 0 rec"rd 3ecause the !irst clause a$"id t" check the remaining c"nditi"ns "nce the c"nditi"n is satis!ied(
h0 M%,T (SERT 9TH CO()TO(S B&SE)' FRST &() E,SE
Ta3le created(
47
0 r"6 created(
0 r"6 created(
0 r"6 created(
Ta3le created(
Ta3le created(
Ta3le created(
Ta3le created(
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ram 000
sam 222
tam 333
S72V insert !irst
6hen n"S000 then
6hen name S I3amI then
else
int" %"urt3l: $alues(IkamuI,::::'
0 r"6 created(
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ramu 0000
n" r"6s selected
n" r"6s selected
S72V select Q !r"m %"urt3l:N
n" r"6s selected
i0 M%,T (SERT 9TH M%,TB,E T&B,ES
Ta3le created(
48
0 r"6 created(
0 r"6 created(
0 r"6 created(
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ram 000
sam 222
tam 333
Ta3le created(
Ta3le created(
Ta3le created(
Ta3le created(
S72V insert all
int" %"urt3l: $alues(IkamuI,:::::'
: r"6s created(
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ramu 00000
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
samu 22222
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
tamu 33333
S72V select Q !r"m %"urt3l:N
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
kamu :::::
QQ H"u can use multi ta3les 6ith speci!ied !ields, 6ith duplicate r"6s, 6ith c"nditi"ns, 6ith !irst and else clauses(
GROUP BY
#sing gr"up 3%, 6e can create gr"ups "! related in!"rmati"n( &"lumns used in select must 3e used 6ith gr"up 3%N
"ther6ise it 6as n"t a gr"up 3% e9pressi"n(
49
E1:
S72V select Q !r"m empN
------------ --------------- ------------------ ------- ---------------- --------- ---------------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK ;000 0<-D/&->0 >000 200
<:?? 22/N S2/SMN ;002 20-G/1->0 3000 300
<;20 =RD S2/SMN ;003 22-G/1->0 ;000 ;00
<:?? RM K#MR SR(S2/SMN ;003 22-DN->< 02000(;;200
<;66 D+N/S MN,/R ;002 02-)R->; <;000 200
<;20 SM K#MR SR(S2/SMN ;003 22-DN-<; 22000 300
6 r"6s selected(
S72V select @"3 !r"m /M) gr"up 3% @"3N
D+1
--------------------
&2/RK
S2/SMN
SR(S2/SMN
MN,/R
S72V select @"3,S#M(S2' !r"m /M) gr"up 3% @"3N
D+1 S#M(S2'
----------------- ----------
&2/RK >000
S2/SMN >000
SR(S2/SMN 3:000(;;
MN,/R <;000
H&!(6
This 6ill 6"rk as 6here clause 6hich can 3e used "nl% 6ith gr"up 3% 3ecause "! a3sence "! 6here clause in gr"up 3%(
S72V select deptn",@"3,sum(sal' T"talPSalar%P+!P/achPDept
!r"m emp gr"up 3% deptn",@"3 ha$ing sum(sal' V 3000N
D/)TN+ D+1 T+T2PS2RHP+GP/&APD/)T
---------- ---- ---------------- -------------------------
200 MN,/R <;000
200 SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
200 &2/RK >000
;00 S2/SMN ;000
300 SR(S2/SMN 22000
S72V select deptn",@"3,sum(sal' T"talPSalar%P"!P/achPDept !r"m emp
gr"up 3% deptn",@"3
ha$ing sum(sal' V 3000
"rder 3% @"3N
D/)TN+ D+1 T+T2PS2RHP+GP/&APD/)T
3333333333 33333333333333333 333333333333333333333333
200 &2/RK >000
200 MN,/R <;000
;00 S2/SMN ;000
200 SR(S2/SMN 02000(;;
300 SR(S2/SMN 22000
%S(6 )E,ETE
S72V select Q !r"m /M)N
---------- ---------- ------------------ -------- ---------------- -------- ---------------
0000 RM &2/RK ;000 0<-D/&->: >000 300
50
0002 SM MN,/R ;000 00-DN->0 >;000 300
0003 SM# S2/SMN ;003 0?-G/1->2 >000 302
000: RM# SR(S2/SMN ;002 22-D#N->; :;000 303
S72V D/2/T/ /M) =A/R/ /NM/SISMIN
0 r"6 deleted(
----------- ------------ ------------- -------- ------------------ ---------- -----------------
0000 RM &2/RK ;000 0<-D/&->: >000 300
0003 SM# S2/SMN ;003 0?-G/1->2 >000 302
000: RM# SR(S2/SMN ;002 22-D#N->; :;000 303
S72V D/2/T/ /M) =A/R/ /NM/ 2-K/ IRPPIN
0 r"6 deleted(
----------- ----------- -------- ------- ---------------- --------- ------------
0003 SM# S2/SMN ;003 0?-G/1->2 >000 302
000: RM# SR(S2/SMN ;002 22-D#N->; :;000 303
S72V D/2/T/ GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/SISM#IN
0 r"6 deleted(
TO )E,ETE &,, RECOR)S
S72V D/2/T/ GR+M /M)N
0 r"6 deleted(
)E,ETE )%P,C&TE RO9S
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M m%T12N
NM/ MRK
--------- ----------
RM 000
RM 000
SM 002
SM 002
RM#
RM#
SM# 003
SM# 003
SM# 003
TM
RD ;;;
KD 023
02 r"6s selected(
S72V delete !r"m m%T12 t0
6here t0(r"6id V (select min(t2(r"6-D' !r"m m%T12 t2
6here t0(name S t2(name and t0(mark S t2(mark'N
: r"6s deleted(
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M m%T12N
NM/ MRK
--------- ----------
RM 000
SM 002
RM#
51
SM# 003
TM
RD ;;;
KD 023
> r"6s selected(
%"in- %P)&TE
------------ ------------ ----------- --------- --------------- --------- ------------------
0000 RM &2/RK ;000 0<-D/&->: >000 300
0002 SM MN,/R ;000 00-DN->0 >;000 300
0003 SM# S2/SMN ;003 0?-G/1->2 >000 302
S72V #)DT/ /M) S/T S2 S ;;;;;,D+1 S ISR(MN,/RI =A/R/ /NM/ 2-K/ IRPPIN
0 r"6 updated(
---------- -------------- ------------------ -------- ------------- ------- ---------------
0000 RM SR(MN,/R ;000 0<-D/&->: ;;;;; 300
0002 SM MN,/R ;000 00-DN->0 >;000 300
0003 SM# S2/SMN ;003 0?-G/1->2 >000 302
S72V #)DT/ /M) S/T S2 S ;;;;;,D+1 S ISR(MN,/RIN
3 r"6s updated(
---------- ----------- ------------------ ------- --------------- --------- -------------
0000 RM SR(MN,/R ;000 0<-D/&->: ;;;;; 300
0002 SM SR(MN,/R ;000 00-DN->0 ;;;;; 300
0003 SM# SR(MN,/R ;003 0?-G/1->2 ;;;;; 302
RES%,T:
Thus the S72 c"mmands !"r )er!"rming -nserti"n, Deleti"n, M"di!%ing, ltering, #pdating and
.ie6ing rec"rds 3ased "n c"nditi"ns has 3een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%(
Creation of !iew"' S.non.m"' Se;#ence' nde1e"' Sa5e 2oint.
E1: (o: D= /=.:0 VIEWS
FF : FF : FF
&M:
52
T" create the $ie6, e9ecute and $eri!% the $ari"us "perati"ns "n $ie6s(
OBJECT!E:
.ie6s Aelps t" encapsulate c"mple9 8uer% and make it reusa3le(
)r"$ides user securit% "n each $ie6 - it depends "n %"ur data p"lic% securit%(
#sing $ie6 t" c"n$ert units - i! %"u ha$e a !inancial data in #S currenc%, %"u can create $ie6 t"
c"n$ert them int" /ur" !"r $ie6ing in /ur" currenc%(
$ie6 is n"thing m"re than a S72 statement that is st"red in the data3ase 6ith an ass"ciated name( $ie6
is actuall% a c"mp"siti"n "! a ta3le in the !"rm "! a prede!ined S72 8uer%(
$ie6 can c"ntain all r"6s "! a ta3le "r select r"6s !r"m a ta3le( $ie6 can 3e created !r"m "ne "r man%
ta3les 6hich depends "n the 6ritten S72 8uer% t" create a $ie6(
.ie6s, 6hich are kind "! $irtual ta3les, all"6 users t" d" the !"ll"6ingB
Structure data in a 6a% that users "r classes "! users !ind natural "r intuiti$e(
Restrict access t" the data such that a user can see and (s"metimes' m"di!% e9actl% 6hat the% need
and n" m"re(
&,6ORTHM:
ST/) 0B Start the DM1S(
ST/) 2B &"nnect t" the e9isting data3ase(D1'
ST/) 3B &reate the ta3le 6ith its essential attri3utes(
ST/) :B -nsert rec"rd $alues int" the ta3le(
ST/) ;B &reate the $ie6 !r"m the a3"$e created ta3le(
ST/) 6B Displa% the data presented "n the .-/=(
ST/) B &heck the data3ase "3@ect ta3le and $ie6 the inserted $alues presented
ST/) ?B /9ecute di!!erent &"mmands and e9tract in!"rmati"n !r"m the .ie6(
ST/) 00B St"p the D1MS(
COMM&()S E7EC%TO(
CRE&TO( OF T&B,E:
Data3ase $ie6s are created using the CRE&TE !E9 statement( .ie6s can 3e created !r"m a
single ta3le, multiple ta3les, "r an"ther $ie6( T" create a $ie6, a user must ha$e the appr"priate s%stem
pri$ilege acc"rding t" the speci!ic implementati"n(
S72V &R/T/ T12/ EMP,OHEE (
53
/M)2+H//PNM/ .R&AR2(00',
/M)2+H//PN+ N#M1/R(>',
D/)TPNM/ .R&AR2(00',
D/)TPN+ N#M1/R (;',
DT/P+GPD+-N DT/
'N
Ta3le created(
T&B,E )ESCRPTO(:
S72V D/S& EMP,OHEEN
NM/ N#22] TH)/
---------------------------- ------------------------
/M)2+H//PNM/ .R&AR2(00'
/M)2+H//PN+ N#M1/R(>'
D/)TPNM/ .R&AR2(00'
D/)TPN+ N#M1/R(;'
DT/P+GPD+-N DT/
CRE&TE !E9
S%(T&7 FOR CRE&TO( OF !E9
CREATE ,OR REPLACE- ,FORCE - VIEW .i$/n!0$ ,(co#u0n1n!0$2 co#u0n1n!0$)-
AS Qu$%* ,/it& c&$c3 o4tion-5
CRE&TO( OF !E9
S72V &R/T/ .-/= EMP!E9 S S/2/&T /M)2+H//PNM/,
/M)2+H//PN+,
D/)TPNM/,
D/)TPN+,
DT/P+GPD+-N GR+M EMP,OHEEN
.ie6 &reated(
)ESCRPTO( OF !E9
S72V D/S& /M).-/=N
NM/ N#22] TH)/
---------------------- ----------------------------
/M)2+H//PNM/ .R&AR2(00'
/M)2+H//PN+ N#M1/R(>'
D/)TPNM/ .R&AR2(00'
D/)TPN+ N#M1/R(;'
)SP,&H !E9:
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M).-/=N
/M)2+H//PN /M)2+H//PN+ D/)TPNM/ D/)TPN+
--------------------- ----------------------- ------------------- ---------------
R.- 02: /&/ >?
.-DH 3:; &S/ 20
RD ?> -T 22
,-R- 000 &S/ 6<
54
(SERTO( OF !&,%ES (TO !E9
R"6s "! data can 3e inserted int" a $ie6( The same rules that appl% t" the #)DT/ c"mmand als" appl% t"
the -NS/RT c"mmand( Aere, 6e can n"t insert r"6s in &#ST+M/RSP.-/= 3ecause 6e ha$e n"t included all the
N+T N#22 c"lumns in this $ie6, "ther6ise %"u can insert r"6s in a $ie6 in similar 6a% as %"u insert them in a ta3le(
(SERT ST&TEME(T SH(T&7:
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ U.-/=PNM/V (&+2#MN NM/0, X' .2#/S(.2#/0,X('N
COMM&():
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ /M).-/= .2#/S (ISR-I, 020,I&S/I, 6<,I06-N+.-0?>0I'N
0 R+= &R/T/D(
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M).-/=N
--------------------- ----------------------- ------------------- --------------
R.- 02: /&/ >?
.-DH 3:; &S/ 20
RD ?> -T 22
,-R- 000 &S/ 6<
SR- 020 &S/ 6<
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//N
/M)2+H//PN /M)2+H//PN+ D/)TPNM/ D/)TPN+ DT/P+GPD
-------------------- ----------------------- ------------------- -------------- -----------------
R.- 02: /&/ >? 0;-D#N-0;
.-DH 3:; &S/ 20 20-D#N-06
RD ?> -T 22 30-S/)-06
,-R- 000 &S/ 6< 0:-N+.->0
SR- 020 &S/ 6< 06-N+.->0
)E,ETO( OF !E9:
R"6s "! data can 3e deleted !r"m a $ie6( The same rules that appl% t" the #)DT/ and -NS/RT c"mmands
appl% t" the D/2/T/ c"mmand(
)E,ETE ST&TEME(T SH(T&7:
S72V D/2/T/ U.-/=PNM/V=A/R/ U&+2#MN NM/V SM.2#/MN
Command:
S72V D/2/T/ GR+M /M).-/= =A/R/ /M)2+H//PNM/SISR-IN
0 r"6 deleted(
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M).-/=N
55
--------------------- ----------------------- ------------------ ----------------
R.- 02: /&/ >?
.-DH 3:; &S/ 20
RD ?> -T 22
,-R- 000 &S/ 6<
%P)&TE ST&TEME(T:
$ie6 can 3e updated under certain c"nditi"nsB
The S/2/&T clause ma% n"t c"ntain the ke%6"rd D-ST-N&T(
The S/2/&T clause ma% n"t c"ntain summar% !uncti"ns(
The S/2/&T clause ma% n"t c"ntain set !uncti"ns(
The S/2/&T clause ma% n"t c"ntain set "perat"rs(
The S/2/&T clause ma% n"t c"ntain an +RD/R 1H clause(
The GR+M clause ma% n"t c"ntain multiple ta3les(
The =A/R/ clause ma% n"t c"ntain su38ueries(
The 8uer% ma% n"t c"ntain ,R+#) 1H "r A.-N,(
&alculated c"lumns ma% n"t 3e updated(
ll N+T N#22 c"lumns !r"m the 3ase ta3le must 3e included in the $ie6 in "rder
!"r the -NS/RT 8uer% t" !uncti"n(
SH(T&7:
S72V#)DT/ U.-/=PNM/V S/TU &+2#MN NM/V S U&+2#MN NM/V CU.-/=V
=A/R/ U&+2#MN NM/VS.2#/N
Command:
S72V #)DT/ /M)K.-.-/= S/T /M)2+H//PNM/SIK.-I =A/R/ /M)2+H//PNM/SIR.-IN
0 r"6 updated(
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)K.-.-/=N
--------------------- ----------------------- ------------------- ----------------
K.- 02: /&/ >?
.-DH 3:; &S/ 20
RD ?> -T 22
,-R- 000 &S/ 6<
)ROP & !E9:
+3$i"usl%, 6here %"u ha$e a $ie6, %"u need a 6a% t" dr"p the $ie6 i! it is n" l"nger needed(
SH(T&7:
S72V DR+) .-/= U.-/=PNM/V
E7&MP,E
S72VDR+) .-/= /M).-/=N
$ie6 dr"ped
CRE&TE & !E9 9TH SE,ECTE) FE,)S:
SH(T&7:
56
S72V&R/T/ Y+R R/)2&/Z .-/= U.-/= NM/VS S/2/&T U&+2#MN NM/0VX((GR+M
UT12/ NM/VN
E7&MP,E3<:
S72V &R/T/ +R R/)2&/ .-/= /M)2P.-/=0 S S/2/&T /M)N+, /NM/,S2RH GR+M /M)2N
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2P.-/=0N
E7&MP,E3=:
S72V &R/T/ +R R/)2&/ .-/= /M)2P.-/=2 S S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2 =A/R/ D/)TN+S00N
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2P.-/=2N
(ote:
Replace is the ke%3"ard t" a$"id the err"r J"raP00?;Bname is alread% used 3% an e9isting a3@ectK(
CH&(6(6 THE CO,%M(/S0 (&ME M THE !E9 )%R(6 &S SE,ECT
ST&TEME(T:
THPE3::
S+,L &R/T/ +R R/)2&/ .-/= /M)PT+TS2(/-D,NM/,S2' S S/2/&T /M)N+, /NM/,S2RH
GR+M /M)2N
.ie6 created(
/M)N+ /NM/ S 2RH
----------- -------------- ------------
<36? SM-TA 0000
<:?? MRK 00;0
<;6; =-22 0;00
<6<> D+AN 0>00
<;<> T+M 0;00
<;:> T#RN/R 0;00
6 r"6s selected(
.ie6 created(
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)PT+TS2N
/M)N+ /NM/ S2RH M,RN+ D/)TN+
------------ ------------ ------------- ------------- -------------
<;<> T+M 0;00 <2?> 00
<;:> T#RN/R 0;00 <2?> 00
.ie6 created(
THPE3<:
S72V &R/T/ +R R/)2&/ .-/= /M)PT+TS2 S S/2/&T /M)N+ R/-DR,
/NM/ RNM/R, S2RH RS2R GR+M /M)2N
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)PT+TS2N
E7&MP,E FOR JO( !E9:
57
THPE3=:
S72V &R/T/ +R R/)2&/ .-/= D/)TP/M) S S/2/&T (/M)N+ R/-DR,
(/NM/ R/M)NM/R,
(D/)TN+ RDN+R,
1(DNM/ RDPNM/R,
1(2+& RDP2+&R
GR+M /M)2 ,D/)MT 1 =A/R/ (D/)TN+S1(D/)TN+N
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)TP/M)N
/-D NM/ S2
-------- ---------- ---------- ----------
<36? SM-TA 0000
<:?? MRK 00;0
<;6; =-22 0;00
<6<> D+AN 0>00
<;<> T+M 0;00
<;:> T#RN/R 0;00
6 r"6s selected(
.ie6 created(
/-D NM/ S2
--------- ----------- ----------
<36? SM-TA 0000
<:?? MRK 00;0
<;6; =-22 0;00
<6<> D+AN 0>00
<;<> T+M 0;00
<;:> T#RN/R 0;00
6 r"6s selected(
.ie6 created(
/-D /M)NM/ DN+ DPNM/ DP2+&
---------- ---------------- ---------- ----------------- ----------------------
<;<> T+M 00 &&+#NT N/= H+RK
<;:> T#RN/R 00 &&+#NT N/= H+RK
<36? SM-TA 20 S2/S &A-&,+
<6<> D+AN 20 S2/S &A-&,+
<:?? MRK 30 R/S/R&A O#R-&A
<;6; =-22 30 R/S/R&A O#R-&A
!E9 RE&) O(,H &() CHEC8 OPTO(:
RE&) O(,H C,&%SE:
H"u can create a $ie6 6ith read "nl% "pti"n 6hich ena3le "ther t" "nl% 8uer% (n" DM2 "perati"n can 3e
per!"rmed t" this t%pe "! a $ie6(
E7&MP,E3>:
58
S72V&R/T/ +R R/)2&/ .-/= /M)PN+PDM2 S S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2 =-TA R/D +N2HN
9TH CHEC8 OPTO( C,&%SE:
E7&MP,E3>:
S72V &R/T/ +R R/)2&/ .-/= /M)P&KP+)T-+N S S/2/&T /M)N+, /NM/, S2RH, D/)TN+
GR+M /M)2 =A/R/ D/)TN+S00 =-TA &A/&K +)T-+NN
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P&KP+)T-+NN
JO( !E9:
E7&MP,E3?:
S72V &R/T/ +R R/)2&/ .-/= D/)TP/M)P.-/= S S/2/&T (/M)N+,
(/NM/,
(D/)TN+,
1(DNM/,
1(2+&
GR+M /M)2 , D/)MT 1
=A/R/ (D/)TN+S1(D/)TN+N
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)TP/M)P.-/=N
.ie6 created(
/M)N+ /NM/ S2RH D/)TN+
----------- ------------- --------------- --------------
<;<> T+M 0;00 00
<;:> T#RN/R 0;00 00
.ie6 created(
/M)N+/NM/D/)TN+ DNM/ 2+&
----------- ------------ ------------- ------------- -------
<;<> T+M 00 &&+#NT N/= H+RK
<;:> T#RN/R 00 &&+#NT N/= H+RK
<36? SM-TA 20 S2/S &A-&,+
<6<> D+AN 20 S2/S &A-&,+
<:?? MRK 30 R/S/R&A O#R-&A
<;6; =-22 30 R/S/R&A O#R-&A
6 r"6s selected(
FORCE !E9:
E7&MP,E3@:
S72V &R/T/ +R R/)2&/ G+R&/ .-/= MH.-/= S S/2/&T Q GR+M EHON
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M MH.-/=N
S72V &R/T/ T12/ EHO S S/2/&T /M)N+,/NM/,S2RH,D/)TN+ GR+M /M)2N
59
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M EHON
S72V &R/T/ +R R/)2&/ G+R&/ .-/= MH.-/= S S/2/&T Q GR+M EHON
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M MH.-/=N
=arningB .ie6 created 6ith c"mpilati"n err"rs(
S/2/&T Q GR+M MH.-/=
Q
/RR+R at line 0B
+R-0:063B $ie6 R:03?(MH.-/=R has err"rs
Ta3le created(
---------- -------------------- ---------- ---------- -----------------
<36? SM-TA 0000 20
<:?? MRK 00;0 30
<;6; =-22 0;00 30
<6<> D+AN 0>00 20
<;<> T+M 0;00 00
<;:> T#RN/R 0;00 00
6 r"6s selected(
.ie6 created(
----------- ------------- ------------- ---------------
<36? SM-TA 0000 20
<:?? MRK 00;0 30
<;6; =-22 0;00 30
<6<> D+AN 0>00 20
<;<> T+M 0;00 00
<;:> T#RN/R 0;00 00
6 r"6s selected
COMP,(6 & !E9:
SH(T&7:
2T/R .-/= U.-/=PNM/V &+M)-2/N
E7&MP,E:
S72V 2T/R .-/= MH.-/= &+M)-2/N
60
RES%,TB
Thus the S72 c"mmands !"r .ie6 has 3een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%(
S.non.m"
E1: (o: D= /=.<0
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" create the S%n"n%ms and $eri!% the $ari"us "perati"ns "n S%n"n%ms
OBJECT!E:
".non.m is an alias !"r an% ta3le, $ie6, materialiFed $ie6, se8uence, pr"cedure, !uncti"n,
package, t%pe, Da$a class schema "3@ect, user-de!ined "3@ect t%pe, "r an"ther s%n"n%m( 1ecause a s%n"n%m
is simpl% an alias, it re8uires n" st"rage "ther than its de!initi"n in the data dicti"nar%(
61
S%n"n%ms are "!ten used !"r securit% and c"n$enience( G"r e9ample, the% can d" the !"ll"6ingB
Mask the name and "6ner "! an "3@ect
)r"$ide l"cati"n transparenc% !"r rem"te "3@ects "! a distri3uted data3ase
Simpli!% S72 statements !"r data3ase users
/na3le restricted access similar t" specialiFed $ie6s 6hen e9ercising !ine-grained access c"ntr"l
H"u can create 3"th pu3lic and pri$ate s%n"n%ms( 2#$lic s%n"n%m is "6ned 3% the special user gr"up
named )#12-& and e$er% user in a data3ase can access it( 2ri5ate s%n"n%m is in the schema "! a speci!ic
user 6h" has c"ntr"l "$er its a$aila3ilit% t" "thers(
&,6ORTHM:
ST/) 2B &"nnect t" the e9isting data3ase(D1'
ST/) ;B &reate the s%n"n%ms !r"m the a3"$e created ta3le "r an% data "3@ect(
ST/) 6B Displa% the data presented "n the s%n"n%ms(
ST/) B &heck the data3ase "3@ect ta3le and $ie6 the inserted $alues presented
ST/) ?B St"p the D1MS(
E1am2le:
S.nta1:
S+,LCRE&TE SH(O(HM s%n"n%mName FOR "3@ectN
+R
S+,L&R/T/ SHN+NHM tt !"r te"t:I
Dependent +@ect - tt (SHN+NHM NM/ '
Re!erenced +3@ect - te"t: (T12/ NM/'
%S&6E:
#sing emp %"u can per!"rm DM2 "perati"n as %"u ha$e create s%sn"nm !"r ta3le "3@ect -!
empl"%ees ta3le is dr"pped then status "! emp 6ill 3e in$alid(
2"cal Dependencies are aut"maticall% managed 3% "racle ser$er(
62
COMM&()S:
CRE&TE THE T&B,E
S72V &R/T/ T12/ studentPta3le(RegPN" num3er(;',NM/ $archar2(;',MRK num3er(3''N
Ta3le created(
(SERT THE !&,%ES (TO THE T&B,E
S72V insert int" studentPta3le $alues(00000,IramI,>;'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V insert int" studentPta3le $alues(00002,IsamI,<;'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V insert int" studentPta3le $alues(00003,IsamuI,?;'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V select Q !r"m ST#D/NTPT12/N
R/,PN+ NM/ MRK
------------ --------- ----------
00000 ram >;
00002 sam <;
00003 samu ?;
CRE&TE THE SH(O(HM FROM T&B,E
S72V &R/T/ SHN+NHM ST#D/NTPSHN+NHM G+R ST#D/NTPT12/N
S%n"n%m created(
)SP,&H THE !&,%ES OF T&B,E BH %S(6 THE SHS(O(HM
S72V select Q !r"m ST#D/NTPSHN+NHMN
R/,PN+ NM/ MRK
------------ ------------- ----------
00000 ram >;
00002 sam <;
00003 samu ?;
(SERT THE !&,%ES TO THE SH(O(HM
63
S72V insert int" studentPSHN+NHM $alues(00006,IRDI,>0'N
0 r"6 created(
)SP,&H THE !&,%ES ( BOTH T&B,E &() SH(O(HM
R/,PN+ NM/ MRK
------------ ----------- ----------
00000 ram >;
00002 sam <;
00003 samu ?;
00006 RD >0
R/,PN+ NM/ MRK
----------- --------- ---------
00000 ram >;
00002 sam <;
00003 samu ?;
00006 RD >0
HO% C&( %P)&TE THE T&B,E BH %S(6 SH(O(HM
S72V #)DT/ ST#D/NTPSHN+NHM S/T MRKS000 =A/R/ R/,PN+S00006N
0 r"6 updated(
R/,PN+ NM/ MRK
------------ ----------- ----------------
00000 ram >;
00002 sam <;
00003 samu ?;
00006 RD 000
R/,PN+ NM/ MRK
------------ ------------- ---------
00000 ram >;
00002 sam <;
00003 samu ?;
64
00006 RD 000
TO )ROP SHS(O(HM
S72V DR+) SHN+NHM ST#D/NTPSHN+NHMN
S%n"n%m dr"pped(
B%T 9E C&( %SE THE T&B,E
R/,PN+ NM/ MRK
------------ ------------ ------------
00000 ram >;
00002 sam <;
00003 samu ?;
00006 RD 000
RES%,T:
Thus the S72 c"mmands !"r creati"n and $ari"us "perati"n "n S%n"n%ms has 3een $eri!ied and
e9ecuted success!ull%(
Se;#ence
E1: (o: D= /=.=0
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" create the Se8uence and $eri!% the $ari"us "perati"ns "n Se8uence t" get the incremented
num3er(
OBJECT!E:
The se8uence generat"r pr"$ides a se8uential series "! num3ers( The se8uence generat"r is
especiall% use!ul in multiuser en$ir"nments !"r generating uni8ue se8uential num3ers 6ith"ut the "$erhead
"! disk -4+ "r transacti"n l"cking
Se8uence num3ers are integers "! up t" 3> digits de!ined in the data3ase( se8uence de!initi"n indicates
general in!"rmati"n, such as the !"ll"6ingB
The name "! the se8uence
65
=hether the se8uence ascends "r descends
The inter$al 3et6een num3ers
=hether +racle Data3ase sh"uld cache sets "! generated se8uence num3ers in mem"r%
&,6ORTHM:
Step 0B Start the DM1S(
Step 2B &"nnect t" the e9isting data3ase (D1'
Step 3B &reate the se8uence 6ith its essential "pti"nal parameter(
Step :B Displa% the data presented "n the se8uence 3% using pseud" c"lumn(
Step ;B lter the se8uence 6ith di!!erent "pti"nal parameter(
Step 6B Dr"p the se8uence
Step <B St"p the D1MS(
Creatin- a Se;#ence
H"u create a se8uence using the &R/T/ S/7#/N&/ statement, 6hich has the !"ll"6ing(
SH(T&7:
S+,LCRE&TE SE+%E(CE se8uencePname
YST&RT 9TH startPnumZ
Y(CREME(T BH incrementPnumZ
Y [ M&7!&,%E ma9imumPnum ^ (OM&7!&,%E \ Z
Y [ M(!&,%E minimumPnum ^ (OM(!&,%E \ Z
Y [ CHC,E ^ (OCHC,E \ Z
Y [ C&CHE cachePnum ^ (OC&CHE \ Z
Y [ OR)ER ^ (OOR)ER \ ZN
=here
sequence_name is the name "! the se8uence(
start_num is the integer t" start the se8uence( The de!ault start num3er is 0(
66
increment_num is the integer t" increment the se8uence 3%( The de!ault increment num3er is 0( The
a3s"lute $alue "! increment_num must 3e less than the di!!erence 3et6een maximum_num and
minimum_num(
maximum_num is the ma9imum integer "! the se8uenceN maximum_num must 3e greater than "r
e8ual t" start_num, and maximum_num must 3e greater than minimum_num(
(OM&7!&,%E speci!ies the ma9imum is 002< !"r an ascending se8uence "r *0 !"r a descending
se8uence( N+ME.2#/ is the de!ault(
minimum_num is the minimum integer "! the se8uenceN minimum_num must 3e less than "r e8ual t"
start_num, and minimum_num must 3e less than maximum_num(
(OM(!&,%E speci!ies the minimum is 0 !"r an ascending se8uence "r *0026 !"r a descending
se8uence( N+M-N.2#/ is the de!ault(
CHC,E means the se8uence generates integers e$en a!ter reaching its ma9imum "r minimum $alue(
=hen an ascending se8uence reaches its ma9imum $alue, the ne9t $alue generated is the minimum(
=hen a descending se8uence reaches its minimum $alue, the ne9t $alue generated is the ma9imum(
(OCHC,E means the se8uence cann"t generate an% m"re integers a!ter reaching its ma9imum "r
minimum $alue( N+&H&2/ is the de!ault(
cache_num is the num3er "! integers t" keep in mem"r%( The de!ault num3er "! integers t" cache is
20( The minimum num3er "! integers that ma% 3e cached is 2( The ma9imum integers that ma% 3e
cached is determined 3% the !"rmula &/-2(maximum_num - minimum_num'41S(increment_num'(
(OC&CHE means n" caching( This st"ps the data3ase !r"m pre-all"cating $alues !"r the se8uence,
6hich pre$ents numeric gaps in the se8uence 3ut reduces per!"rmance( ,aps "ccur 3ecause cached
$alues are l"st 6hen the data3ase is shut d"6n( -! %"u "mit &&A/ and N+&&A/, the data3ase
caches 20 se8uence num3ers 3% de!ault(
OR)ER guarantees the integers are generated in the "rder "! the re8uest( H"u t%picall% use +RD/R
6hen using Real pplicati"n &lusters, 6hich are set up and managed 3% data3ase administrat"rs(
(OOR)ER d"esnMt guarantee the integers are generated in the "rder "! the re8uest( N++RD/R
is the de!ault(
E1am2le: :
Command:
S72V &R/T/ S/7#/N&/ se80
-N&R/M/NT 1H 0
STRT 6ith 0
ME.2#/ ;
M-N.2#/ 0N
Se;#ence created.
67
TO )SP,&H THE !&,%ES OF SE+%E(CES
!ter creating se8uence use ne9t$al as ne9t$al is used t" generate se8uence $alues
S72V select se80(ne9t$al !r"m dualN
N/ET.2
----------
0
N/ET.2
----------
2
N/ET.2
----------
3
S72V select se80(curr$al !r"m dualN
&#RR.2
----------
3
The !"ll"6ing is the list "! a$aila3le pseud" c"lumns in +racle(
P"e#do Col#mn Meanin-
&#RR.2 - Returns the current $alue "! a se8uence(
N/ET.2 - Returns the ne9t $alue "! a se8uence(
N#22 - Return a null $alue(
R+=-D - Returns the R+=-D "! a r"6( See R+=-D secti"n 3el"6(
R+=N#M - Returns the num3er indicating in 6hich "rder +racle selects r"6s( Girst r"6
selected 6ill 3e R+=N#M "! 0 and sec"nd r"6 R+=N#M "! 2 and s" "n(
SHSDT/ - Returns current date and time(
#S/R - Returns the name "! the current user(
#-D - Returns the uni8ue num3er assigned t" the current user(
TO &,TER THE SE+%E(CES
68
alter S/7#/N&/ se80
ma9$alue 2;
-N&R/M/NT 1H 2
c%cle
cache 2
dr"p S/7#/N&/ se80N
E7&MP,E: <
&R/T/ S/7#/N&/ se82
-N&R/M/NT 1H 0
start 6ith 0
ma9$alue ;
min$alue 0
c%cle
&&A/ :N
E7&MP,E: =
&R/T/ S/7#/N&/ se83
-N&R/M/NT 1H -0
start 6ith 2
ma9$alue ;
min$alue 0N
E7&MP,E: >
&R/T/ S/7#/N&/ se83
-N&R/M/NT 1H -0
start 6ith 2
ma9$alue ;
min$alue 0
c%cle
cache :N
E7&MP,E: ?
&R/T/ S/7#/N&/ se80
-N&R/M/NT 1H 0
start 6ith 0
ma9$alue 00
min$alue 0N
69
E7&MP,E: @
create ta3le test0(a num3er primar% ke%'N
TO (SERT THE !&,%ES FROM SE+%E(CES TO T&B,E:
insert int" test0 $alues(se80(ne9t$al'
TO )ROP SE+%E(CES
dr"p se8uence se8uenceNme
RES%,T:
Thus the S72 c"mmands !"r creati"n and $ari"us "perati"ns "n Se8uence has 3een $eri!ied and
nde1e"
E1: (o: D= /=.>0
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" create the Index for the tabe data and $eri!% the $ari"us "perati"ns "n Index(
&,6ORTHM:
ST/) 2B &"nnect t" the e9isting data3ase (D1'
ST/) ;B &reate the -nde9 !r"m the a3"$e created ta3le "r an% data "3@ect(
ST/) 6B Displa% the data presented "n the -nde9(
ST/) <B St"p the D1MS(
70
nde1
The inde9es are special "3@ects 6hich 3uilt "n t"p "! ta3les( The inde9es can d" "perati"n like
S/2/&T , D/2/T/ and #)DT/ statement !aster t" manipulate a large am"unt "! data( n -ND/E can
als" 3e called a ta3le and it has a data structure( n -ND/E is created "n c"lumns "! a ta3le( +ne ta3le ma%
c"ntain "ne "r m"re -ND/E ta3les
The S+, ()E7 doe" the followin-:
-ND/E/S can l"cate in!"rmati"n 6ithin a data3ase $er% !ast(
n -ND/E makes a catal"g "! r"6s "! a data3ase ta3le as r"6 can 3e p"inted 6ithin a !racti"n "!
time 6ith a minimum e!!"rt(
ta3le -ND/E is a data3ase structure 6hich arranges the $alues "! "ne "r m"re c"lumns in a
speci!ic "rder(
The per!"rmance "! an -ND/E can n"t 3e rec"gniFed much 6hen dealing 6ith relati$el% small
ta3les(
-ND/E can 6"rk pr"perl% and 8uickl% !"r the c"lumns that ha$e man% di!!erent $alues(
-t takes a l"ng time t" !ind an in!"rmati"n !"r "ne "r c"m3inati"n "! c"lumns !r"m a ta3le 6hen
there are th"usands "! rec"rds in the ta3le( -n that case i! inde9es are created "n that c"lumns, 6hich
are accessed !re8uentl%, the in!"rmati"n can 3e retrie$ed 8uickl%(
The -ND/E !irst s"rts the data and then it assigns an identi!icati"n !"r each r"6(
The -ND/E ta3le ha$ing "nl% t6" c"lumns, "ne is a r"6id and an"ther is inde9ed-c"lumn ("rdered'(
=hen data is retrie$ed !r"m a data3ase ta3le 3ased "n the inde9ed-c"lumn, the inde9 p"inter
searches the r"6id and 8uickl% l"cates that p"siti"n(in the actual ta3le and displa% the r"6s s"ught
!"r(
71
How it differ from 5iew
n -ND/E is als" a ta3le( S" it has a data structure(
-ND/E/S are p"inters that represents the ph%sical address "! a data(
n -ND/E is created "n c"lumns "! a ta3le(
n -ND/E makes a catal"g 3ased "n "ne "r m"re c"lumns "! a ta3le(
+ne ta3le ma% c"ntain "ne "r m"re -ND/E ta3les(
n -ND/E can 3e created "n a single c"lumn "r c"m3inati"n "! c"lumns "! a data3ase ta3le(
T.2e" of nde1e":
0( Simple -nde9
2( &"mp"site -nde9
Command
S&MP,E T&B,E:
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M ST#D/NTPT12N
S2PN+R/,PN+ NM/ S/E D+1 T+T2P)/R&/NT,/ M+1-2/PN+ DDR/SS 12++D
--------- ------------ -------------------- ------ ----------- ------------------------------- ----------------- ------------- ---------
0 00000 RM M 00-D/&->; <; ?<;6:3;<>? )2+T(N"B3046 1& 1C
2 00002 RD M 06-DN-<: ><(; ?:;6:3;:;> 1& Nager +C
3 00003 N-RM2 G 22-G/1->< ?;(; ?:6003;:00 SKTA- Nager C
: 0000: nitha G 0;-MR->< 6:(3 ?:6003;;;; NN Nager 1C
Sim2le nde1:
=hen inde9 is created "n "ne c"lumn it is called as simple inde9(
S.nta1:
&R/T/ -ND/E U-ND/EPNM/V +N UT12/PNM/V (&+2PNM/'N
E1:
S72V create inde9 m%-nde9 "n studentPt3l(name'N
-nde9 created(
Pnote"
-nde9 sh"uld 3e created "n c"lumns 6hich 6e regularl% use in the 6here clause(
=hen a inde9 is created a separate structure is created 6ith !irst c"lumn is R+=-D and sec"nd
c"lumn as inde9ed c"lumn(
The R"6s in the inde9 6ill 3e arranged in the ascending "rder "! inde9ed c"lumn(
Com2o"ite nde1:
6hen -nde9 is created multiple c"lumns it is called c"mp"site inde9(
E1:
72
S72V create inde9 m%&"mp-nde9 "n studentPt3l(D+1,DDR/SS'N
-nde9 created(
The a3"$e inde9 m.Com2nde1 is used "nl% 6hen 3"th the c"lumns are used in the 6here clause(
)i"ad5anta-e" of inde1:
-nde9 6ill c"nsume mem"r%(
The per!"rmance "! DM2 c"mmand 6ill 3e decreased(
-nde9 can als" 3e categ"riFed t6" t%pesB
0( #ni8ue inde9
2( N"n-uni8ue inde9
%ni;#e nde1:
-! the inde9ed c"lumn c"ntains uni8ue $alue it is called uni8ue inde9(
uni8ue inde9 is aut"maticall% created( =hen 6e create a ta3le 6ith primar% ke% c"nstraint "r
uni8ue c"nstraint(
Cmd
S72V create uni8ue inde9 m%-nde9 "n studentPt3l(name'N
(on3#ni;#e inde1:
-! an inde9 c"lumn c"ntains duplicated $alues the% are called as n"n-uni8ue inde9(
See to inde1 ta$le":
S72V Select inde9Pname !r"m userPinde9esN
-ND/EPNM/
-----------------------
MH&+M)-ND/E
MH-ND/E
SHSP&000006:
73
7uer% t" see list "! all the inde9es(
S72V Select -ND/EPNM/,T12/PNM/ !r"m userPinde9esN
-ND/EPNM/ T12/PNM/
------------------------------ ------------------------------
SHSP&000006: T12P)K/H
MH&+M)-ND/E ST#D/NTPT12
MH-ND/E ST#D/NTPT12
7uer% t" see list "! all the inde9es al"ng 6ith c"lumn name(
S72V Select inde9Pname, ta3lePname, c"lumnPname !r"m userPindPc"lumnsN
-ND/EPNM/ T12/PNM/ &+2#MNPNM/
-------------------- ------------------- ------------------------
MH&+M)-ND/E ST#D/NTPT12 DDR/SS
MH&+M)-ND/E ST#D/NTPT12 D+1
MH-ND/E ST#D/NTPT12 NM/
.
S72V Desc userPinde9esN
S72V Desc userPindPc"lumnsN
F#nction $a"ed inde1:
=hen inde9 is created 3% using !uncti"ns it is called as !uncti"n 3ased inde9(
E1:
S72V &R/T/ -ND/E m%Gunc-nde9 +N ST#D/NTPT12(l"6er(name''N
-nde9 created(
To dro2 on inde1:
E1:
S72V dr"p inde9 inde9P"!PstudentPt3lN
74
RES%,T:
Thus the S72 c"mmands !"r creati"n and $ari"us "perati"ns "n -nde9es has 3een $eri!ied and
S&!E PO(T
E1: (o: D= /=.?0
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" create the S./ )+-NT !"r the transacti"n and $eri!% the $ari"us "perati"ns "! T&2 c"mmands(
OBJECT!E:
The S&!EPO(T statement names and marks the current p"int in the pr"cessing "! a transacti"n(
=ith the RO,,B&C8 TO statement, sa$ep"ints und" parts "! a transacti"n instead "! the 6h"le
transacti"n(
n implicit sa$ep"int is marked 3e!"re e9ecuting an (SERT' %P)&TE' or )E,ETE statement( -!
the statement !ails, a r"ll3ack t" the implicit sa$ep"int is d"ne( N"rmall%, @ust the !ailed S72 statement is
r"lled 3ack, n"t the 6h"le transacti"nN i! the statement raises an unhandled e9cepti"n, the h"st en$ir"nment
&,6ORTHM:
75
ST/) :B -nsert rec"rd $alues int" the ta3le "r per!"rm an% kind "! DM2 "perati"n(
ST/) ;B &reate the S&!E PO(Ts !"r s"me set "! statement "n the transacti"n "! data3ase "3@ect(
ST/) 6B #se the COMMT c"mmand t" sa$e the e!!ect "! the pre$i"us c"mmand "perati"n e9cept DD2
c"mmand
ST/) B &heck the status "! the data3ase(
ST/) ?B St"p the D1MS(
S.nta1B
S./)+-NTUS./)+-NTPNM/VN
E1B
S72V create ta3le +RD/RP)R+&/SS-N,(
+rderP-D num3er(3',
)r"ductP-D $archar2(00',
7uantit% num3er(3,2',
)rice num3er(:,2'
'N
Ta$le created.
S72V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SS-N, $alues(000,IR-&/-22I,I6(;I,I30(;0I'N
: row created.
S72V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SS-N, $alues(002,I+-2I,I2(0I,I?0(;0I'N
: row created.
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M +RD/RP)R+&/SS-N,N
+RD/RP-D )R+D#&TP-D 7#NT-TH )R-&/
-------------- ---------------- -------------- ----------
000 R-&/-22 6(; 30(;
002 +-2 2 ?0(;
S72V COMMTI
Commit com2lete(
76
S72V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SS-N, $alues(003,I1,SI,I2I,I?;I'N
: row created.
S72V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SS-N, $alues(00:,I=T/R 1+TSI,I2I,I20I'N
: row created.
S72V S&!EPO(T &I
Sa5e2oint created.
S72V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SS-N, $alues(00;,I/,,I,I>I,I:0(;0I'N
: row created.
S72V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SS-N, $alues(006,ISAM)++I,I0I,I<;(;0I'N
: row created.
S72V S&!EPO(T BI
Sa5e2oint created.
S72V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SS-N, $alues(00<,I1R S+)I,I0I,I:;(;0I'N
: row created.
S72V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SS-N, $alues(00>,IT+N/RI,I0I,I<;(;0I'N
: row created.
S72V S&!EPO(T CI
Sa5e2oint created.
S72V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SS-N, $alues(00?,IS#,RI,I2(0I,I60(;0I'N
: row created.
-------------- ---------------- --------------- ----------
000 R-&/-22 6(; 30(;
002 +-2 2 ?0(;
003 1,S 2 ?;
77
00: =T/R 1+TS 2 20
00; /,, > :0(;
006 SAM)++ 0 <;(;
00< 1R S+) 0 :;(;
00> T+N/R 0 <;(;
00? S#,R 2 60(;
? r"6s selected(
S72V R+221&K T+ 1N
Roll$ack com2lete.
---------------- ------------------- -------------- -------------
000 R-&/-22 6(; 30(;
002 +-2 2 ?0(;
003 1,S 2 ?;
00: =T/R 1+TS 2 20
00; /,, > :0(;
006 SAM)++ 0 <;(;
6 r"6s selected(
S72V R+221&K T+ N
Roll$ack com2lete.
---------------- -------------------- ---------------- ------------
000 R-&/-22 6(; 30(;
002 +-2 2 ?0(;
003 1,S 2 ?;
00: =T/R 1+TS 2 20
S72V R+221&KN
Roll$ack com2lete.
78
--------------- -------------------- ---------------- -------------
000 R-&/-22 6(; 30(;
002 +-2 2 ?0(;
S72V R+221&KN
Roll$ack com2lete.
---------------- ------------------- ---------------- -----------
000 R-&/-22 6(; 30(;
002 +-2 2 ?0(;
79
RES%,T:
Thus the S72 c"mmands !"r creati"n and $ari"us "perati"ns "n transacti"n (T&2 &+MMND'
sa$e p"int has 3een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%
Creatin- an Em2lo.ee data$a"e to "et 5ario#" con"traint" in R)BMS
E1: (o: D>
FF : FF : FF
&M:
t the end "! this e9ercise students are a3le
T" di!!erentiate 3et6een sel! re!erential c"nstraints and !"reign ke% c"nstraint(
T" re!er a !ield "! a gi$en ta3le "r an"ther ta3le 3% using !"reign ke%(
T" appl% check c"nstraint 5 de!ault c"nstraint in an e!!ecti$e manner(
&,6ORTHM:
ST/) 3B &reate the ta3le 6ith its essential c"nstraint(
ST/) :B -nsert rec"rd $alues int" the ta3le and then check the c"nstraint(
ST/) ;B disa3le the c"nstraints and insert the $alues int" the ta3le(
ST/) 6B i! %"u 6ant t" re-ena3le the c"nstraint then ena3le %"u can d"(
ST/) <B St"p the D1MS(
80
CO(STR&(TS
&"nstraints are part "! the ta3le de!initi"n that limits and restricti"n "n the $alue entered int" its
c"lumns(
(TE6RTH CO(STR&(T
n integrit% c"nstraint is a mechanism used 3% "racle t" pre$ent in$alid data entr% int" the ta3le( -t has
en!"rcing the rules !"r the c"lumns in a ta3le(
The t%pes "! the integrit% c"nstraints areB
a' D"main -ntegrit%
3' /ntit% -ntegrit%
c' Re!erential -ntegrit%
THPES OF CO(STR&(TS:
0' )rimar% ke%
2' G"reign ke%4re!erences
3' &heck
:' #ni8ue
;' N"t null
6' Null
<' De!ault
CO(STR&(TS C&( BE CRE&TE) ( THREE 9&HS:
81
0' &"lumn le$el c"nstraints
2' Ta3le le$el c"nstraints
3' #sing DD2 statements-alter ta3le c"mmand
OPER&TO( O( CO(STR&(TB
i' /N12/
ii' D-S12/
iii' DR+)
PRM&RH 8EH CO(STR&(TS
primar% ke% a$"ids duplicati"n "! r"6s and d"es n"t all"6 null $alues( -t can 3e de!ined "n "ne "r
m"re c"lumns in a ta3le and is used t" uni8uel% identi!% each r"6 in a ta3le( These $alues sh"uld ne$er 3e
changed and sh"uld ne$er 3e null( ta3le sh"uld ha$e "nl% "ne primar% ke%( -! a primar% ke% c"nstraint is
assigned t" m"re than "ne c"lumn "r c"m3inati"n "! c"lumn is said t" 3e c"mp"site primar% ke%, 6hich can
c"ntain 06 c"lumns(
Col#mn le5el con"traint" #"in- 2rimar. ke.:
+%ERH: :=
703( =rite a 8uer% t" create primar% c"nstraints 6ith c"lumn le$el
S.nta1: &"lumn le$el c"nstraints using primar% ke%(
S72V &R/T/U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/'UTH)/ +G
&+NSTR-NTSV, &+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/' XXXXXXXXXXX'N
Command:
S72V &R/T/ T12/ T12P)K/H(
RegN" N#M1/R(;' PRM&RH 8EH,
Name .R&AR2(20',
NHPS#1PMRK N#M1/R(3'
'N
Ta$le created.
S72V insert int" T12P)K/H $alues(00000,Ira@uI,<;'N
: row created.
S72V insert int" T12P)K/H $alues(00002,Ira@I,>;'N
: row created.
S72V insert int" T12P)K/H $alues(0,IKa@I,22'N
: row created.
S72V insert int" T12P)K/H $alues(N#22,IKa@I,22'N
insert int" T12P)K/H $alues(N#22,IKa@I,22'
Q
/RR+R at line 0B
OR&3D:>DD: cannot in"ert (%,, into /SSE(TH,S.STB,FP8EHS.SRE6(OS0
S72V insert int" T12P)K/H $alues(00002,IRDNI,?;'N
insert int" T12P)K/H $alues(00002,IRDNI,?;'
Q
/RR+R at line 0B
82
OR&3DDDD:: #ni;#e con"traint /SE(TH,.SHSFCDD::@?D0 5iolated
S72V insert int" T12P)K/H $alues(00003,IRDI,>;'N
: row created.
S72V select Q GR+M T12P)K/HN
R/,N+ NM/ NHPS#1PMRK
----------- ------------- -----------------------------
00000 ra@u <;
00002 ra@ >;
0 Ka@ 22
00003 RD >;
Col#mn le5el con"traint" #"in- 2rimar. ke. with namin- con5ention:
+%ERH: :>
70:( =rite a 8uer% t" create primar% c"nstraints 6ith c"lumn le$el 6ith naming c"n$enti"n
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints using primar% ke%(
S72 V&R/T/ U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (
&+2 NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/'&+NSTR-NTS UNM/ +G &+NSTR-NTSVUTH)/ +G &+NSTR-NTSV,
&+2 NM/(2 UDTTH)/V (S-O/'XXXXXXXXXXX(XXXX'N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M)2+H// (
/M)N+ N#M1/R (:' CO(STR&(T EMPFEMP(OFP8 PRM&RH 8EH'
/NM/.R&AR2 (00',D+1 .R&AR2 (6',S2 N#M1/R (;',D/)TN+ N#M1/R (<''N
Ta$le le5el 2rimar. ke. con"traint":
+%ERH: :?
70;( =rite a 8uer% t" create primar% c"nstraints 6ith ta3le le$el 6ith naming c"n$enti"n
S.nta1: The s%nta9 !"r ta3le le$el c"nstraints using primar% ke%
S72B V&R/T/ U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/',
&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/',
&+NSTR-NTS UNM/ +G TA/ &+NSTR-NTSVUTH)/ +G TA/ &+NSTR-NTSV'N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M)2+H// (/M)N+ N#M1/R(6',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',D+1 .R&AR2(6',
S2 N#M1/R(<', D/)TN+ N#M1/R(;',
CO(STR&(T EMPFEMP(OFP8 PRM&RH 8EH/EMP(O00I
Ta$le le5el con"traint with alter command /2rimar. ke.0:
+%ERH: :@
706( =rite a 8uer% t" create primar% c"nstraints 6ith alter c"mmand
S.nta1: The s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints using primar% ke%(
S72BV&R/T/ U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V(S-O/',
&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/''N
TORU
83
S72V 2T/R T12/ UT12/ NM/V DD &+NSTR-NTS UNM/ +G TA/&+NSTR-NTSV UTH)/ +G
TA/ &+NSTR-NTSVU&+2#MN NM/V'N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M)2+H//(/M)N+ N#M1/R(;',/NM/ .R&AR2(6',D+1 .R&AR2(6',
S2 N#M1/R(6',D/)TN+ N#M1/R(6''N
S72V2T/R T12/ /M)3 DD &+NSTR-NT EMP=FEMP(OFP8 PRM&RH8EH /EMP(O0I
REFERE(CE 4FORE6( 8EH CO(STR&(T
-t en!"rces relati"nship 3et6een ta3les( T" esta3lish parent-child relati"nship 3et6een 2 ta3les ha$ing a
c"mm"n c"lumn de!initi"n, 6e make use "! this c"nstraint( T" implement this, 6e sh"uld de!ine the c"lumn in the
parent ta3le as primar% ke% and same c"lumn in the child ta3le as !"reign ke% re!erring t" the c"rresp"nding parent
entr%(
Forei-n ke.
c"lumn "r c"m3inati"n "! c"lumn included in the de!initi"n "! re!erential integrit%, 6hich 6"uld re!er t" a
re!erenced ke%(
Referenced ke.
-t is a uni8ue "r primar% ke% up"n 6hich is de!ined "n a c"lumn 3el"nging t" the parent ta3le(
Col#mn le5el forei-n ke. con"traint
+%ERH: :A
7(0<( =rite a 8uer% t" create !"reign ke% c"nstraints 6ith c"lumn le$el
Parent Ta$le:
S.nta1: S%nta9 !"r &"lumn le$el c"nstraints #sing )rimar% ke%
S72BV&R/T/ U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (
&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V(S-O/'UTH)/ +G &+NSTR-NTSV ,
&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/'XXXXXXXXX'N
Command:
S72V &R/T/ T12/ )EPT(
)EPT(O N#M1/R(3' PRM&RH 8EH,
)(&ME .R&AR2(20',,OC&TO( .R&AR2(0;''N
Ta3le created(
S72V desc D/)TN
Name Null] T%pe
----------------- ---------------- --------------------
D/)TN+ N+T N#22 N#M1/R(3'
DNM/ .R&AR2(20'
2+&T-+N .R&AR2(0;'
S72V select Q !r"m D/)TN
D/)TN+ DNM/ 2+&T-+N
------------ ---------------- ---------------
84
000 kamal chennai
002 ra@ini madurai
003 @ith k"$ai
Child Ta$le:
S.nta1: The s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints using !"reign ke%(
&+2#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (S-O/' R/G/R/N&/S UT12/ NM/V(&+2#MN NM/V X('N
Command:
S72V &R/T/ T12/ EMP,(EMP(O N#M1/R(:',
)EPT(O N#M1/R(3' REFERE(CES D/)T()EPT(O',
)ES6( .R&AR2(00''N
Ta3le created(
S72V desc /M)2N
Name Null] T%pe
-------------------------- ------------- ----------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3'
D/S-,N .R&AR2(00'
S72V insert int" /M)2 $alues(;000,000,IRDI'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V insert int" /M)2 $alues(;003,003,IKDI'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V insert int" /M)2 $alues(;006,00:,IRMHI'N
insert int" /M)2 $alues(;006,00:,IRMHI'
Q
/RR+R at line 0B
+R-022?0B integrit% c"nstraint (SHST/M(SHSP&00002?:' $i"lated - parent ke% n"t
!"und
S72V select Q !r"m /M)2N
/M)N+ D/)TN+ D/S-,N
---------- ------------ -------------
;000 000 RD
;003 003 KD
Col#mn le5el forei-n ke. con"traint with namin- con5er"ion"
+%ERH: :B
7(0>( =rite a 8uer% t" create !"reign ke% c"nstraints 6ith c"lumn le$el
Parent Ta$le:
S.nta1: The s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints using primar% ke%(
S72 BV &R/T/U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V(S-O/'UTH)/ +G
&+NSTR-NTSV,&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/'X'N
Child Ta$le:
S.nta1: "%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints using !"reign ke%(
S72 BV &R/T/U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V(S-O/' ,
85
&+2#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (S-O/' CO(STR&(T MCO(ST.(&MELR/G/R/N&/S UT12/ NM/V
(&+2#MN NM/VX'N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ D/)T (D/)TN+ N#M1/R (2' PRM&RH8EH,
DNM/ .R&AR2 (20', 2+&T-+N .R&AR2 (0;''N
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M): (/M)N+ N#M1/R (3',
D/)TN+ N#M1/R (2' CO(STR&(T EMP>&F)EPT(OFF8 REFERE(CES )EPT /)EPT(O0'
D/S-,N .R&AR2 (00''N
Ta$le le5el forei-n ke. con"traint":
+%ERH: :C
7(0?( =rite a 8uer% t" create !"reign ke% c"nstraints 6ith Ta3le le$el(
Parent Ta$le:
S.nta1:
S72 BV &R/T/U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V(S-O/' UTH)/ +G
&+NSTR-NTSV, &+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/'X'N
Child Ta$le:
S.nta1: The s%nta9 !"r ta3le le$el c"nstraints using !"reign ke%(
S72 BV &R/T/U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V(S-O/',
&+2#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (S-O/',
CO(STR&(T MCO(ST.(&MELR/G/R/N&/S UT12/ NM/V (&+2#MN NM/V'N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ D/)T(D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2' PRM&RH 8EH,
DNM/ .R&AR2(20',2+&T-+N .R&AR2(0;''N
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M);(/M)N+ N#M1/R(3',D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2',
D/S-,N .R&AR2(00' CO(STR&(T E(P<F)EPT(OFF8 FORE6(8EH/)EPT (O0 REFERE(CES
)EPT/)EPT(O00I
Ta$le le5el forei-n ke. con"traint" with alter command:
+%ERH:<D
7(20( =rite a 8uer% t" create !"reign ke% c"nstraints 6ith Ta3le le$el 6ith alterc"mmand(
Parent Ta$le:
S.nta1:
S72 BV&R/T/U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V(S-O/'UTH)/ +G
&+NSTR-NTSV , &+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/' X((XXXXXXXXXXX'N
Child Ta$le:
S.nta1: The s%nta9 !"r ta3le le$el c"nstraints using !"reign ke%(
&+2#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (S-O/''N
86
S.nta1:
S72V 2T/R T12/ UT12/ NM/V DD &+NSTR-NT U&+NST( NM/VR/G/R/N&/S UT12/ NM/V
(&+2#MN NM/V'N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ D/)T(D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2' )R-MRH K/H, DNM/ .R&AR2(20', 2+&T-+N .R&AR2
(0;''N
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M); (/M)N+ N#M1/R(3', D/)TN+ N#M1/R (2', D/S-,N .R&AR2 (00''N
S72V2T/R T12/ /M)6 DD &+NSTR-NT /M)6PD/)TN+PGK G+R/-,NK/H(D/)TN+'R/G/R/N&/S
D/)T(D/)TN+'N
CHEC8 CO(STR&(T
&heck c"nstraint can 3e de!ined t" all"6 "nl% a particular range "! $alues (6hen the manipulati"n $i"lates this
c"nstraint, the rec"rd 6ill 3e re@ected( &heck c"nditi"n cann"t c"ntain su3 8ueries(
Col#mn le5el check" con"traint:
+%ERH: <:
7(20( =rite a 8uer% t" create &heck c"nstraints 6ith c"lumn le$el
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints using check(
S72BV&R/T/ U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V(S-O/'
&+NSTR-NT U&+NSTR-NTS NM/VUTH)/ +G &+NSTR-NTSV(&+NSTR-TNS &R-T/R-' ,
&+2#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (S-O/''N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M)<(/M)N+ N#M1/R(3',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',D/S-,N .R&AR2(0;',
S2 N#M1/R(;'CO(STR&(T /M)<PS2P&K &A/&K(S2V;00 NDS2U00000',
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2''N
Ta$le ,e5el Check Con"traint:
+%ERH: <<
7(22( =rite a 8uer% t" create &heck c"nstraints 6ith ta3le le$el
S.nta1: S%nta9 !"r Ta3le le$el c"nstraints using &heck(
(&+2#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (S-O/',
&+NSTR-NTU&+NSTR-NTS NM/VUTH)/ +G &+NSTR-NTSV (&+NSTR-TNS&R-T/R-''N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M)>(/M)N+ N#M1/R(3',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',D/S-,N .R&AR2(0;',
S2 N#M1/R(;',D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2',
CO(STR&(TS /M)>PS2P&K &A/&K(S2V;00 &()S2U00000''N
Check Con"traint with &lter Command:
+%ERH:<=
7(23( =rite a 8uer% t" create &heck c"nstraints 6ith ta3le le$el using alter c"mmand(
87
S.nta1: S%nta9 !"r Ta3le le$el c"nstraints using &heck(
&+NSTR-NTU&+NSTR-NTS NM/VUTH)/ +G &+NSTR-NTSV (&+NSTR-TNS&R-T/R-'' N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M)?(/M)N+ N#M1/R,/NM/ .R&AR2(20',D/S-,N .R&AR2(0;',
S2 N#M1/R(;''N
S72V2T/R T12/ /M)? DD CO(STR&(TS /M)?PS2P&KCHEC8(S2V;00 ND S2U00000'N
%(+%E CO(STR&(T
-t is used t" ensure that in!"rmati"n in the c"lumn !"r each rec"rd is uni8ue, as 6ith teleph"ne "r dri$ers
license num3ers( -t pre$ents the duplicati"n "! $alue 6ith r"6s "! a speci!ied c"lumn in a set "! c"lumn( c"lumn
de!ined 6ith the c"nstraint can all"6 null $alue(
-! uni8ue ke% c"nstraint is de!ined in m"re than "ne c"lumn i(e(, c"m3inati"n "! c"lumn cann"t 3e speci!ied(
Ma9imum c"m3inati"n "! c"lumns that a c"mp"site uni8ue ke% can c"ntain is 06(
Col#mn ,e5el Con"traint:
+%ERH:<>
7(2:( =rite a 8uer% t" create uni8ue c"nstraints 6ith c"lumn le$el
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints 6ith uni8ue(
S72 BV &R/T/ U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (U&+2#MN NM/(0V UDTTH)/V (S-O/' &+NSTR-NT
UNM/ +G &+NSTR-NTSVU&+NSTR-NT TH)/V,
(&+2#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (S-O/''N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M)00(/M)N+ N#M1/R(3',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',
D/S,-N .R&AR2 (0;'CO(STR&(T /M)00PD/S-,NP#K #N-7#/,
S2 N#M1/R (;''N
Ta$le ,e5el Con"traint:
+%ERH: <?
7(2;( =rite a 8uer% t" create uni8ue c"nstraints 6ith ta3le le$el
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r ta3le le$el c"nstraints 6ith uni8ue(
S72 BV &R/T/ U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (U&+2#MN NM/(0VUDTTH)/V (S-O/',
&+NSTR-NTUNM/ +G &+NSTR-NTSVU&+NSTR-NT TH)/V(&+2#MN NM/'N' N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M)00(/M)N+ N#M1/R(3',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',D/S-,N .R&AR2(0;',
S2 N#M1/R(;',
&+NSTR-NT /M)00PD/S-,NP#K #N-,#/(D/S-,N''N
Ta$le ,e5el Con"traint &lter Command:
+%ERH:<@
7(26( =rite a 8uer% t" create uni8ue c"nstraints 6ith ta3le le$el
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r ta3le le$el c"nstraints 6ith check using alter(
S72 BV &R/T/ U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (U&+2#MN NM/(0VUDTTH)/V (S-O/',
(U&+2#MN NM/(2VUDTTH)/V (S-O/'' N
88
S72V 2T/R T12/ DD U&+NSTR-NTSVU&+NSTR-NTS NM/VU&+NSTR-NTS TH)/V (&+2#MN
NM/'N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M)02(/M)N+ N#M1/R(3',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',D/S-,N .R&AR2(0;',
S2 N#M1/R(;''N
S72V2T/R T12/ /M)02 DD &+NSTR-NT /M)02PD/S-,NP#K#N-7#/(D/S-N,'N
(OT (%,, CO(STR&(TS
=hile creating ta3les, 3% de!ault the r"6s can ha$e null $alue (the en!"rcement "! n"t null c"nstraint in a ta3le
ensure that the ta3le c"ntains $alues(
+%ERH: <A
7(2<( =rite a 8uer% t" create N"t Null c"nstraints 6ith c"lumn le$el
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints 6ith n"t null
S72 BV &R/T/ U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V(U&+2#MN NM/(0VUDTTH)/V (S-O/' &+NSTR-NT
UNM/ +G &+NSTR-NTSV U&+NSTR-NT TH)/V,
(&+2#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (S-O/'' N
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M)03(/M)N+ N#M1/R(:',
/NM/ .R&AR2(20' &+NSTR-NT /M)03P/NM/PNN N+T N#22,
D/S-,N .R&AR2(20',S2 N#M1/R(3''N
(%,, CO(STR&(TS
Setting null $alue is appr"priate 6hen the actual $alue is unkn"6n, "r 6hen a $alue 6"uld n"t 3e meaning!ul(
null $alue is n"t e8ui$alent t" a $alue "! Fer"(
null $alue 6ill al6a%s e$aluate t" null in an% e9pressi"n(
=hen a c"lumn name is de!ined as n"t null, that c"lumn 3ec"mes a mandat"r%
i(e(, the user has t" enter data int" it(
N"t null -ntegrit% c"nstraint cann"t 3e de!ined using the alter ta3le c"mmand 6hen the ta3le c"ntain r"6s(
+%ERH:( =rite a 8uer% t" create Null c"nstraints 6ith c"lumn le$el
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints 6ith null
S72 BV &R/T/ U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (
U&+2#MN NM/(0VUDTTH)/V (S-O/' CO(STR&(T UNM/ +G &+NSTR-NTSV U&+NSTR-NT
TH)/V,(&+2#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (S-O/'' N
89
Command:
S72V&R/T/ T12/ /M)03(/M)N+ N#M1/R(:',
/NM/ .R&AR2(20' &+NSTR-NT /M)03P/NM/PNN N#22,
D/S-,N .R&AR2(20',S2 N#M1/R(3''N
)EF&%,T CO(STR&(TS
De!ault c"nstraints assign the de!ault $alues i! the $alues is n"t passed at the time "! inserting the $alues t" the ta3le
+%ERH:( =rite a 8uer% t" create de!ault c"nstraints 6ith c"lumn le$el
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints 6ith de!ault
S72 BV &R/T/ U+1D(TH)/VU+1D(NM/V (
U&+2#MN NM/(0VUDTTH)/V (S-O/' ,
U&+2#MN NM/(2 UDTTH)/V (S-O/' )efa#lt Udefa#lt 5al#eV' N
Command:
S72V &R/T/ T12/ DG(
R/,N+ N#M1/R(;',
NM/ .R&AR2(20',
MRKS N#M1/R(3' )EF&%,T ??
'N
Ta3le created(
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ DG .2#/S(0000,IRD#NI,N#22'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ DG(R/,N+' .2#/S(:DD?'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V -NS/RT -NT+ DG .2#/S(0000,IRDI,<>'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V S/2/&T Q GR+M DGN
R/,N+ NM/ MRKS
----------- ---------- ------------
0000 RD#N
000; ;;
90
0000 RD <>
)S&B,(6 &() )ROPP(6 CO(STR&(TS
%S(6 )S&B,E4E(&B,E
=hene$er a c"nstraint is created !"r a c"lumn(s', e$er% time an entr% is made t" the c"lumn , it must 3e
e$aluated t" determine 6hether the $alue is all"6ed in that c"lumn(it checks d"esnLt .i"late the c"nstraint'( -! a
large 3l"ck "! data is 3eing added t" a ta3le the $alidati"n pr"cess can se$erel% sl"6 d"6n the "racle ser$erLs
pr"cessing speed( H"u are certain that the data 3eing added t" a ta3le adheres t" the c"nstraints then disa3le the
c"nstraints 6hile adding that particular 3l"ck "! data "! data t" the ta3le(
T" D-S12/ a c"nstraint, issue an 2T/R T12/ c"mmand and change the status "! the c"nstraint t"
D-S12/( t a later time can reissue the 2T/R T12/ c"mmand and change the status "! the c"nstraint 3ack t"
/N12/ S"metimes, temp"raril% disa3le "r dr"p a c"nstraint(
Con"traint )i"a$le
+%ERH:<C
7(2?( =rite a 8uer% t" disa3le the c"nstraints
S.nta1: S%nta9 !"r disa3ling a single c"nstraint in a ta3le(
S72V2T/R T12/ UT12/-NM/V D-S12/ &+NSTR-NT U&+NSTR-NTNM/V
S72V2T/R T12/ /M)03 D-S12/ &+NSTR-NT /M)03P/NM/PNNN#22N
Con"traint Ena$le
+%ERH: =D
7(30( =rite a 8uer% t" ena3le the c"nstraints
S.nta1: S.nta1 for di"a$lin- a "in-le con"traint in a ta$le:
S72V2T/R T12/ UT12/-NM/V D-S12/ &+NSTR-NT U&+NSTR-NTNM/V
Command:
S72V2T/R T12/ /M)03 /N12/ &+NSTR-NT /M)03P/NM/PNN N#22N
TO ,ST &,, THE CO(STR&(TS:
S72VS/2/&T Q GR+M #S/RP&+NSTR-NTSN
S72V S/2/&T &+NSTR-NTPNM/,&+NSTR-NTPTH)/,STT#S GR+M #S/RP&+NSTR-NTSN
&+NSTR-NTPNM/ & STT#S
------------------------------ - --------
SHSP&00006;2 ) /N12/D
SHSP&00006;; # /N12/D
SHSP&00006;> ) D-S12/D
0: r"6s selected(
S72Vselect c"nstraintPname,c"nstraintPt%pe,status GR+M #S/RP&+NSTR-NTS =A/R/ T12/PNM/S1&
RES%,T:
91
Thus the S72 c"mmands !"r &reating an /mpl"%ee data3ase t" set $ari"us c"nstraints has 3een
$eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%(
CRE&T(6 RE,&TO(SHP BET9EE( THE )&T&B&SES ( R)BMS
E1: (o: D? /?.:0 TO MP,EME(T&TO( OF SET OPER&TORS
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" /9ecute and $eri!% The S72 &"mmands G"r Set +perat"rs -mplementati"n -n Relati"nal M"del
(
OBJECT!E:
Set "perat"rs are used t" retrie$e the data !r"m t6" "r multiple ta3les(
The% are di!!erent t%pes(
#ni"n
#ni"n all
-ntersect
Minus
&,6ORTHM:
STEP :: Start
STEP <: &reate t6" di!!erent ta3les 6ith its essential attri3utes(
STEP =: -nsert attri3ute $alues int" the ta3les(
STEP >: &reate the result !"r the $ari"us set "perati"n(
STEP ?: /9ecute &"mmand and e9tract in!"rmati"n !r"m the ta3les(
STEP @B St"p
S&MP,E T&B,ES
S72V select Q !r"m ST#D/NTP-TN
R/,PN+ NM/ 1RN& S#1D/&T
------------ --------------- ----------- --------
00000 ram -T DT STR#&T#R/
00002 Sam -T DT1S/ SHST/M
00003 Tam -T =/1 T/&AN+2+,H
0000: RD -T DS)
0000; TD -T D-)
00006 khan -T =/1 T/&AN+2+,H
3000; RD /&/ &-R&#-T D/S-,N
< r"6s selected(
S72V select Q !r"m ST#D/NTP/&/N
------------ ---------------- ---- ----- --------------------
30000 RM# /&/ D-)
30002 SM# /&/ DS)
30003 TM# /&/ &-R&#-T D/S-,N
92
3000: RD# /&/ /2/&TR+ M/&AN-&S
3000; RD /&/ &-R&#-T D/S-,N
3000; RD /&/ &-R&#-T D/S-,N
%(O(
This 6ill c"m3ine the rec"rds "! multiple ta3les ha$ing the same structure(
E1:
S72V select Q !r"m studentP-T uni"n select Q !r"m studentP/&/N
----------- -------- ----------- ------------------
00003 Tam -T =/1 T/&AN+2+,H
0000: RD -T DS)
0000; TD -T D-)
00006 khan -T =/1 T/&AN+2+,H
30000 RM# /&/ D-)
30002 SM# /&/ DS)
30003 TM# /&/ &-R&#-T D/S-,N
3000: RD# /&/ /2/&TR+ M/&AN-&S
3000; RD /&/ &-R&#-T D/S-,N
00 r"6s selected(
%(O( &,,
This 6ill c"m3ine the rec"rds "! multiple ta3les ha$ing the same structure 3ut including duplicates(
E1:
S72V select Q !r"m studentP-T uni"n all select Q !r"m studentP/&/N
------------- ----------- ----------- --------------------
00003 Tam -T =/1 T/&AN+2+,H
0000: RD -T DS)
0000; TD -T D-)
00006 khan -T =/1 T/&AN+2+,H
3000; RD /&/ &-R&#-T D/S-,N
30000 RM# /&/ D-)
30002 SM# /&/ DS)
30003 TM# /&/ &-R&#-T D/S-,N
3000: RD# /&/ /2/&TR+ M/&AN-&S
3000; RD /&/ &-R&#-T D/S-,N
3000; RD /&/ &-R&#-T D/S-,N
03 r"6s selected(
(TERSECT
This 6ill gi$e the c"mm"n rec"rds "! multiple ta3les ha$ing the same structure(
E1:
S72V select Q !r"m studentP-T -NT/RS/&T select Q !r"m studentP/&/N
------------ --------- ----------- -----------------
93
3000; RD /&/ &-R&#-T D/S-,N
M(%S
This 6ill gi$e the rec"rds "! a ta3le 6h"se rec"rds are n"t in "ther ta3les ha$ing the same structure(
E1:
S72V select Q !r"m studentP-T M-N#S select Q !r"m studentP/&/N
------------ ---------- ---------- -------------------
00003 Tam -T =/1 T/&AN+2+,H
0000: RD -T DS)
0000; TD -T D-)
00006 khan -T =/1 T/&AN+2+,H
6 r"6s selected(
RES%,T:
Thus the S72 c"mmands !"r S/T "perat"rs has 3een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%(
94
E1: (o: D? /?.<0 To im2lementation of (e"ted +#erie"
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" e9ecute and $eri!% the S72 c"mmands !"r Nested 7ueries(
OBJECT!E:
Nested 7uer% can ha$e m"re than "ne le$el "! nesting in "ne single 8uer%( S72 nested 8uer% is a
S/2/&T 8uer% that is nested inside a S/2/&T, #)DT/, -NS/RT, "r D/2/T/ S72 8uer%(
&,6ORTHM:
STEP :: Start the pr"gram(
STEP =: -nsert attri3ute $alues int" the ta3le(
STEP >: &reate the Nested 8uer% !r"m the a3"$e created ta3le(
STEP ?: /9ecute &"mmand and e9tract in!"rmati"n !r"m the ta3les(
STEP @: St"p the pr"gram(
Table -
95
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r creating a ta3le.
S72B &R/T/ U+1D(TH)/V U+1D(NM/V (&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/',
&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/' X'N
Command:
S72V &R/T/ T12/ /M)2(/M)N+ N#M1/R(;',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',D+1 .R&AR2(20',
S2 N#M1/R(6',M,RN+ N#M1/R(:',D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3''N
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r insert rec"rds in t" a ta3le(
S72 BV -NS/RT -NT+ UT12/ NM/V .2#/SU .20, L.22M,X(('N
Command:
S72V S/2/&T QGR+M /M)2N
/M)N+ /NM/ D+1 S2 M,RN+ D)TN+
----------- ---------- ------- ------------ ---------- ----------
0000 MA/SA )R+,RMM/R 0;000 0;60 200
0002 MN+D T/ST/R 02000 0;60 200
0003 KRTA-K )R+,RMM/R 03000 0:00 200
000: NR/SA &2/RK 0:00 0:00 200
000; MN- T/ST/R 03000 0:00 200
0006 .-K- D/S-,N/R 02;00 0;60 200
000< M+AN D/S-,N/R 0:000 0;60 200
000> N.//N &R/T-+N 20000 0:00 200
000? )RSD D-R 20000 0;60 202
0000 ,N/SA D-R 0;000 0:00 200
T&B,E3 <
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r creating a ta3le(
S72B &R/T/ U+1D(TH)/V U+1D(NM/V (&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/',
&+2#MN NM/(0 UDTTH)/V (S-O/' XXXXXXN
Command:
S72V &R/T/ T12/ D/)T2(D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3',D/)TNM/ .R&AR2(00',
2+&T-+N .R&AR2(0;''N
Ta3le created(
S.nta1: s%nta9 !"r insert rec"rds in t" a ta3le(
S72 BV -NS/RT -NT+ UT12/ NM/V .2#/SU .20, L.22M,X(('N
S72V S/2/&T QGR+M D/)T2N
D/)TN+ D/)TNM/ 2+&T-+N
---------- ---------- ---------------
00< D/./2+) DHR
200 D/1#, #K
200 T/ST #S
200 T/ST #SSR
00> D/1#, DHR
00? 1#-2D )+TA/R-
6 r"6s selected(
S.nta1:
6E(ER&, SH(T&7 FOR (ESTE) +%ERH:
96
S+,L S/2/&T R&+2#MNPNM/0R
GR+M RT12/PNM/0R
=A/R/ R&+2#MNPNM/2R
Y&+M)R-S+N +)/RT+RZ (S/2/&T R&+2#MNPNM/3R GR+M RT12/PNM/2R
=A/R/ Y&+ND-T-+NZ'
S.nta1: s%nta9 nested 8uer% statement(
S+,L S/2/&T U&+2#MNPNM/V
GR+M GR+RM UT12/ P0V
=A/R/ U&+2#MNPNM/V UR/2T-+N2 P+)/RT-+NV L.2#/M
(S/2/&T (,,R/&T/ G#N&T-+N' GR+M UT12/P0V =A/R/ U&+2#MN NM/V S L.2#/M
(S/2/&T U&+2#MNPNM/V GR+M UT12/P2V =A/R/ U&+2#MNPNM/S L.2#/M''N
(ESTE) +%ERH ST&TEME(T:
Command:
S+,L S/2/&T /NM/ GR+M /M)2
=A/R/ S2V(S/2/&T M-N(S2'
GR+M /M)2 =A/R/ D)TN+S(S/2/&T D/)TN+ GR+M D/)T2 =A/R/ 2+&T-+NSI#KI''N
(e"ted +#er. O#t2#t:
/NM/
----------
MA/SA
MN+D
KRTA-K
MN-
.-K-
M+AN
N.//N
)RSD
,N/SA
RES%,T:
Thus the S72 c"mmands !"r t" implementati"n "! nested 8ueries has 3een $eri!ied and e9ecuted
success!ull%(
97
E1: (o: D? /?.=0 To im2lementation the Join O2eration"
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" e9ecute and $eri!% the S72 c"mmands !"r $ari"us @"in "perati"n(
&,6ORTHM:
STEP >: &reate the ta3le "3@ect !"r eas% re!erence(
STEP ?: D"in t6" ta3les 3% using D+-N "perat"r(
STEP @: Displa% the result "! the result ta3le(
STEP A: St"p the pr"gram(
JO(SB
D"ins are used t" retrie$e the data !r"m multiple ta3les(
T.2e" of Join"B
0( /7#-PD+-N
2( N+N /7#-PD+-N
3( S/2G D+-N
:( +#T/R D+-N
:(0 Right "uter @"in
:(2 2e!t "uter @"in
:(3 Gull "uter @"in
0( E+%FJO(B
=hen ta3les are @"ined 3asing "n a c"mm"n c"lumn it is called /7#-PD+-N(
98
E1B
select empn", ename, dname !r"m emp, dept 6here emp(deptn" S dept(deptn"N
EMPNO ENAME DNAME
7369 SMITH RESEARCH
7499 ALLEN SALES
7521 WARD SALES
(oteB
=e need t" menti"n @"in c"nditi"ns in the 6here clause(
-n /7#-PD+-NS 6e al"ng use t" e8ual t" "perat"r in @"in c"nditi"n(
E1B
SQL6S$#$t$ $04no2 $n!0$2 s!#2 7o"2 8n!0$2 #oc
9%o0 $042 8$4t
/&$%$ $04:8$4tno ; 8$4t:8$4tno5
SQL6Selete empn", ename, sal, deptn", dname, l"c
!r"m emp, dept
6here emp(deptn" S dept(deptn"N44 err"r
SQL6Selete empn", ename, sal, emp(deptn", dname, l"c
!r"m emp, dept
6here emp(deptn" S dept(deptn"N 44$alid
(oteB
6e need t" menti"n ta3le name d"t c"lumn(emp(deptn"' name !"r the c"mm"n c"lumn t" res"l$e the
an% ta3le(
The c"mm"n c"lumn can 3e retrie$ed !r"m an% "! the ta3le(
=e can !ilter the data !r"m the result "! @"in(
E1B
SQL6Select empn", ename, sal, emp(deptn", dname, l"c
!r"m emp, dept
99
6here emp(deptn" S dept(deptn" ND sal V 2000N
T" impr"$e the per!"rmance "! the @"in 6e need menti"n ta3le name d"t c"lumn name !"r all the c"lumns(
E1B
SQL6Select emp(empn", emp(ename, emp(sal,emp(deptn", dept(dname, dept(l"c
!r"m emp,dept
6here emp(deptn" S dept(deptn" ND sal V 2000N
Ta$le alia"B
Ta3le alias is an alternate name gi$en t" a ta3le(
1% using a ta3le alias length "! the ta3le reduces and at the same time per!"rmance is maintains(
Ta3le alias are create in same clause can 3e used in select clause as 6ell as 6here clause(
Ta3le alias is temp"rar% "nce the 8uer% is e9ecuted the ta3le alias are l"sed(
E1B
SQL6Select /(/mpn", /(/name, /(sal, /(deptn", D(Dname, D(l"c
!r"m emp /, Dept D
6here /(deptn" S D(deptn"N
Join the m#lti2le ta$le"/= ta$le"0B
Select Q !r"m reasN
Cit. State
Ne6%"rk )
Dallas Mh
E1B
SQL6Select /(empn", /(ename, /(sal,D(dname,(state
!r"m emp /, dept D, reas
6here /(deptn" S D(deptn" ND D(l"c S (cit%N
(oteB T" @"in LnM ta3les 6e need n-0 c"nditi"ns(
(O( E+% JO(B
=hen 6e d" n"t use N+N /7#- D+-N t" "perat"r in the @"in c"nditi"n is N+N /7#- D+-N(
E1B
100
SQL6Select Q !r"m S2,RD/N
,RD/ 2+S2 A-S2
0 <00 0200
2 0200 0:00
3 0:00 2000
: 2000 3000
; 3000 ????
SQL6Select e(empn", e(ename, e(sal, s(grade
!r"m emp e, salgrade s
6here e(sal 1/T=//N s(l"sal ND hisalN
/M)N+ /NM/ ,RD/
<36? SM-TA 0
<><6 DMS 0
<?00 DM/S 2
SQL6Select e(empn", e(ename, s(grade
!r"m emp e, salgrade s
6here e(sal 1/T=//N s(l"sal ND s(hisal ND s(grade S :N
SE,F JO(B
=hen a ta3le is @"ining t" it sel! it is called sel! @"in( -n sel! @"ins 6e need t" create t6" ta3le aliases
!"r the same ta3le(
SQL6Select empn", ename, @"3, mgr, !r"m empN
SQL6Select e(empn", e(ename, e(@"3, m(ename
!r"m emp e, emp m
6here e(mgr S m(empn"N
Em2no Ename Jo$ Ename
<?02 G+RD N2HST D+N/S
<>6? S&+TT &2/RK D+N/S
<?00 DM/S S2/SMN 12K/
C&RTES&( PRO)%CTB
=hen ta3les are @"ined 6ith"ut an% @"in c"nditi"n it is called &artesian pr"duct( -n the result 6e get
all p"ssi3le c"m3inati"n(
SQL6Select e(empn", e(ename, e(sal, e(deptn", d(dname, d(l"c
101
!r"m emp e, dept dN 440:Q:S;6 r"6s are selected
&(S JO(SB
The% are the three t%pes(
((ER JO(SB
-t is same as /8ui @"in(
E1B
!r"m emp e -NN/R D+-N dept d +N(e(deptn" S d(deptn"'N
2((&T%R&, JO(B
-t is same as /8ui @"in(
E1B
SQL6Select empn", ename, sal, deptn", dname,l"c !r"m NT#R2 D+-N deptN
CROSS PRO)%CT4CROSS JO(B
-t is same as &artesian pr"duct(
E1B
!r"m emp e &R+SS D+-N dept dN 440:Q: S ;6 r"6s are displa%ed(
)EF&%,TB
E1B
SQL6&reate ta3le stu0(sn" num3er(3',
Sname $archar2(00',
Marks num3er(3' de!ault 000,
D"@ Date D/G#2T s%sdate'N

SQL6-nsert int" stu0(sn", sname' $alues(000,MmalliM'N
SQL6-nsert int" stu0 $alues(002,MR#NM,:0,M00-DN-0?M'N
SQL6-nsert int" stu0 $alues (003,MK-RNM,N#22,M02-G/1-00M'N
SN+ SNM/ MRKS D+D
102
000 malli 000 26-D#N-02
002 R#N :0 00-DN-0?
003 K-RN 02-G/1-00
S%PER 8EHB
&"m3inati"n "! c"lumns 6hich can 3e used uni8ue ke% identi!% e$er% r"6 is called as super ke%(
Ta3le "3@ect
&"lumn ttri3utes
R"6 Tuple4Rec"rd
O%TER JO(SB
-t is e9tensi"n "! /7#- D+-NS(
-n "uter @"ins 6e get match as 6ell as n"n matching r"6s(
(C' This called as "uter @"in "perat"r(
:. R6HT O%TER JO(B
S+, S.nta1B
!r"m emp e, dept d
6here e(deptn"(C' S d(deptn"N 440: C 0 S 0; r"6s
em2no ename "al de2tno dname loc
<?00 @ames ?;0 30 sales chicag"
>?63 adams 0:00 20 clerk ne6%"rk
6<?> adams 2000 00 sales india
&(S SH(T&7 OF R6HT O%TER JO(B
NS- SHSTEB
!r"m emp e R-,AT +#T/R D+-N dept d +N(e(deptn" S d(deptn"'N
,EFT O%TER JO(B
S+, S.nta1B
!r"m emp e, dept d
103
6here e(deptn" S d(deptn"(C'N 440:C3 S 0< r"6 displa%ed
&(S SH(T&7 OF ,EFT O%TER JO(B
&(S SH(T&7:
!r"m emp e 2/GT +#T/R D+-N dept d +N(e(deptn" S d(deptn"'N
F%,, O%TER JO(B
&(S SH(T&7B
!r"m emp e G#22 +#T/R D+-N dept d +N(e(deptn" S d(deptn"'N
440: C 2 C 3 S 0? r"6s are displa%ed(
RES%,T:
Thus the S72 c"mmands to implementati"n the @"in "perati"ns has 3een $eri!ied and e9ecuted
success!ull%(
St#d. of P,4S+, $lock.
E1: (o: D@
FF : FF : FF
104
&M:
T" 6rite a )24S72 3l"ck using di!!erent c"ntr"l (i!, i! else, !"r l""p, 6hile l""p,X' statements(
OBJECT!E:
)24S72 &"ntr"l Structure pr"$ides c"nditi"nal tests, l""ps, !l"6 c"ntr"l and 3ranches that let t"
pr"duce 6ell-structured pr"grams
P,4S+,
)24S72 is +racleMs pr"cedural language e9tensi"n t" S72( )24S72 all"6s %"u t" mi9 S72
statements 6ith pr"cedural statements like -G statement, 2""ping structures etc(
-t is e9tensi"n "! S72 the !"ll"6ing "r ad$antages "! )24S72(
0( =e can use pr"gramming !eatures like i! statement l""ps etc(
2( )24S72 helps in reducing net6"rk tra!!ic(
3( =e can ha$e user de!ined err"r massages 3% using c"ncept "! e9cepti"n handling(
:( =e can per!"rm related acti"ns 3% using c"ncept "! Triggers(
;( =e can sa$e the s"urce c"de permanentl% !"r repeated e9ecuti"n(
P,4S+, Block:
)24S72 pr"grams called as )24S72 3l"ck(
P,4S+, Block:
D/&2R/
Declarati"n "! $aria3le
Declarati"n "! curs"r ----------(+)T-+N2'
Declarati"n "! e9cepti"n
105
1/,-N
/9ecuta3le c"mmands --------- (MNDT+RH'
/E&/)T-+N
/9cepti"n handlers ----------(+)T-+N2'
/NDN
4 T" e9ecute the pr"gram 4 c"mmand
)eclare:
This secti"n is used t" declare l"cal $aria3les, curs"rs, /9cepti"ns and etc( This secti"n is "pti"nal(
E1ec#ta$le Section:
This secti"n c"ntains lines "! c"de 6hich is used t" c"mplete ta3le( -t is mandat"r%(
E1ce2tion Section:
This secti"n c"ntains lines "! c"de 6hich 6ill 3e e9ecuted "nl% 6hen e9cepti"n is raised( This
secti"n is "pti"nal(
Sim2le"t P,4S+, Block:
1egin
--------
--------
--------
/NDN
SER!ERO%TP%T
This 6ill 3e used t" displa% the "utput "! the )24S72 pr"grams( 1% de!ault this 6ill 3e "!!(
S.nta1:
Set ser$er"utput "n ^ "!!
E1:
S72V set ser$er"utput "n
B,OC8 THPES
n"n%m"us 3l"cks
Named 3l"cks
2a3eled 3l"cks
Su3pr"grams
106
Triggers
&(O(HMO%S B,OC8S
n"n%m"us 3l"cks implies 3asic 3l"ck structure(
E1:
7 B pr"gram t" displa% the string JK
1/,-N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(LM. fir"t 2ro-ram*'B
/NDN
4
,&BE,E) B,OC8S
2a3eled 3l"cks are an"n%m"us 3l"cks 6ith a la3el 6hich gi$es a name t" the 3l"ck(
E1:
UUm%P3l""ckVV
1/,-N
D3msP"utput(putPline(LM% !irst pr"gramM'B
/NDN
S%BPRO6R&MS
Su3pr"grams are pr"cedures and !uncti"ns( The% can 3e st"red in the data3ase as stand-al"ne
"3@ects, as part "! package "r as meth"ds "! an "3@ect t%pe(
TR66ERS
Triggers c"nsist "! a )24S72 3l"ck that is ass"ciated 6ith an e$ent that "ccurs in the data3ase(
(ESTE) B,OC8S
3l"ck can 3e nested 6ithin the e9ecuta3le "r e9cepti"n secti"n "! an "uter 3l"ck(
)E(TFERS
-denti!iers are used t" name )24S72 "3@ects, such as $aria3les, curs"rs, t%pes and su3pr"grams(
-denti!iers c"nsists "! a letter, "pti"nall% !"ll"6ed 3% an% se8uence "! characters, including letters,
num3ers, d"llar signs, undersc"res, and p"und signs "nl%( The ma9imum length !"r an identi!ier is
30 characters(
+%OTE) )E(TFERS
-! %"u 6ant t" make an identi!ier case sensiti$e, include characters such as spaces "r use a reser$ed
6"rd, %"u can encl"se the identi!ier in d"u3le 8u"tati"n marks(
E1:
D/&2R/
107
RaR num3er BS ;N
RR num3er BS 6N
1/,-N
d3msP"utput(putPline(Qa V Q ^^ a'N
d3msP"utput(putPline(Q& V Q ^^ 'N
/NDN
4
O#t2#t:
a S 6
S 6
COMME(TS
&"mments impr"$e reada3ilit% and make %"ur pr"gram m"re understanda3le( The% are ign"red 3%
the )24S72 c"mpiler(
There are t6" t%pes "! c"mments a$aila3le(
Single line c"mments
108
Multiline c"mments
S(6,E ,(E COMME(TS
single-line c"mment can start an% p"int "n a line 6ith t6" dashes and c"ntinues until the end
"! the line(
E1:
1/,-N
D3msP"utput(putPline(Lhell"M'N 33 "am2le 2ro-ram
/NDN
4
M%,T,(E COMME(TS
Multiline c"mments start 6ith the 4Q delimiter and ends 6ith Q4 delimiter(
E1:
1/,-N
D3msP"utput(putPline(Lhell"M'N 4P "am2le 2ro-ram P4
/NDN
4
!&R&B,E )EC,ER&TO(S
.aria3les can 3e declared in declarati$e secti"n "! the 3l"ckN
E1:
D/&2R/
a n#m$erI
$ n#m$er :V ?I
c n#m$er defa#lt @I
CO(ST&(T )EC,ER&TO(S
T" declare a c"nstant, %"u include the &+NSTNT ke%6"rd, and %"u must suppl% a de!ault $alue(
E1:
D/&2R/
3 con"tant num3er BS ;N
109
c con"tant num3er de!ault 6N
(OT (%,, C,&%SE
H"u can als" speci!% that the $aria3le must 3e n"t null(
E1:
D/&2R/
3 c"nstant num3er not n#llBS ;N
c num3er n"t null defa#lt @N
&(CHORE) )EC,ER&TO(S
)24S72 "!!ers t6" kinds "! anch"ring(
Scalar anch"ring
Rec"rd anch"ring
SC&,&R &(CHOR(6
#se the _TH)/ attri3ute t" de!ine %"ur $aria3le 3ased "n ta3leMs c"lumn "! s"me "ther )24S72
scalar $aria3le(
E1:
D/&2R/
dn" de2t.de2tnoRt.2eI
Su3t%pe tPnum3er is num3erN
a tPnum3erN
Su3t%pe tPsn" is "t#dent."noRt.2eI
.Psn" tPsn"N
RECOR) &(CHOR(6
#se the _R+=TH)/ attri3ute t" de!ine %"ur rec"rd structure 3ased "n a ta3le(
E1:
D/&2R/
.Pdept de2tRrowt.2eI
110
Benefit" of &nchored )eclaration"
S%nchr"niFati"n 6ith data3ase c"lumns(
N"rmaliFati"n "! l"cal $aria3les(
PRO6R&MMER3)EF(E) THPES
=ith the S#1TH)/ statement, )24S72 all"6s %"u t" de!ine %"ur "6n su3t%pes "r aliases "!
prede!ined datat%pes, s"metimes re!erred t" as a3stract datat%pes(
There are t6" kinds "! su3t%pes(
&"nstrained
#nc"nstrained
CO(STR&(E) S%BTHPE
su3t%pe that restricts "r c"nstrains the $alues n"rmall% all"6d 3% the datat%pe itsel!(
E1:
Su3t%pe p"siti$e is 3inar%Pinteger range 0((20:<:>36:<N
-n the a3"$e declarati"n a $aria3le that is declared as p"siti$e can st"re "nl% ingeger greater
than Fer" e$en th"ugh 3inar%Pinteger ranges !r"m -20:<:>36:<((C20:<:>36:<(
%(CO(STR&(E) S%BTHPE
su3t%pe that d"es n"t restrict the $alues "! the "riginal datat%pe in $aria3les declared 6ith the
su3t%pe(
E1:
Su3t%pe !l"at is num3erN
)&T&THPE CO(!ERSO(S
)24S72 can handle c"n$ersi"ns 3et6een di!!erent !amilies am"ng the datat%pes(
&"n$ersi"n can 3e d"ne in t6" 6a%s(
/9plicit c"n$ersi"n
-mplicit c"n$ersi"n
111
E7P,CT CO(!ERSO(
This can 3e d"ne using the 3uilt-in !uncti"ns a$aila3le(
MP,CT CO(!ERSO(
)24S72 6ill aut"maticall% c"n$ert 3et6een datat%pe !amilies 6hen p"ssi3le(
E1:
D/&2R/
a $archar(00'N
1/,-N
select deptn" int" a !r"m dept 6here dnameSI&&+#NT-N,IN
/NDN
-n the a3"$e $aria3le a is char t%pe and deptn" is num3er t%pe e$en th"ugh, "racle 6ill aut"maticall%
c"n$erts the numeric data int" char t%pe assigns t" the $aria3le(
)24S72 can aut"maticall% c"n$ert 3et6een
&haracters and num3ers
&haracters and dates
!&R&B,E SCOPE &() !SB,TH
The sc"pe "! a $aria3le is the p"rti"n "! the pr"gram in 6hich the $aria3le can 3e accessed( G"r
)24S72 $aria3les, this is !r"m the $aria3le declarati"n until the end "! the 3l"ck( =hen a $aria3le g"es "ut
"! sc"pe, the )24S72 engine 6ill !ree the mem"r% used t" st"re the $aria3le(
The $isi3ilit% "! a $aria3le is the p"rti"n "! the pr"gram 6here the $aria3le can 3e accessed 6ith"ut
ha$ing t" 8uali!% the re!erence( The $isi3ilit% is al6a%s 6ithin the sc"pe( -! it is "ut "! sc"pe, it is n"t $isi3le(
112
E1::
D/&2R/
a num3erN 33 "co2e of a
1/,-N
--------
D/&2R/
3 num3erN 33 "co2e of $
1/,-N
-----
/NDN
------
/NDN
E1<:
D/&2R/
a num3erN
3 num3erN
1/,-N
33 a ' $ a5aila$le here
D/&2R/
3 char(00'N
1/,-N
33 a and char t.2e $ i" a5aila$le here
/NDN
-----
/NDN
E1=:
UUm%P3l"ckVV
D/&2R/
a num3erN
3 num3erN
1/,-N
33 a ' $ a5aila$le here
D/&2R/
3 char(00'N
1/,-N
33 a and char t.2e $ i" a5aila$le here
33 n#m$er t.2e $ i" a5aila$le #"in- MMm.F$lockLL.$
/NDN
------
/NDN
P,4S+, CO(TRO, STR%CT%RES
)24S72 has a $ariet% "! c"ntr"l structures that all"6 %"u t" c"ntr"l the 3eha$i"ur "! the 3l"ck as
it runs( These structures include c"nditi"nal statements and l""ps(
-!-then-else
&ase
o &ase 6ith n" else
o 2a3eled case
o Searched case
113
Simple l""p
=hile l""p
G"r l""p
,"t" and 2a3els
F3THE(3E,SE
S.nta1:
-! Uc"nditi"n0V then
Se8uence "! statementsN
/lsei! Uc"nditi"n0V then
XX
/lse
/nd i!N
E1:
D/&2R/
dn" num3er(2'N
1/,-N
select deptn" int" dn" !r"m dept 6here dname S I&&+#NT-N,IN
if dn" S 00 then
d3msP"utput(putPline(I2"cati"n is N/= H+RKI'N
el"eif dn" S 20 then
d3msP"utput(putPline(I2"cati"n is D22SI'N
el"eif dn" S 30 then
d3msP"utput(putPline(I2"cati"n is &A-&,+I'N
el"e
d3msP"utput(putPline(I2"cati"n is 1+ST+NI'N
end ifN
/NDN
O#t2#t:
2"cati"n is N/= H+RK
C&SE
S.nta1:
&ase test-variable
=hen value1 then sequence of statements;
=hen value2 then sequence of statements;
.
.
114
=hen valuen then sequence of statements;
/lse sequence of statements;
/nd caseN
E1:
D/&2R/
dno num3er(2'N
1/,-N
select deptn" int" dno !r"m dept 6here dname S I&&+#NT-N,IN
case dno
6hen :D then
6hen <D then
6hen =D then
el"e
end caseN
/NDN
O#t2#t:
C&SE 9THO%T E,SE
S.nta1:
&ase test-variable
=hen value-1 then sequence of statements;
=hen value-2 then sequence of statements;
XX
=hen value-n then sequence of statements;
115
/nd caseN
E1:
D/&2R/
dn" num3er(2'N
1/,-N
select de2tno int" dno !r"m dept 6here dname S I&&+#NT-N,IN
case dno
6hen :D then
6hen <D then
6hen =D then
6hen >D then
end caseN
/NDN
O#t2#t:
,&BE,E) C&SE
S.nta1:
UUla3elVV
&ase test-$aria3le
=hen $alue0 then se8uence "! statementsN
=hen $alue2 then se8uence "! statementsN
XX
=hen $aluen then se8uence "! statementsN
116
/nd caseN
E1:
D/&2R/
dn" num3er(2'N
1/,-N
select deptn" int" dn" !r"m dept 6here dname S I&&+#NT-N,IN
UUm%PcaseVV
case dn"
6hen 00 then
6hen 20 then
6hen 30 then
6hen :0 then
end case
m.Fca"eI
/NDN
O#t2#t:
SE&RCHE) C&SE
S.nta1:
&ase
=hen Ucondition-1V then sequence of statements;
=hen Ucondition-2V then sequence of statements;
XX
=hen Ucondition-nV then sequence of statements;
/nd caseN
117
E1:
D/&2R/
dn" num3er(2'N
1/,-N
select de2tno int" dno !r"m dept 6here dname S I&&+#NT-N,IN
case dno
6hen dno V :D then
6hen dno V <D then
6hen dno V =D then
6hen dno V >D then
end caseN
/NDN
O#t2#t:
SMP,E ,OOP
S.nta1:
2""p
Sequence of statements;
/9it 6hen UconditionVN
/nd l""pN
-n the s%nta9 e9it 6hen UconditionV is e8ui$alent t"
-! UconditionV then
/9itN
118
/nd i!N
E1:
D/&2R/
i num3er BS 0N
1/,-N
loo2
d3msP"utput(putPline(Ii S I ^^ i'N
i BS i C 0N
e9it 6hen i V ;N
end loo2I
/NDN
O#t2#t:
i S 0
i S 2
i S 3
i S :
i S ;
9H,E ,OOP
S.nta1:
=hile Uc"nditi"nV l""p
/nd l""pN
E1:
D/&2R/
i num3er BS 0N
1/,-N
9hile i US ; loo2
119
i BS i C 0N
end loo2I
/NDN
O#t2#t:
i S 0
i S 2
i S 3
i S :
i S ;
FOR ,OOP
S.nta1:
G"r Uloop_counter_variableV in low_bound((i!_bound l""p
/nd l""pN
E1::
1/,-N
For i in 0((; loo2
end loo2N
/NDN
120
O#t2#t:
i S 0
i S 2
i S 3
i S :
i S ;
E1<:
1/,-N
G"r i in re$erse 0((; l""p
end l""pN
/NDN
O#t2#t:
i S ;
i S :
i S 3
i S 2
i S 0
6OTO &() ,&BE,S
S.nta1:
,"t" labelN
=here label is a la3el de!ined in the )24S72 3l"ck( 2a3els are encl"sed in d"u3le angle 3rackets(
=hen a g"t" statement is e$aluated, c"ntr"l immediatel% passes t" the statement identi!ied 3%
the la3el(
E1:
1/,-N
For i in 0((; loo2
i! i S : then
121
g"t" e9itPl""pN
end i!N
end loo2N
UUe9itPl""pVV
NullN
/NDN
O#t2#t:
i S 0
i S 2
i S 3
i S :
Restricti"ns "n ,+T+
-t is illegal t" 3ranch int" an inner 3l"ck, l""p(
t least "ne e9ecuta3le statement must !"ll"6(
-t is illegal t" 3ranch int" an i! statement(
-t is illegal t" 3ranch !r"m "ne i! statement t" an"ther i! statement(
-t is illegal t" 3ranch !r"m e9cepti"n 3l"ck t" the current 3l"ck(
122
RES%,T:
Thus the Stud% "! )24S72 3l"ck has 3een implemented 3% $ari"us c"ntr"l structure are $eri!ied and
!r"te a #L/S$L bloc% to sat"s&' some cond"t"ons b' acce(t"ng "n(ut &rom the
user)
E1: (o: DA
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" implement the )24S72 3l"ck t" satis!% s"me c"nditi"ns 3% accepting input !r"m the user(
&,6ORTHM:
123
STEP >: &reate the )24S72 1l"ck 6ith necessar% 3l"cks(
STEP ?: Declare the necessar% $aria3le in the declarati"n secti"n
STEP @: 6rite the main pr"gram l"gics in the 3egin 3l"ck(
STEP A: i! %"u 6ant t" access the ta3le use the S72 statement(
STEP B: i! %"u 6ant t" s"l$e an% e9cepti"n, 6rite the e9cepti"n name 6ith =A/N stetment
STEP C: /9ecute the )24S72 3l"ck(
STEP :DB ,i$e the input $alues "r $alidate the in!"rmati"n !r"m the ta3les(
STEP ::: St"p the pr"gram(
+:: =rite )24S72 3l"ck 6hich 6ill calculate s"me "! t6" num3ers and displa% the "utput]
D/&2R/
num3er(2'N
1 num3er(2'N
& num3er(3'N
1/,-N
BS 00N
1 BS 20N
& BS C 1N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(&'N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( Lsum "! t6" num3ersM ^^ &'N
/NDN
4
O#t2#t:
30
sum "! t6" num3ers 30
124
)24S72 pr"cedure success!ull% c"mpleted(
+<: =rite a )24S72 3l"ck 6hich accepts empl"%ee num3er and increment is salar% 3% 0000]
D/&2R/
num3er(:'N
BS 5/mpn"N
#pdate emp set sal S sal C 0000 6here /mpn" S N
/NDN
4
+=: =rite a )24S72 3l"ck 6hich empn" and delete that r"6 !r"m the emp ta3le]
D/&2R/
num3er(:'N
1/,-N
BS 5/mpn"N
Delete !r"m emp 6here /mpn" S N
/NDN
4
+>: )24S72 !"r re$ersing the gi$en string
&l-orithm:
0( ,et the input string(
2( Gind the length "! the string(
3( /9tract the characters "ne 3% "ne !r"m the end "! the string(
:( &"ncatenate the e9tracted characters(
;( Displa% the c"ncatenated re$ersed string(
6( St"p the pr"gram(
Pro-ram:
declare
3 $archar2(00' BS I53IN
c $archar2(00'N
l num3er(2'N
i num3er(2'N
g num3er(2'N
125
d $archar2(00'N
3egin
lBSlength(3'N
gBSlN
!"r i in 0((l
l""p
cBSsu3str(3,g,0'N
g BS g - 0N
d BS d ^^ cN
end l""pN
d3msP"utput(putPline(Ire$ised string isI'N
d3msP"utput(putPline(d'N
endN
O%TP%T:
/nter $alue !"r 3B ramu
"ld 2B 3 $archar2(00' BS I53IN
ne6 2B 3 $archar2(00' BS IramuIN
re$ised string is
umar
+?: P,4S+, !"r Gi3"nacci Series(
&l-orithm:
0( ,et the n"("! terms N, in the !i3"nacci series t" 3e generated(
2( -! N is less than 2, then raise an e9cepti"n and displa% the message(
3( +ther6ise initialiFe the $alue "! as 0 and 1 as 0 and displa% them(
:( Repeat the steps ;56 in N-3 times(
;( &BSC1 5 Displa% &(
6( BS151BS
<( St"p the pr"gram(
Pro-ram:
declare
a num3er(3'N3 num3er(3'Nc num3er(3'Nn num3er(3'BS5nN
negati$e e9cepti"nN
3egin
i! n U 2 then
raise negati$eN
end i!N
126
a BS 0N3 BS 0N
d3msP"utput(putPline(I!i3"nacci series isI'N
d3msP"utput(putPline(a'N
d3msP"utput(putPline(3'N
!"r i in 3 (( n
l""p
c BS a C 3N
d3msP"utput(putPline(c'N
a BS 3N
3 BS cN
end l""pN
e9cepti"n
6hen negati$e then
d3msP"utput(putPline(In sh"uld 3e greater than 0I'N
endN
S+,L 4
/nter $alue !"r nB00
"ld ;B n num3er(3'BS5nN
ne6 ;Bn num3er(3'BS00N
Gi3"nacci
0
0
0
2
3
;
>
03
20
3:
P,4S+, pr"cedure success!ull% c"mpleted
+@: )r"gram t" check 6hether gi$en num3er is rmstr"ng "r n"t(
&l-orithm:
Step 0B Declare the $aria3le N, S, D and D#)(
Step 2B St"re the $alue in $ar( N and $ar( D#)((
Step 3B check !"r the $alue "! N, 6hich is n"t e8ual t" 0(
Step :B di$ide $alue st"red in N 3% 00 and st"re it $ar( D( (DSn_00'(
Step ;B the reminder 6ill 3e multipl% 3 times and st"re it in .ar( S(
Step 6B The c"e!!icient 6ill 3e calculated using G2++R !uncti"n( nd st"re it in $ar( N(
Step B &heck 6hether the st"red $alue and calculated $alues are same
Step ?B i! 3"th the $alues are same, then displa% JThe gi$en num3er is rmstr"ngK
Step 00B +ther6ise displa% Jit is n"t rmstr"ngK and terminate the l""p(
127
Declare
N num3erN
S num3erN
D num3erN
1egin
NBS5nN
SBS0N
=hile(nTS0'
2""p
DSn_00N
SBSsC(DQDQD'N
NBS!l""r(n400'N
/nd l""pN
-! (D#)SS' then
D1MSP"utput(putPline(Lnum3er is armstr"ngM'N
/lse
D1MSP"utput(putPline(Lnum3er is n"t armstr"ngM'N
/nd i!N
/ndN
Te"t !alid )ata Set:
/nter $alue "! n
0;3
O#t2#t:
num3er is rmstr"ng
+A: =rite a pr"gram t" generate all prime num3ers 3el"6 000(
&MB t" generate all prime num3ers 3el"6 000(
Declare
- num3erN
D num3erN
& num3erN
1egin
=hile(iUS000'
2""p
&BS0N
DBS0N
=hile(@USi'
2""p
-!(!l""r(i_@'S0' then
&BS &C0N
/nd i!N
DBS@C0N
/nd l""pN
-!(cS2' then
D3msP"utput(putPline(i'N
/nd i!N
/ndl""pN
/ndN
128
!alid Te"t )ata
O%TP%T:
2
3
;
<
00
(
(
??
+B: =rite a pr"gram t" dem"nstrate _t%pe and _r"6t%pe attri3utes
&MB t" dem"nstrate _t%pe and _r"6t%pe attri3utes
Declare
M%P/mpn" emp(empn"_t%peN
M%P/name emp(ename_t%peN
M%P/mpr"6 emp_r"6t%peN
N" num3erN
1egin
N"BS5n"N
Select empn",ename int" m%Pempn",m%Pename !r"m emp 6here empn"Sn"N
-!(S7l_r"6c"untS0' then
D3msP"utput(putPline(Lempn" isM ^^ m%Pempn" ^^ Lename is L ^^ m%Pename'N
/lse
D3msP"utput(putPline( Lerr"rM'N
/nd i!N
Select Q int" m%Pempr"6 !r"m emp 6here empn"Sn"N
-!(S7l_r"6c"untS0' then
D3msP"utput(putPline(Lempn" isM ^^ m%Pempr"6(empn" ^^ Lename is L ^^ m%Pempr"6(ename'N
/lse
D3msP"utput(putPline( Lerr"rM'N
/nd i!N
/ndN
129
!alid Te"t )ata
/nter the $alue !"r n"B
<<>>
O%TP%T
empn" is <<>> ename is $ina% s(
empn" is <<>> ename is $ina% s(
RES%,T:
Thus the )24S72 3l"ck t" satis!% s"me c"nditi"ns 3% accepting input !r"m the user has 3een $eri!ied and
!r"te a #L/S$L bloc% that handles all t'(es o& e*ce(t"ons.
E1: (o: DB
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" =rite a )24S72 3l"ck that handles all t%pes "! e9cepti"ns(
&,6ORTHM:
STEP:: Start the pr"gram(
STEP<: &reate a ta3le 6ith s"me $alid data(
STEP=: 6rite the )24S72 pr"gram that t" handle the e9cepti"n "n e9cepti"n 3l"ck
STEP>: /9ecute the )24S72 pr"gram and gi$e the input $alues "r make the err"r "n the ta3le data(
STEP?: Displa% the )24S72 pr"gram err"r message(
STEP@: St"p the pr"gram(
E7CEPTO(SB
130
-n )24S72, err"rs and 6arnings are called as e9cepti"ns( =hene$er a prede!ined err"r "ccurs in the
pr"gram, )24S72 raises an e9cepti"n( G"r e9ample, i! %"u tr% t" di$ide a num3er 3% Fer" then )24S72
raises an e9cepti"n called O/R+PD-.-D/ and i! S/2/&T can n"t !ind a rec"rd then )24S72 raises
e9cepti"n N+PDTPG+#ND(
)24S72 has a c"llecti"n "! prede!ined e9cepti"ns( /ach e9cepti"n has a name( These e9cepti"ns are
aut"maticall% raised 3% )24S72 6hene$er the c"rresp"nding err"r "ccurs(
-n additi"n t" )24S72 prede!ined e9cepti"ns, user can als" create his "6n e9cepti"ns t" deal 6ith
err"rs in the applicati"ns(
The% are three t%pes "! /9cepti"ns(
0( +R&2/ )rede!ined /9cepti"n
2( +R&2/ N"n )rede!ined /9cepti"n
3( #S/R De!ined /9cepti"n
SH(T&7 OF E7CEPTO( H&(),(6
=A/N e9cepti"n-0 Y"r e9cepti"n -2Z ((( TA/N
statementsN
Y=A/N e9cepti"n-3 Y"r e9cepti"n-:Z ((( TA/N
statementsN Z (((
Y=A/N +TA/RS TA/N
statementsN Z
Q: The foowng exampe handes NO<DATA<FOUND excepton.
decare
.
begn
seect .
excepton
when no<8!t!<9oun8 then
statements;
end;
O#t2#t:
131
Q: The foowng excepton handng part takes the same acton when ether
NO<DATA<FOUND or
TOO<MANY<ROWS exceptons occur.
decare
...
begn
seect ...
excepton
when no_data_found o% too_many_rows then
statements;
end;
O#t2#t:
Q: The foowng snppet handes these two exceptons n dherent ways.
decare
...
begn
seect ...
excepton
when no<8!t!<9oun8 then
statements;
when too<0!n*<%o/s then
statements;
end;
O#t2#t:
WHEN OTHERS s used to execute statements when an excepton other than what
are mentoned n excepton hander has occurred.
decare
newccode varchar2(5) := nu;
begn
update courses set ccode = newccode where ccode = 'c';
excepton
when 8u4<.!#<on<in8$+ then
132
dbms_output.put_ne('Dupcate course code');
/&$n ot&$%s then
dbms_output.put_ne( sqerrm);
end;
O#t2#t:
Predefined e1ce2tion"
)24S72 has de!ined certain c"mm"n err"rs and gi$en names t" these err"rs, 6hich are called as
prede!ined e9cepti"ns(
/ach e9cepti"n has a c"rresp"nding +racle err"r c"de( The !"ll"6ing is the list "! prede!ined
e9cepti"ns and the c"rresp"nding +racle err"r c"de(
(OF)&T&FFO%()B
133
This /9cepti"n is Raised i! a S/2/&T -NT+ statement returns n" r"6s "r i! %"u re!erence an un-
initialiFed r"6 in a )24S72 ta3le(
E1B
Declare
2Psal emp(sal_t%peN
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( L=/2&+M/M 'N
Select sal -NT+ 2Psal !r"m emp 6here empn" S 5empn"N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(2Psal'N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( LTANK H+#M 'N
/E&/)T-+N
6hen (OF)&T&FFO%() then
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( L-N.2-D /M)N+M'N
/NDN
4
TOOFM&(HFRO9SB
This /9cepti"n is Raised i! a S/2/&T -NT+ statement returns m"re than "ne r"6(
E1B
Declare
2Psal emp(sal_t%peN
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( L=/2&+M/M 'N
Select sal -NT+ 2Psal !r"m emp 6here deptn" S 30N
/E&/)T-+N
6hen T++PMNHPR+=S then
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( LM+R/ TA/N +N/ R+= R/T#RN/DM'N
/NDN
4
WEROF)!)EB
Raised 6hen %"ur pr"gram attempts t" di$ide a num3er 3% Fer"(
E1B
Declare
Num3erN
1egin
BS ;40N
/9cepti"n
134
6hen O/R+PD-.-D/ then
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( LD+ N+T D-.-D/ 1H 0M 'N
/NDN
4
(oteB
This /9cepti"n is raised 6hen 6e tr% t" di$ided 3% Fer"(
!&,%EFERRORB
This /9cepti"n is raised 6hen there is miss match 6ith the $alue and data t%pe "! l"cal $aria3le "r
siFe "! l"cal $aria3les(
E1 0B
Declare
2Psal emp(sal_t%peN
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( L=/2&+M/M 'N
Select ename -NT+ 2Psal !r"m emp 6here empn" S <;20N
/E&/)T-+N
6hen .2#/P/RR+R then
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( Lplease check the l"cal $aria3lesM'N
/NDN
4
E1 2B
Declare
num3er(3'N
1egin
BS 023:N
/9cepti"n
6hen .2#/P/RR+R then
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( L)2/S/ &A/&K TA/ 2+&2 .R-12/SM 'N
/NDN
4
)%PF!&,FO(F()E7B (duplicate $alue "n inde9'
This /9cepti"n is raised 6hen 6e tr% t" insert a duplicate $alue in primar% ke% c"nstraint(
135
E1B
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( L6elc"meM 'N
-nsert int" student $alues(00:, LR#NM,60'N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( LThank %"uM 'N
/9cepti"n
6hen D#)P.2P+NP-ND/E then
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(L D" n"t insert duplicatesM 'N
/NDN
4
The a3"$e pr"gram 6"rks "n an assumpti"n the ta3le student !"r i! ha$ing a primar% ke% SN+ c"lumn 6ith
$alue 00:(
9HE( OTHERSB
=hen "thers are a uni$ersal /9cepti"n angular this can catch all the /9cepti"ns(
Declare
2Psal num3er(:'N
num3erN
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( L=elc"meM 'N
Select sal -NT+ 2PS2 !r"m emp 6here deptn" S 5deptn"N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(LThe sal is X(M^^2Psal'N
BS0040N
/9cepti"n
=A/N +TA/RS TA/N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( Lplease check the c"deM 'N
/NDN
4
ERROR REPORT(6 F%(CTO(SB
The% are t6" /rr"r Rep"rting !uncti"ns(
0( S72&+D/
2( S72/RRM
These err"r rep"rting !uncti"ns are used in 6hen "thers clause t" identi!ied the e9cepti"n 6hich is raised(
0( S+,CO)EB -t returns /RR+R&+D/
2( S+,ERRMB -t returns /9cepti"n num3er and /9cepti"n message(
(oteB !"r N+PDTPG+#ND /9cepti"n S72&+D/ 6ill return 000(
Declare
2Psal num3er(:'N
num3erN
136
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( L=elc"meM 'N
Select sal -NT+ 2PS2 !r"m emp 6here deptn" S 5deptn"N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(LThe sal is X(M^^2Psal'N
BS0;40N
/9cepti"n
=A/N +TA/RS TA/N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/( Lplease check the c"deM 'N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(S72&+D/'N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(S72/RRM'N
/NDN
4
(ESTE) B,OC8B
Declare
num3er BS 00N
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(LA/22+0M'N
Declare
1 num3er BS 20N
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(1'N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/('N
/NDN
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(1'N --/RR+R
/NDN
4
(oteB
"uter 3l"ck $aria3les can 3e accessed in nested 3l"ck nested 3l"ck $aria3les can n"t 3e accessed in
"uter 3l"ck(
E7CEPTO( PROP&6&TO(B
1egin
2PS2 /M)(S2_TH)/N
1egin
137
Select sal -NT+ 2PS2 !r"m emp 6here empn" S 0000N
/NDN
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(LA/22+:M'N
/E&/)T-+N
=A/N N+PDTPG+#ND TA/N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(LA/22+;M'N
/NDN
4
OR&,E (O( PRE)EF(E) E7CEPTO(SB
These /9cepti"ns 6ill ha$e "nl% /9cepti"n num3er( 1ut d"es n"t ha$e /9cepti"n name(
Steps t" handle n"n prede!ined e9cepti"ns(
S.nta1B
Step0B Declare the /9cepti"n
U/E&/)T-+NPNM/V /E&/)T-+NN
Step2B ss"ciate the /9cepti"n
)R,M /E&/)T-+NP-N-T(U/E&/)T-+NPNM/V,U/E&/)T-+N N+V'N
Step3B &atch the /9cepti"n
=A/N U/E&/)T-+NPNM/V TA/N
------------------
------------------
------------------
/NDN
4
+R -22?2 is an e9ample "! n"n prede!ined e9cepti"n(
This e9cepti"n is raised 6hen 6e delete r"6 !r"m a parent ta3le( -! the c"rresp"nding $alue e9isting
the child ta3le(
Declare
MHP/E0 /9cepti"nN --step0
)R,M /E&/)T-+NP-N-T(MHP/E0, -22?2'N --step2
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(L=elc"meM'N
Select !r"m student 6here en" S 002N
/E&/)T-+N
=A/N MHP/E0 TA/N --step3
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(Ld" n"t delete pargma ta3leM'N
138
/NDN
4
)ragma /9cepti"nPinit is a c"mpiler directi$e 6hich is used t" ass"ciated an /9cepti"n name t" the
prede!ined num3er(
%SER )EF(E) E7CEPTO(B

These /9cepti"ns are de!ined and c"ntr"lled 3% the user( These /9cepti"ns neither ha$e prede!ined
name n"r ha$e prede!ined num3er( Steps t" handle user de!ined /9cepti"ns(
Ste2:: )eclare the E1ce2tion
declare
out_of_stock exception;
begin
statements;
end;
Ste2<: Rai"ed the E1ce2tion
if qty < 10 then
raise out_of_stock;
end if;
Ste2=: Catch the E1ce2tion
exception
when out_of_stock then
-- handle the exception (that is reraised in outer
block
!!!
end;
E1
Declare
MHP/E0 /E&/)T-+NN --Step0
2PS2 /M)(S2_TH)/N
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(L6elc"meM'N
Select S2 -NT+ 2PS2 !r"m emp 6here empn" S 5empn"N
-G 2PS2 V 2000 TA/N
R-S/ MHP/E0N --Step2
/ND-GN
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(LThe sal is X L^^2Psal'N
139
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(LThank %"uM'N
/E&/)T-+N
=A/N MHP/E0 TA/N --Step3
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(LSal is t6" highM'N
/NDN
4
(oteB =hen "thers sh"uld 3e the last handler "! the e9cepti"n secti"n "ther 6ise 6e get a c"mpiler /RR+R(
R&SEF&PP,C&TO(FERROR:
R-S/P))2-&T-+NP/RR+R is a pr"cedure 6hich is used t" thr"6 "ne err"r num3er and err"r
message t" the calling en$ir"nment(
-t internall% per!"rmance r"lls 3ack(
/RR+R num3er sh"uld 3e range "! -20000 t" -20???( /RR+R message sh"uld 3e displa%ed less
then "r e8ual t" ;02 characters(
Declare
2Psal emp(sal_TH)/N
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(L=elc"meM'N
-nsert -NT+ dept $alues (0>,MarunM,<0'N
Select sal -NT+ 2Psal !r"m emp 6here empn" S <6?>N
-G 2Psal V 2000 TA/N
R-S/P))2-&T-+NP/RR+R(-200;0, LS2 -S T++ A-,AM'N
/ND -GN
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(LTA/ S2 -SXM^^2PS2'N
/NDN
4
140
RES%,T:
Thus the )24S72 3l"ck that handles all t%pes "! e9cepti"ns has 3een $eri!ied and e9ecuted
success!ull%(
Creat"on o& #rocedures)
E1: (o: DC
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" 6rite a )24S72 3l"ck t" displa% the student name, marks 6h"se a$erage mark is a3"$e 60_(
&,6ORTHM:
STEP:: Start the pr"gram(
STEP<: &reate a ta3le 6ith ta3le name studPe9am
STEP=: -nsert the $alues int" the ta3le and &alculate t"tal and a$erage "! each student
STEP>: /9ecute the pr"cedure !uncti"n the student 6h" get a3"$e 60_(
STEP?: Displa% the t"tal and a$erage "! student
STEP@: Terminate the applicati"n
141
SH(T&7
&R/T/ Y+R R/)2&/Z )R+&/D#R/ name Y(parameterY,parameter, (((Z'Z
[-S^S\
Yl"cal declarati"nsZ
1/,-N
e9ecuta3le statements
Y/E&/)T-+N
e9cepti"n handlersZ
/ND YnameZN
E7EC%TO(:
S72V S/T S/R./R+#T)#T +N
0 PRO6R&M:
PROCE)%RE %S(6 POSTO(&, P&R&METERS:
SETT(6 SER!ERO%TP%T O(:
S72V S/T S/R./R+#T)#T +N
S72V &R/T/ +R R/)2&/ )R+&/D#R/ )R+&0 S
1/,-N
D1MSP+#T)#T()#TP2-N/(IAell" !r"m pr"cedure(((I'N
/NDN
4
O#t2#t:
142
)r"cedure created(
S72V /E/&#T/ )R+&0
Aell" !r"m pr"cedure(((
0 PRO6R&M:
+: PROCE)%RE %S(6 (OT&TO(&, P&R&METERS:
S72V &R/T/ +R R/)2&/ )R+&/D#R/ )R+&2(N0 -N N#M1/R,N2 -N N#M1/R,T+T +#T N#M1/R' -S
1/,-N
T+T BS N0 C N2N
/NDN
4
O#t2#t:
)r"cedure created(
S72V .R-12/ T N#M1/R
S72V /E/& )R+&2(33,66,BT'
S72V )R-NT T
T
----------
??
143
PROCE)%RE FOR 6C) (%MBERS
0 PRO6R&M:
S72V create "r replace pr"cedure pr"
is
a num3er(3'N
3 num3er(3'N
c num3er(3'N
d num3er(3'N
3egin
aBS5aN
3BS53N
i!(aV3' then
cBSm"d(a,3'N
i!(cS0' then
d3msP"utput(putPline(I,&D isI'N
d3msP"utput(putPline(3'N
else
d3msP"utput(putPline(c'N
end i!N
else
dBSm"d(3,a'N
i!(dS0' then
d3msP"utput(putPline(a'N
else
d3msP"utput(putPline(d'N
end i!N
end i!N
144
endN
4
O#t 2#t:
/nter $alue !"r aB >
"ld >B aBS5aN
ne6 >B aBS>N
/nter $alue !"r 3B 06
"ld ?B 3BS53N
ne6 ?B 3BS06N
)r"cedure created(
S72V set ser$er"utput "nN
S72V e9ecute pr"N
,&D is
>
RES%,T:
145
Thus the implementati"n "! )24S72 pr"cedure has 3een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%(
C+,AT-.N ./ DATABAS, T+-00,+S AND /UNCT-.NS
:D.: m2lementation of Tri--er" and it" &22lication
E1: (o: :D
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" the -mplementati"n "! Triggers !"r the purp"se "! m"nit"r the data3ase "3@ect(ta3le((etc' !"r an%
m"di!icati"n 3% the 8uer% user and4"r the pplicati"n pr"gram(
&,6ORTHM:
0( Start the pr"gram(
2( &reate the ta3le 6ith its essential attri3utes(
3( -nsert attri3ute $alues int" the ta3le(
:( &reate the trigger !"r a particular ta3le
;( Speci!% 6hen the trigger is t" 3e !ired - 3e!"re "r a!ter
6( Speci!% DM2 statement that in$"kes the trigger - #)DT/, D/2/T/, "r -NS/RT
<( Speci!% the t%pe "! triger 6hether r"6-le$el trigger "r n"t
>( &"nditi"n t" !ilter r"6s(
?( )24S72 3l"ck that is t" 3e e9ecuted 6hen trigger is !ired(
00( M"di!% the speci!ied ta3le t" !ire the trigger(
00( Displa% the trigger message !"r the particular kind "! m"di!icati"n
02( St"p the pr"gram(
146
)&T&B&SE TR66ERS
Triggers are similar t" pr"cedures "r !uncti"ns in that the% are named )24S72 3l"cks 6ith
declarati$e, e9ecuta3le, and e9cepti"n handling secti"ns( trigger is e9ecuted implicitl% 6hene$er the
triggering e$ent happens( The act "! e9ecuting a trigger is kn"6n as !iring the trigger(
%SE OF TR66ERS
Maintaining c"mple9 integrit% c"nstraints n"t p"ssi3le thr"ugh declarati$e c"nstraints ena3le at ta3le
creati"n(
uditing in!"rmati"n in a ta3le 3% rec"rding the changes made and 6h" made them(
ut"maticall% signaling "ther pr"grams that acti"n needs t" take place 6hen chages are made t" a
ta3le(
)er!"rm $alidati"n "n changes 3eing made t" ta3les(
ut"mate maintenance "! the data3ase(
RESTRCTO(S O( TR66ERES
2ike packages, triggers must 3e st"red as stand-al"ne "3@ects in the data3ase and cann"t 3e l"cal t" a
3l"ck "r package(
trigger d"es n"t accept arguments(
THPES OF TR66ERS
DM2 Triggers
-nstead "! Triggers
DD2 Triggers
S%stem Triggers
Suspend Triggers
C&TE6ORES
Timing -- 1e!"re "r !ter
2e$el -- R"6 "r Statement
147
R"6 le$el trigger !ires "nce !"r each r"6 a!!ected 3% the triggering statement( R"6 le$el trigger is
identi!ied 3% the G+R /&A R+= clause(
Statement le$el trigger !ires "nce either 3e!"re "r a!ter the statement(
TR66ER SH(T&7
&R/T/ Y+R R/)2&/Z TR-,,/R trigername
[1/G+R/ ^ GT/R\
[D/2/T/ ^ -NS/RT ^ #)DT/ Y+G c"lumnsZ\
Y+R [D/2/T/ ^ -NS/RT ^#)DT/ Y+G c"lumnsZ\Z(((
+N ta3le
YG+R /&A R+= Y=A/N c"nditi"nZZ
YR/G/R/N&-N, Y+2D S "ldZ YN/= S ne6ZZ
)24S72 3l"ck
)M, TR66ERS
DM2 trigger is !ired "n an -NS/RT, #)DT/, "r D/2/T/ "perati"n "n a data3ase ta3le( -t can
3e !ired either 3e!"re "r a!ter the statement e9ecutes, and can 3e !ired "nce per a!!ected r"6, "r "nce
per statement(
The c"m3inati"n "! these !act"rs determines the t%pes "! the triggers( These are a t"tal "! 02 p"ssi3le
t%pes (3 statements Q 2 timing Q 2 le$els'(
OR)ER OF )M, TR66ER FR(6
1e!"re statement le$el
1e!"re r"6 le$el
!ter r"6 le$el
!ter statement le$el
E1:
Supp"se 6e ha$e a !"ll6ing ta3le(
S72V select Q !r"m studentN
N+ NM/ MRKS
----- ---------- ------------
0 a 000
2 3 200
148
3 c 300
: d :00
ls" 6e ha$e triggeringP!iringP"rder ta3le 6ith !iringP"rder as the !ield(
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)2&/ TR-,,/R TR-,,/R0
3e!"re insert "n student
1/,-N
insert int" triggerP!iringP"rder $alues(I1e!"re Statement 2e$elI'N
/ND TR-,,/R0N
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)2&/ TR-,,/R TR-,,/R2
3e!"re insert "n student
!"r each r"6
1/,-N
insert int" triggerP!iringP"rder $alues(I1e!"re R"6 2e$elI'N
/ND TR-,,/R2N
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)2&/ TR-,,/R TR-,,/R3
a!ter insert "n student
1/,-N
insert int" triggerP!iringP"rder $alues(I!ter Statement 2e$elI'N
/ND TR-,,/R3N
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)2&/ TR-,,/R TR-,,/R:
a!ter insert "n student
!"r each r"6
1/,-N
insert int" triggerP!iringP"rder $alues(I!ter R"6 2e$elI'N
/ND TR-,,/R:N
O#t2#t:
S72V select Q !r"m triggerP!iringP"rderN
n" r"6s selected
S72V insert int" student $alues(;,IeI,;00'N
149
0 r"6 created(
S72V select Q !r"m triggerP!iringP"rderN
G-R-N,P+RD/R
--------------------------------------------------
1e!"re Statement 2e$el
1e!"re R"6 2e$el
!ter R"6 2e$el
!ter Statement 2e$el
N+ NM/ MRKS
----- ------------ --------------
0 a 000
2 3 200
3 c 300
: d :00
; e ;00
E1:
Supp"se 6e ha$e a ta3le called marks 6ith !ields n", "ldPmarks, ne6Pmarks(
&R/T/ +R R/)2&/ TR-,,/R +2DPN/=
3e!"re insert "r update "r delete "n student
!"r each r"6
1/,-N
insert int" marks $alues(B"ld(n",B"ld(marks,Bne6(marks'N
/ND +2DPN/=N
O#t2#t:
N+ NM/ MRKS
----- ------- - ---------
0 a 000
2 3 200
3 c 300
: d :00
; e ;00
S72V select Q !r"m marksN
n" r"6s selected
150
S72V insert int" student $alues(6,I!I,600'N
0 r"6 created(
N+ NM/ MRKS
----- ----------- --------------
0 a 000
2 3 200
3 c 300
: d :00
; e ;00
6 ! 600
N+ +2DPMRKS N/=PMRKS
---- ------------------- -------------------
600
S72V update student set marksS;;; 6here n"S;N
0 r"6 updated(
N+ NM/ MRKS
----- ------- ----------
0 a 000
2 3 200
3 c 300
: d :00
; e ;;;
6 ! 600
------ ---------------- ---------------
600
; ;00 ;;;
S72V delete student 6here n" S 2N
0 r"6 deleted(
N+ NM/ MRKS
------ -------------- ------------
0 a 000
3 c 300
: d :00
; e ;;;
6 ! 600
----- -------------- ----------------
600
151
; ;00 ;;;
2 200
REFERE(C(6 C,&%SE
-! desired, %"u can use the R/G/R/N&-N, clause t" speci!% a di!!erent name !"r B"ld ane Bne6(
This clause is !"und a!ter the triggering e$ent, 3e!"re the =A/N clause(
S.nta1:
R/G/R/N&-N, Y"ld as "ldPnameZ Yne6 as ne6PnameZ
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)2&/ TR-,,/R R/G/R/N&/PTR-,,/R
re!erencing "ld as "ldPstudent ne6 as ne6Pstudent
!"r each r"6
1/,-N
insert int"
marks $alues(B"ldPstudent(n",B"ldPstudent(marks,Bne6Pstudent(marks'N
/ND R/G/R/N&/PTR-,,/RN
9HE( C,&%SE
=A/N clause is $alid !"r r"6-le$el triggers "nl%( -! present, the trigger 3"d% 6ill 3e e9ecuted
"nl% !"r th"se r"6s that meet the c"nditi"n speci!ied 3% the =A/N clause(
S.nta1:
=A/N tri!!er_conditionN
=here tri!!er_condition is a 1""lean e9pressi"n( -t 6ill 3e e$aluated !"r each r"6( The "new
and "old rec"rds can 3e re!erenced inside tri!!er_condition as 6ell, 3ut like R/G/R/N&-N,, the
c"l"n is n"t used there( The c"l"n is "nl% $alid in the trigger 3"d%(
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)2&/ TR-,,/R =A/NPTR-,,/R
re!erencing "ld as "ldPstudent ne6 as ne6Pstudent
!"r each r"6
6hen (ne6Pstudent(marks V ;00'
1/,-N
insert int"
marks $alues(B"ldPstudent(n",B"ldPstudent(marks,Bne6Pstudent(marks'N
/ND =A/NPTR-,,/RN
152
TR66ER PRE)C&TES
There are three 1""lean !uncti"ns that %"u can use t" determine 6hat the "perati"n is(
The predicates are
-NS/RT-N,
#)DT-N,
D/2/T-N,
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)2&/ TR-,,/R )R/D-&T/PTR-,,/R
1/,-N
i! inserting then
insert int" predicates $alues(I-I'N
elsi! updating then
insert int" predicates $alues(I#I'N
elsi! deleting then
insert int" predicates $alues(IDI'N
end i!N
/ND )R/D-&T/PTR-,,/RN
O#t2#t:
S72V delete student 6here n"S0N
0 r"6 deleted(
S72V select Q !r"m predicatesN
MS,
---------------
D
S72V insert int" student $alues(<,IgI,<00'N
0 r"6 created(
MS,
---------------
D
-
153
S72V update student set marks S <<< 6here n"S<N
0 r"6 updated(
MS,
---------------
D
-
#
(STE&)3OF TR66ERS
-nstead-"! triggers !ire instead "! a DM2 "perati"n( ls", instead-"! triggers can 3e de!ined "nl% "n
$ie6s( -nstead-"! triggers are used in t6" casesB
T" all"6 a $ie6 that 6"uld "ther6ise n"t 3e m"di!ia3le t" 3e m"di!ied(
T" m"di!% the c"lumns "! a nested ta3le c"lumn in a $ie6(
RES%,T:
Thus the -mplementati"n "! Triggers and its applicati"ns t" m"nit"r the m"di!icati"n in data3ase has
3een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%(
:D.< MP,EME(T&TO( OF F%(CTO(S &() TS &PP,C&TO(
154
E1: (o: :D.<
FF : FF : FF
&M:
T" 6rite the )24S72 3l"ck !"r the implementati"n "! !uncti"ns and its applicati"n(
&,6ORTHM:
STEP >: &reate the !uncti"n 6ith necessar% arguments and return data t%pes(
STEP ?: create the )24S72 3l"ck t" call 4 use the !uncti"n(
STEP @: /9ecute the )24S72 pr"gram(
STEP A: ,i$e the input $alues
STEP B: /9tract4pr"cess the in!"rmati"n !r"m the !uncti"n(
STEP C: St"p the pr"gram(
STORE) F%(CTO(
155
!uncti"n is similar t" pr"cedure, e9cept that it returns a $alue( The calling pr"gram sh"uld
use the $alue returned 3% the !uncti"n(
CRE&TE F%(CTO(
The create f#nction c"mmand is used t" create a st"red !uncti"n(
SYNTA:
&R/T/ Y+R R/)2&/Z G#N&T-+N name
Y(parameterY,parameter, (((Z'Z
RET%R( datat.2e
[-S ^ S\
Yl"cal declarati"nsZ
1/,-N
e9ecuta3le statements
RET%R( 5al#eN
Y/E&/)T-+N
e9cepti"n handlersZ
/ND YnameZN
(ote:
OR REP,&CE is used t" create a !uncti"n e$en th"ugh a !uncti"n 6ith the same name alread%
e9ists
RET%R( datat.2e speci!ies the t%pe "! data t" 3e returned 3% the !uncti"n(
RET%R( statement in the e9ecuta3le part returns the $alue( The $alue must 3e "! the same t%pe as
the return t%pe speci!ied using R/T#RN "pti"n in the header(
#ser-de!ined )24S72 !uncti"ns can 3e used in S72 in the same manner as the standard !uncti"ns
such as R+#ND and S#1STR
+ :: T" 6rite a )24S72 3l"ck t" implementati"n "! !act"rial using !uncti"n
0 PRO6R&M:
156
S72Vcreate !uncti"n !n!act(n num3er'
return num3er is
3 num3erN
3egin
3BS0N
!"r i in 0((n
l""p
3BS3QiN
end l""pN
return 3N
endN
4
S72VDeclare
n num3erBS5nN
% num3erN
3egin
d3msP"utput(putPline(%'N
endN
4
O#t2#t:
Guncti"n created(
/nter $alue !"r nB ;
old <: n num3erBS5nN
new <: n num3erBS;N
020
+<:create a !uncti"n 6hich c"unt t"tal n"("! empl"%ees ha$ing salar% less than 6000(
4Pf#nction $od.P4
&reate "r replace !uncti"n c"untPemp(esal num3er'return num3er as
&urs"r $inPcur as Select empn",sal !r"m empN
157
En" emp(empn"_t%peN
Esal emp(sal_t%peN
& num3erN
1egin
+pen $inPcurN
&BS0N
l""p
!etch $inPcur int" 9n",9salN
i!(9salUesal' then
cBScC0N
end i!N
e9it 6hen $inPcur_n"t!"undN
end l""pN
cl"se $inPcurN
return cN
endN
4
Guncti"n created(
4Pf#nction "2ecificationP4
Declare
Ne num3erN
Esal num3erN
1egin
NeBSc"untPemp(9sal'N
D3msP"utput(putPline(9sal'N
D3maP"utput(putPline(Lthere are L^^ne^^Nempl"%eesM'N
/ndN
4
O%TP%T
There are > empl"%ees(
+<: T" 6rite a )24S72 !uncti"n t" search an address !r"m the gi$en data3ase
0 PRO6R&M
S72V create ta3le ph"ne3""k (ph"nePn" num3er (6' primar% ke%,
username $archar2(30',
d""rn" $archar2(00',
158
street $archar2(30',
place $archar2(30',
pinc"de char(6''N
ta3le created(
S72V insert int" ph"ne3""k $alues(20302,I$i@a%I,I0204;DI,I3harathi streetI,IN,+c"l"n%I,I62?002I'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V insert int" ph"ne3""k $alues(2?:6<,I$asanthI,I3?D:I,IRK 3ha$anI,Isarakkal $ilaiI,I62?002I'N
0 r"6 created(
S72V select Q !r"m ph"ne3""kN
)A+N/PN+ #S/RNM/ D++RN+ STR//T )2&/ )-N&+D/
--------------- ---------------- ------------- ----------- ---------- --------------
20302 $i@a% 0204;D 3harathi street N,+ c"l"n% 62?002
2?:6< $asanth 3?D: RK 3ha$an sarakkal $ilai 62?002
S72V create "r replace !uncti"n !indddress(ph"ne in num3er' return $archar2 as address $archar2(000'N
3egin
select username^Î,I^^d""rn" ^Î,I^^street ^Î,I^^place^Î,I^^pinc"de int" address !r"m ph"ne3""k
6here ph"nePn"Sph"neN
return addressN
e9cepti"n
6hen n"PdataP!"und then return Iaddress n"t !"undIN
endN
4
Guncti"n created(
declare
address $archar2(000'N
3egin
addressBS!indaddress(20302'N
d3msP"utput(putPline(address'N
159
endN
4
O%TP%T ::
.i@a%,0204;D,3harathi street,N,+ c"l"n%,62?002
declare
address $archar2(000'N
3egin
addressBS!indaddress(23;;6'N
d3msP"utput(putPline(address'N
endN
4
O%TP%T<:
ddress n"t !"und
Re"#ltB
Thus the implementati"n "! !uncti"ns and its applicati"ns has 3een e9ecuted success!ull%(
SU##L,M,NT - A
DBMS LAB 1-1A $U,ST-.NS
0( =hat is data3ase]
160
data3ase is a l"gicall% c"herent c"llecti"n "! data 6ith s"me inherent meaning, representing s"me
aspect "! real 6"rld and 6hich is designed, 3uilt and p"pulated 6ith data !"r a speci!ic purp"se(
2( =hat is D1MS]
-t is a c"llecti"n "! pr"grams that ena3les user t" create and maintain a data3ase( -n "ther 6"rds it is
general-purp"se s"!t6are that pr"$ides the users 6ith the pr"cesses "! de!ining, c"nstructing and
manipulating the data3ase !"r $ari"us applicati"ns(
3( =hat is a Data3ase s%stem]
The data3ase and D1MS s"!t6are t"gether is called as Data3ase s%stem(
:( =hat are the ad$antages "! D1MS]
0( Redundanc% is c"ntr"lled(
2( #nauth"rised access is restricted(
3( )r"$iding multiple user inter!aces(
:( /n!"rcing integrit% c"nstraints(
;( )r"$iding 3ackup and rec"$er%(
;( =hat is the disad$antage in Gile )r"cessing S%stem]
0( Data redundanc% and inc"nsistenc%(
2( Di!!icult in accessing data(
3( Data is"lati"n(
:( Data integrit%(
;( &"ncurrent access is n"t p"ssi3le(
6( Securit% )r"3lems(
6( Descri3e the three le$els "! data a3stracti"n]
The are hree le$els "! a3stracti"nB
0( )h%sical le$elB The l"6est le$el "! a3stracti"n descri3es h"6 data are st"red(
161
2( 2"gical le$elB The ne9t higher le$el "! a3stracti"n, descri3es 6hat data are st"red in data3ase and
6hat relati"nship am"ng th"se data(
3( .ie6 le$elB The highest le$el "! a3stracti"n descri3es "nl% part "! entire data3ase(
<( De!ine the Rintegrit% rulesR]
There are t6" -ntegrit% rules(
0( /ntit% -ntegrit%B States that R)rimar% ke% cann"t ha$e N#22 $alueR
2( Re!erential -ntegrit%B States that RG"reign Ke% can 3e either a N#22 $alue "r sh"uld 3e
)rimar% Ke% $alue "! "ther relati"n(
>( =hat is e9tensi"n and intensi"n]
0( /9tensi"nB -t is the num3er "! tuples present in a ta3le at an% instance( This is time dependent(
2( -ntensi"nB -t is a c"nstant $alue that gi$es the name, structure "! ta3le and the c"nstraints laid "n it(
?( =hat is S%stem R] =hat are its t6" ma@"r su3s%stems]
S%stem R 6as designed and de$el"ped "$er a peri"d "! 0?<:-<? at -1M San D"se Research &enter( -t
is a pr"t"t%pe and its purp"se 6as t" dem"nstrate that it is p"ssi3le t" 3uild a Relati"nal S%stem that can 3e
used in a real li!e en$ir"nment t" s"l$e real li!e pr"3lems, 6ith per!"rmance at least c"mpara3le t" that "!
e9isting s%stem(
-ts t6" su3s%stems are
0( Research St"rage
2( S%stem Relati"nal Data S%stem(
00( A"6 is the data structure "! S%stem R di!!erent !r"m the relati"nal structure]
#nlike Relati"nal s%stems in S%stem R
0( D"mains are n"t supp"rted
2( /n!"rcement "! candidate ke% uni8ueness is "pti"nal
162
3( /n!"rcement "! entit% integrit% is "pti"nal
:( Re!erential integrit% is n"t en!"rced
00( =hat is Data -ndependence]
Data independence means that Rthe applicati"n is independent "! the st"rage structure and access
strateg% "! dataR( -n "ther 6"rds, The a3ilit% t" m"di!% the schema de!initi"n in "ne le$el sh"uld n"t a!!ect
the schema de!initi"n in the ne9t higher le$el(
T6" t%pes "! Data -ndependenceB
0( )h%sical Data -ndependenceB M"di!icati"n in ph%sical le$el sh"uld n"t a!!ect the l"gical le$el(
2( 2"gical Data -ndependenceB M"di!icati"n in l"gical le$el sh"uld a!!ect the $ie6 le$el(
N+T/B 2"gical Data -ndependence is m"re di!!icult t" achie$e
02( =hat is a $ie6] A"6 it is related t" data independence]
$ie6 ma% 3e th"ught "! as a $irtual ta3le, that is, a ta3le that d"es n"t reall% e9ist in its "6n right
3ut is instead deri$ed !r"m "ne "r m"re underl%ing 3ase ta3le( -n "ther 6"rds, there is n" st"red !ile that
direct represents the $ie6 instead a de!initi"n "! $ie6 is st"red in data dicti"nar%(
,r"6th and restructuring "! 3ase ta3les is n"t re!lected in $ie6s( Thus the $ie6 can insulate users
!r"m the e!!ects "! restructuring and gr"6th in the data3ase( Aence acc"unts !"r l"gical data independence(
03( =hat is Data M"del]
c"llecti"n "! c"nceptual t""ls !"r descri3ing data, data relati"nships data semantics and
c"nstraints(
0:( =hat is /-R m"del]
This data m"del is 3ased "n real 6"rld that c"nsists "! 3asic "3@ects called entities and "!
relati"nship
am"ng these "3@ects( /ntities are descri3ed in a data3ase 3% a set "! attri3utes(
0;( =hat is +3@ect +riented m"del]
163
This m"del is 3ased "n c"llecti"n "! "3@ects( n "3@ect c"ntains $alues st"red in instance $aria3les
6ith in the "3@ect( n "3@ect als" c"ntains 3"dies "! c"de that "perate "n the "3@ect( These 3"dies "! c"de
are called meth"ds( +3@ects that c"ntain same t%pes "! $alues and the same meth"ds are gr"uped t"gether
int" classes(
06( =hat is an /ntit%]
-t is a IthingI in the real 6"rld 6ith an independent e9istence(
0<( =hat is an /ntit% t%pe]
-t is a c"llecti"n (set' "! entities that ha$e same attri3utes(
0>( =hat is an /ntit% set]
-t is a c"llecti"n "! all entities "! particular entit% t%pe in the data3ase(
0?( =hat is an /9tensi"n "! entit% t%pe]
The c"llecti"ns "! entities "! a particular entit% t%pe are gr"uped t"gether int" an entit% set(
20( =hat is =eak /ntit% set]
n entit% set ma% n"t ha$e su!!icient attri3utes t" !"rm a primar% ke%, and its primar% ke%
c"mpr"mises "! its partial ke% and primar% ke% "! its parent entit%, then it is said t" 3e =eak /ntit% set(
20( =hat is an attri3ute]
-t is a particular pr"pert%, 6hich descri3es the entit%(
22( =hat is a Relati"n Schema and a Relati"n]
relati"n Schema den"ted 3% R(0, 2, (((, n' is made up "! the relati"n name R and the list "!
attri3utes i that it c"ntains( relati"n is de!ined as a set "! tuples( 2et r 3e the relati"n 6hich c"ntains set
tuples (t0, t2, t3, (((, tn'( /ach tuple is an "rdered list "! n-$alues tS($0,$2, (((, $n'(
23( =hat is degree "! a Relati"n]
-t is the num3er "! attri3ute "! its relati"n schema(
164
2:( =hat is Relati"nship]
-t is an ass"ciati"n am"ng t6" "r m"re entities(
2;( =hat is Relati"nship set]
The c"llecti"n ("r set' "! similar relati"nships(
26( =hat is Relati"nship t%pe]
Relati"nship t%pe de!ines a set "! ass"ciati"ns "r a relati"nship set am"ng a gi$en set "! entit% t%pes(
2<( =hat is degree "! Relati"nship t%pe]
-t is the num3er "! entit% t%pe participating(
2>( =hat is DD2 (Data De!initi"n 2anguage']
data 3ase schema is speci!ies 3% a set "! de!initi"ns e9pressed 3% a special language called DD2(
2?( =hat is .D2 (.ie6 De!initi"n 2anguage']
-t speci!ies user $ie6s and their mappings t" the c"nceptual schema(
30( =hat is SD2 (St"rage De!initi"n 2anguage']
This language is t" speci!% the internal schema( This language ma% speci!% the mapping 3et6een t6"
schemas(
30( =hat is Data St"rage - De!initi"n 2anguage]
The st"rage structures and access meth"ds used 3% data3ase s%stem are speci!ied 3% a set "!
de!initi"n in a special t%pe "! DD2 called data st"rage-de!initi"n language(
32( =hat is DM2 (Data Manipulati"n 2anguage']
This language that ena3le user t" access "r manipulate data as "rganised 3% appr"priate data m"del(
165
0( )r"cedural DM2 "r 2"6 le$elB DM2 re8uires a user t" speci!% 6hat data are needed and h"6 t"
get th"se data(
2( N"n-)r"cedural DM2 "r Aigh le$elB DM2 re8uires a user t" speci!% 6hat data are needed 6ith"ut
speci!%ing h"6 t" get th"se data(
33( =hat is DM2 &"mpiler]
-t translates DM2 statements in a 8uer% language int" l"6-le$el instructi"n that the 8uer% e$aluati"n
engine can understand(
3:( =hat is 7uer% e$aluati"n engine]
-t e9ecutes l"6-le$el instructi"n generated 3% c"mpiler(
3;( =hat is DD2 -nterpreter]
-t interprets DD2 statements and rec"rd them in ta3les c"ntaining metadata(
36( =hat is Rec"rd-at-a-time]
The 2"6 le$el "r )r"cedural DM2 can speci!% and retrie$e each rec"rd !r"m a set "! rec"rds( This
retrie$e "! a rec"rd is said t" 3e Rec"rd-at-a-time(
3<( =hat is Set-at-a-time "r Set-"riented]
The Aigh le$el "r N"n-pr"cedural DM2 can speci!% and retrie$e man% rec"rds in a single DM2
statement( This retrie$e "! a rec"rd is said t" 3e Set-at-a-time "r Set-"riented(
3>( =hat is Relati"nal lge3ra]
-t is pr"cedural 8uer% language( -t c"nsists "! a set "! "perati"ns that take "ne "r t6" relati"ns as
input and pr"duce a ne6 relati"n(
3?( =hat is Relati"nal &alculus]
-t is an applied predicate calculus speci!icall% tail"red !"r relati"nal data3ases pr"p"sed 3% /(G(
&"dd(
166
/(g( "! languages 3ased "n it are DS2 2)A, 7#/2(
:0( A"6 d"es Tuple-"riented relati"nal calculus di!!er !r"m d"main-"riented relati"nal calculus]
0( The tuple-"riented calculus uses a tuple $aria3les i(e(, $aria3le 6h"se "nl% permitted $alues are
tuples "! that relati"n( /(g( 7#/2
2( The d"main-"riented calculus has d"main $aria3les i(e(, $aria3les that range "$er the underl%ing
d"mains instead "! "$er relati"n( /(g( -22, D/D#&/(
:0( =hat is n"rmaliFati"n]
-t is a pr"cess "! anal%sing the gi$en relati"n schemas 3ased "n their Guncti"nal Dependencies (GDs'
and primar% ke% t" achie$e the pr"perties
(0'(MinimiFing redundanc%,
(2'( MinimiFing inserti"n, deleti"n and update an"malies(
:2( =hat is Guncti"nal Dependenc%]
Guncti"nal dependenc% is den"ted 3% E H 3et6een t6" sets "! attri3utes E and H that are su3sets
"! R speci!ies a c"nstraint "n the p"ssi3le tuple that can !"rm a relati"n state r "! R( The c"nstraint is !"r an%
t6" tuples t0 and t2 in r i! t0YEZ S t2YEZ then the% ha$e t0YHZ S t2YHZ( This means the $alue "! E c"mp"nent
"! a tuple uni8uel% determines the $alue "! c"mp"nent H(
:3( =hat is 2"ssless @"in pr"pert%]
-t guarantees that the spuri"us tuple generati"n d"es n"t "ccur 6ith respect t" relati"n schemas a!ter
dec"mp"siti"n(
::( =hat is 0 NG (N"rmal G"rm']
The d"main "! attri3ute must include "nl% at"mic (simple, indi$isi3le' $alues(
:;( =hat is Gull% Guncti"nal dependenc%]
-t is 3ased "n c"ncept "! !ull !uncti"nal dependenc%( !uncti"nal dependenc% E H is !ull !uncti"nal
dependenc% i! rem"$al "! an% attri3ute !r"m E means that the dependenc% d"es n"t h"ld an% m"re(
:6( =hat is 2NG]
167
relati"n schema R is in 2NG i! it is in 0NG and e$er% n"n-prime attri3ute in R is !ull%
!uncti"nall% dependent "n primar% ke%(
:<( =hat is 3NG]
relati"n schema R is in 3NG i! it is in 2NG and !"r e$er% GD E either "! the !"ll"6ing is true
0( E is a Super-ke% "! R(
2( is a prime attri3ute "! R(
-n "ther 6"rds, i! e$er% n"n prime attri3ute is n"n-transiti$el% dependent "n primar% ke%(
:>( =hat is 1&NG (1"%ce-&"dd N"rmal G"rm']
relati"n schema R is in 1&NG i! it is in 3NG and satis!ies an additi"nal c"nstraint that !"r e$er% GD
E , E must 3e a candidate ke%(
:?( =hat is :NG]
relati"n schema R is said t" 3e in :NG i! !"r e$er% Multi$alued dependenc% E H that h"lds "$er R,
"ne "! !"ll"6ing is true(
0(' E is su3set "r e8ual t" ("r' EH S R(
2(' E is a super ke%(
;0( =hat is ;NG]
Relati"n schema R is said t" 3e ;NG i! !"r e$er% @"in dependenc% [R0, R2, (((, Rn\ that h"lds R,
"ne the !"ll"6ing is true
0(' Ri S R !"r s"me i(
2(' The @"in dependenc% is implied 3% the set "! GD, "$er R in 6hich the le!t side is ke% "! R(
;0( =hat is D"main-Ke% N"rmal G"rm]
168
relati"n is said t" 3e in DKNG i! all c"nstraints and dependencies that sh"uld h"ld "n the the
c"nstraint can 3e en!"rced 3% simpl% en!"rcing the d"main c"nstraint and ke% c"nstraint "n the relati"n(
;2( =hat are partial, alternate,, arti!icial, c"mp"und and natural ke%]
:. Partial 8e.:
-t is a set "! attri3utes that can uni8uel% identi!% 6eak entities and that are related t" same "6ner
entit%( -t is s"metime called as Discriminat"r(
<. &lternate 8e.:
ll &andidate Ke%s e9cluding the )rimar% Ke% are kn"6n as lternate Ke%s(
=. &rtificial 8e.:
-! n" "3$i"us ke%, either stand al"ne "r c"mp"und is a$aila3le, then the last res"rt is t" simpl% create
a ke%, 3% assigning a uni8ue num3er t" each rec"rd "r "ccurrence( Then this is kn"6n as de$el"ping an
arti!icial ke%(
>. Com2o#nd 8e.:
-! n" single data element uni8uel% identi!ies "ccurrences 6ithin a c"nstruct, then c"m3ining multiple
elements t" create a uni8ue identi!ier !"r the c"nstruct is kn"6n as creating a c"mp"und ke%(
?. (at#ral 8e.:
=hen "ne "! the data elements st"red 6ithin a c"nstruct is utiliFed as the primar% ke%, then it is
called the natural ke%(
;3( =hat is inde9ing and 6hat are the di!!erent kinds "! inde9ing]
-nde9ing is a techni8ue !"r determining h"6 8uickl% speci!ic data can 3e !"und(
T%pesB
0( 1inar% search st%le inde9ing
2( 1-Tree inde9ing
3( -n$erted list inde9ing
169
:( Mem"r% resident ta3le
;( Ta3le inde9ing
;:( =hat is s%stem catal"g "r catal"g relati"n] A"6 is 3etter kn"6n as]
RD1MS maintains a descripti"n "! all the data that it c"ntains, in!"rmati"n a3"ut e$er% relati"n
and inde9 that it c"ntains( This in!"rmati"n is st"red in a c"llecti"n "! relati"ns maintained 3% the s%stem
called metadata( -t is als" called data dicti"nar%(
;;( =hat is meant 3% 8uer% "ptimiFati"n]
The phase that identi!ies an e!!icient e9ecuti"n plan !"r e$aluating a 8uer% that has the least
estimated c"st is re!erred t" as 8uer% "ptimiFati"n(
;6( =hat is dura3ilit% in D1MS]
+nce the D1MS in!"rms the user that a transacti"n has success!ull% c"mpleted, its e!!ects sh"uld
persist e$en i! the s%stem crashes 3e!"re all its changes are re!lected "n disk( This pr"pert% is called
dura3ilit%(
;<( =hat d" %"u mean 3% at"micit% and aggregati"n]
:. &tomicit.:
/ither all acti"ns are carried "ut "r n"ne are( #sers sh"uld n"t ha$e t" 6"rr% a3"ut the e!!ect "!
inc"mplete transacti"ns( D1MS ensures this 3% und"ing the acti"ns "! inc"mplete transacti"ns(
<. &--re-ation:
c"ncept 6hich is used t" m"del a relati"nship 3et6een a c"llecti"n "! entities and relati"nships( -t
is used 6hen 6e need t" e9press a relati"nship am"ng relati"nships(
;>( =hat is a )hant"m Deadl"ck]
-n distri3uted deadl"ck detecti"n, the dela% in pr"pagating l"cal in!"rmati"n might cause the
deadl"ck detecti"n alg"rithms t" identi!% deadl"cks that d" n"t reall% e9ist( Such situati"ns are called
phant"m deadl"cks and the% lead t" unnecessar% a3"rts(
170
;?( =hat is a checkp"int and =hen d"es it "ccur]
&heckp"int is like a snapsh"t "! the D1MS state( 1% taking checkp"ints, the D1MS can reduce
the am"unt "! 6"rk t" 3e d"ne during restart in the e$ent "! su3se8uent crashes(
60( =hat are the di!!erent phases "! transacti"n]
Di!!erent phases are
0(' nal%sis phase,
2(' Red" )hase,
3(' #nd" phase(
60( =hat d" %"u mean 3% !lat !ile data3ase]
-t is a data3ase in 6hich there are n" pr"grams "r user access languages( -t has n" cr"ss-!ile
capa3ilities 3ut is user-!riendl% and pr"$ides user-inter!ace management(
62( =hat is Rtransparent D1MSR]
-t is "ne, 6hich keeps its )h%sical Structure hidden !r"m user(
63( =hat is a 8uer%]
8uer% 6ith respect t" D1MS relates t" user c"mmands that are used t" interact 6ith a data 3ase(
The 8uer% language can 3e classi!ied int" data de!initi"n language and data manipulati"n language(
6:( =hat d" %"u mean 3% &"rrelated su38uer%]
Su38ueries, "r nested 8ueries, are used t" 3ring 3ack a set "! r"6s t" 3e used 3% the parent 8uer%(
Depending "n h"6 the su38uer% is 6ritten, it can 3e e9ecuted "nce !"r the parent 8uer% "r it can 3e e9ecuted
"nce !"r each r"6 returned 3% the parent 8uer%( -! the su38uer% is e9ecuted !"r each r"6 "! the parent, this is
called a c"rrelated su38uer%(
c"rrelated su38uer% can 3e easil% identi!ied i! it c"ntains an% re!erences t" the parent su38uer% c"lumns in
its =A/R/ clause( &"lumns !r"m the su38uer% cann"t 3e re!erenced an%6here else in the parent 8uer%( The
!"ll"6ing e9ample dem"nstrates a n"n-c"rrelated su38uer%(
171
/9ampleB
Select Q Gr"m &#ST =here I0040340??0I -N (Select +DT/ Gr"m +RD/R
=here &#ST(&N#M S +RD/R(&N#M'
6;( =hat are the primiti$e "perati"ns c"mm"n t" all rec"rd management s%stems]
dditi"n, deleti"n and m"di!icati"n(
66( Name the 3u!!er in 6hich all the c"mmands that are t%ped in are st"red]
I/ditI 1u!!er(
6<( =hat are the unar% "perati"ns in Relati"nal lge3ra]
)R+D/&T-+N and S/2/&T-+N(
6>( re the resulting relati"ns "! )R+D#&T and D+-N "perati"n the same]
N"(
)R+D#&TB &"ncatenati"n "! e$er% r"6 in "ne relati"n 6ith e$er% r"6 in an"ther(
D+-NB &"ncatenati"n "! r"6s !r"m "ne relati"n and related r"6s !r"m an"ther(
6?( =hat is RD1MS K/RN/2]
T6" imp"rtant pieces "! RD1MS architecture are the kernel, 6hich is the s"!t6are, and the data
dicti"nar%, 6hich c"nsists "! the s%stem-le$el data structures used 3% the kernel t" manage the data3ase H"u
might think "! an RD1MS as an "perating s%stem ("r set "! su3s%stems', designed speci!icall% !"r
c"ntr"lling data accessN its primar% !uncti"ns are st"ring, retrie$ing, and securing data(
n RD1MS maintains its "6n list "! auth"riFed users and their ass"ciated pri$ilegesN manages mem"r%
caches and pagingN c"ntr"ls l"cking !"r c"ncurrent res"urce usageN dispatches and schedules user
re8uestsN and manages space usage 6ithin its ta3le-space structures(
<0( Name the su3-s%stems "! a RD1MS(
-4+, Securit%,
172
2anguage )r"cessing,
)r"cess &"ntr"l,
St"rage Management,
2"gging and Rec"$er%,
Distri3uti"n &"ntr"l,
Transacti"n &"ntr"l,
Mem"r% Management,
2"ck Management(
<0( =hich part "! the RD1MS takes care "! the data dicti"nar%] A"6]
Data dicti"nar% is a set "! ta3les and data3ase "3@ects that is st"red in a special area "! the data3ase
and maintained e9clusi$el% 3% the kernel(
<2( =hat is the @"3 "! the in!"rmati"n st"red in data-dicti"nar%]
The in!"rmati"n in the data dicti"nar% $alidates the e9istence "! the "3@ects, pr"$ides access t" them,
and maps the actual ph%sical st"rage l"cati"n(
<3( A"6 d" %"u c"mmunicate 6ith an RD1MS]
H"u c"mmunicate 6ith an RD1MS using Structured 7uer% 2anguage (S72'(
<:( De!ine S72 and state the di!!erences 3et6een S72 and "ther c"n$enti"nal pr"gramming 2anguages(
S72 is a n"npr"cedural language that is designed speci!icall% !"r data access "perati"ns "n
n"rmaliFed
relati"nal data3ase structures( The primar% di!!erence 3et6een S72 and "ther c"n$enti"nal pr"gramming
languages is that S72 statements speci!% 6hat data "perati"ns sh"uld 3e per!"rmed rather than h"6 t"
per!"rm them(
<;( Name the three ma@"r set "! !iles "n disk that c"mp"se a data3ase in +racle(
There are three ma@"r sets "! !iles "n disk that c"mp"se a data3ase( ll the !iles are 3inar%( These are
173
0(' Data3ase !iles
2(' &"ntr"l !iles
3(' Red" l"gs
The m"st imp"rtant "! these are the data3ase !iles 6here the actual data resides( The c"ntr"l !iles and
the red" l"gs supp"rt the !uncti"ning "! the architecture itsel!( ll three sets "! !iles must 3e present, "pen,
and a$aila3le t" +racle !"r an% data "n the data3ase t" 3e usea3le( =ith"ut these !iles, %"u cann"t access the
data3ase, and the data3ase administrat"r might ha$e t" rec"$er s"me "r all "! the data3ase using a 3ackup, i!
there is "ne(
<6( =hat is data3ase Trigger]
data3ase trigger is a )24S72 3l"ck that can de!ined t" aut"maticall% e9ecute !"r insert, update, and
delete statements against a ta3le( The trigger can e de!ined t" e9ecute "nce !"r the entire statement "r "nce
!"r e$er% r"6 that is inserted, updated, "r deleted( G"r an% "ne ta3le, there are t6el$e e$ents !"r 6hich %"u
can de!ine data3ase triggers( data3ase trigger can call data3ase pr"cedures that are als" 6ritten in )24S72(
<<( =hat are st"red-pr"cedures] nd 6hat are the ad$antages "! using them]
St"red pr"cedures are data3ase "3@ects that per!"rm a user de!ined "perati"n( st"red pr"cedure can
ha$e a set "! c"mp"und S72 statements( st"red pr"cedure e9ecutes the S72 c"mmands and returns the
result t" the client( St"red pr"cedures are used t" reduce net6"rk tra!!ic(
<>( =hat is St"rage Manager]
-t is a pr"gram m"dule that pr"$ides the inter!ace 3et6een the l"6-le$el data st"red in data3ase,
applicati"n pr"grams and 8ueries su3mitted t" the s%stem(
<?( =hat is 1u!!er Manager]
-t is a pr"gram m"dule, 6hich is resp"nsi3le !"r !etching data !r"m disk st"rage int" main mem"r%
and deciding 6hat data t" 3e cache in mem"r%(
>0( =hat is Transacti"n Manager]
-t is a pr"gram m"dule, 6hich ensures that data3ase, remains in a c"nsistent state despite s%stem
!ailures and c"ncurrent transacti"n e9ecuti"n pr"ceeds 6ith"ut c"n!licting(
174
>0( =hat is Gile Manager]
-t is a pr"gram m"dule, 6hich manages the all"cati"n "! space "n disk st"rage and data structure
used t" represent in!"rmati"n st"red "n a disk(
>2( =hat is uth"riFati"n and -ntegrit% manager]
-t is the pr"gram m"dule, 6hich tests !"r the satis!acti"n "! integrit% c"nstraint and checks the
auth"rit% "! user t" access data(
>3( =hat are stand-al"ne pr"cedures]
)r"cedures that are n"t part "! a package are kn"6n as stand-al"ne 3ecause the% independentl%
de!ined( g""d e9ample "! a stand-al"ne pr"cedure is "ne 6ritten in a S72QG"rms applicati"n( These t%pes
"! pr"cedures are n"t a$aila3le !"r re!erence !r"m "ther +racle t""ls( n"ther limitati"n "! stand-al"ne
pr"cedures is that the% are c"mpiled at run time, 6hich sl"6s e9ecuti"n(
>:( =hat are curs"rs gi$e di!!erent t%pes "! curs"rs]
)24S72 uses curs"rs !"r all data3ase in!"rmati"n accesses statements( The language supp"rts the use
t6" t%pes "! curs"rs
0(' -mplicit
2(' /9plicit
>;( =hat is c"ld 3ackup and h"t 3ackup (in case "! +racle']
0( &"ld 1ackupB -t is c"p%ing the three sets "! !iles (data3ase !iles, red" l"gs, and c"ntr"l !ile' 6hen the
instance is shut d"6n( This is a straight !ile c"p%, usuall% !r"m the disk directl% t" tape( H"u must shut d"6n
the instance t" guarantee a c"nsistent c"p%( -! a c"ld 3ackup is per!"rmed, the "nl% "pti"n a$aila3le in the
e$ent "! data !ile l"ss is rest"ring all the !iles !r"m the latest 3ackup( ll 6"rk per!"rmed "n the data3ase
since the last 3ackup is l"st(
2( A"t 1ackupB S"me sites (such as 6"rld6ide airline reser$ati"ns s%stems' cann"t shut d"6n the data3ase
6hile making a 3ackup c"p% "! the !iles( The c"ld 3ackup is n"t an a$aila3le "pti"n(
>6( =hat is meant 3% )r"acti$e, Retr"acti$e and Simultane"us #pdate(
0( )r"acti$e #pdateB The updates that are applied t" data3ase 3e!"re it 3ec"mes e!!ecti$e in real 6"rld(
175
2( Retr"acti$e #pdateB The updates that are applied t" data3ase a!ter it 3ec"mes e!!ecti$e in real 6"rld(
3( Simulatne"us #pdateB The updates that are applied t" data3ase at the same time 6hen it 3ec"mes e!!ecti$e
in real 6"rld(
SU##L,M,NT - B
)&T&B&SE &PP,C&TO(
Em2lo.ee" Mana-ement &22lication
This applicati"n is used t" keep track "! in!"rmati"n a3"ut empl"%ees "! a c"mpan%( -t als" st"res
the in!"rmati"n a3"ut departments and lea$es taken 3% empl"%ees( H"u are re8uired t" create ta3les (as
sh"6n 3el"6' and insert data int" each "! the ta3le(
part !r"m gi$ing %"u an idea a3"ut h"6 t" create ta3les 6ith c"nstraints, it als" ena3les %"u t" understand
h"6 t" create 8ueries, pl4s8l pr"grams, st"red pr"cedures and !uncti"ns and data3ase triggers(
A"6e$er, n"te, this sample c"llecti"n "! ta3les is "nl% !"r learning purp"se and the% are h%p"thetical(
Re8uired Ta3les
Structure "! Ta3les
176
&reating Ta3les
2"ading data int" ta3les
7ueries
Re;#ired Ta$le"
The !"ll"6ing are the set "! ta3les t" 3e created t" st"re the re8uired in!"rmati"n(
Ta$le (ame Meanin-
D/)T St"res the details "! departments "! the c"mpan%(
/M)2+H// St"res in!"rmati"n a3"ut all the empl"%ees "! the c"mpan%(
2/./S St"res in!"rmati"n a3"ut t%pes "! lea$es a$aila3le
/M)P2/./S St"res in!"rmati"n a3"ut lea$es taken 3% the empl"%ees(
Structure "! Ta3les
The !"ll"6ing is the structure "! each "! the re8uired ta3le(
D/)T Ta3le
St"res in!"rmati"n a3"ut all the departments "! the c"mpan%(
Col#mn (ame )atat.2e Meanin-
D/)TN+ num3er(2' Department Num3er
D/)TNM/ $archar2(20' Department Name
A+D $archar2(20' Aead "! the department
Con"traint"
D/)TN+ is primar% ke%
D/)TNM/ must 3e uni8ue
177
EMP,OHEE ta$le
&"ntains in!"rmati"n a3"ut all the empl"%ees "! the c"mpan%(
/M)N+ num3er(;' /mpl"%ee Num3er
/M)NM/ $archar2(20' /mpl"%ee Name
S2 num3er(6' 1asic Salar%
D/)TN+ num3er(2' Department t" 6hich empl"%ee 3el"ngs
DD Date Date "! @"ining the c"mpan%
D/S, $archar2(20' Designati"n "! the empl"%ee
Con"traint"
/M)N+ is primar% ke%
S2 must 3e VS 0000
D/)TN+ is !"reign ke% re!erencing D/)TN+ "! D/)T ta3le
,E&!ES Ta$le
&"ntains in!"rmati"n a3"ut the t%pes "! lea$es a$aila3le in the c"mpan%(
2/./TH)/ char(0' &"de !"r the t%pe "! lea$e
2/./NM/ $archar2(20' Descripti"n "! the t%pe "! the lea$e
N+2/./S num3er(2' Num3er "! lea$es all"tted t" each empl"%ee !"r a lea$e t%pe
Contraint"
2/./TH)/ is primar% ke%
N+2/./S must 3e US 20
EMPF,E&!ES Ta$le
&"ntains in!"rmati"n a3"ut the lea$es taken 3% empl"%ees(
178
/M)N+ num3er(;' /mpl"%ee num3er "! the empl"%ee 6h" has taken lea$e
2/./TH)/ char(0' T%pe "! the lea$e taken 3% the empl"%ee
STDT/ Date Starting date "! the lea$e
/NDDT/ Date /nding date "! the lea$e
Contraint"
/M)N+ C STDT/ is primar% ke%
2/./TH)/ is n"t null
/M)N+ is !"reign ke% re!erencing /M)N+ in /M)2+H//S ta3le
2/./TH)/ is !"reign ke% re!erencing 2/./TH)/ in 2/./S ta3le
STDT/ must 3e US /NDDT/
Creatin- Ta$le"
The !"ll"6ing scirpt is used t" create sample ta3les( &lick here t" d"6nl"ad the script and run the
script at S72V pr"mt using STRT c"mmand "! S72Q)2#SV
R/M QQQQQQ script t" create ta3les realted t" /M)2+H//S applicati"n QQQQQQ
R/M QQQQQQ #TA+R B )(SR-KNTA QQQQQQ
R/M QQQQQQ DT/ B 23-#,-2000 QQQQQQ
R/M QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
dr"p ta3le empPlea$es cascade c"nstraintsN
dr"p ta3le empl"%ee cascade c"nstraintsN
dr"p ta3le dept cascade c"nstraintsN
dr"p ta3le lea$es cascade c"nstraintsN
&R/T/ T12/ D/)T
(
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2' &+NSTR-NT D/)TP)K )R-MRH K/H,
D/)TNM/ .R&AR2(20' &+NSTR-NT D/)TPD/)TNM/P# #N-7#/,
A+D .R&AR2(20'
'N
&R/T/ T12/ 2/./S
(
2/./TH)/ &AR(0' &+NSTR-NT 2/./SP)K )R-MRH K/H,
2/./NM/ .R&AR2(20',
179
N+2/./S N#M1/R(2' &+NSTR-NT 2/./SPN+2/./SP&AK &A/&K ( N+2/./S US 20'
'N
&R/T/ T12/ /M)2+H//
(
/M)N+ N#M1/R(;' &+NSTR-NT /M)2+H//P)K )R-MRH K/H,
/M)NM/ .R&AR2(20',
S2 N#M1/R(;' &+NSTR-NT /M)2+H//PS2P&AK &A/&K ( S2 VS 0000',
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2' &+NSTR-NT /M)2+H//PD/)TN+PGK R/G/R/N&/S D/)T(D/)TN+',
D/S, .R&AR2(20',
DD DT/,
'N
&R/T/ T12/ /M)P2/./S
(
/M)N+ N#M1/R(;' &+NSTR-NT /M)P2/./SP/M)N+PGK R/G/R/N&/S /M)2+H//(/M)N+',
2/./TH)/ &AR(0' &+NSTR-NT /M)P2/./SP2/./TH)/PGK R/G/R/N&/S 2/./S(2/./TH)/'
&+NSTR-NT /M)P2/./SP2/./TH)/PNN N+T N#22,
STDT/ DT/,
/NDDT/ DT/,
&+NSTR-NT /M)P2/./SP)K )R-MRH K/H (/M)N+,STDT/',
&+NSTR-NT /M)P2/./SPDT/SP&AK &A/&K (STDT/ US /NDDT/'
'N
2"ading data int" ta3les
The !"ll"6ing script inserts a !e6 r"6s int" sample ta3les( &lick here t" d"6nl"ad the script t"
create sample data "r c"p% the script gi$en 3el"6 int" n"tepad, sa$e it 6ith (S72 e9tensi"n and
run it at S72V using STRT c"mmand(
R/M QQQQQQ script t" insert sample data int" /M)2+H//S applicati"n QQQQQQ
R/M QQQQQQ #TA+R B )(SR-KNTA QQQQQQ
R/M QQQQQQ DT/ B 23-#,-2000 QQQQQQ
R/M QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
rem rem"$e all e9isting r"6s !irst
D/2/T/ GR+M /M)P2/./SN
D/2/T/ GR+M /M)2+H//N
D/2/T/ GR+M D/)TN
D/2/T/ GR+M 2/./SN
-NS/RT -NT+ 2/./S .2#/S(ISI,IS-&KI,0;'N
-NS/RT -NT+ 2/./S .2#/S(I&I,I&S#2I,0;'N
-NS/RT -NT+ 2/./S .2#/S(I/I,I/RN-N,I,;'N
-NS/RT -NT+ 2/./S .2#/S(I+I,I+./RT-M/I,;'N
-NS/RT -NT+ D/)T .2#/S(0,IM-NGRM/I,I,/+R,/I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ D/)T .2#/S(2,I&2-/NT4S/R./RI,I1-22I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ D/)T .2#/S(3,ISHST/MSI,I,RRHI'N
-NS/RT -NT+ D/)T .2#/S(:,I-NT/RN/TI,I)#2I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ D/)T .2#/S(;,I&&+#NTSI,INDHI'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)2+H// .2#/S(000,I,/+R,/I,02000,0,I02-D#2-2000I,I)MI'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)2+H// .2#/S(002,I1-22I,02000,2,I0:-D#2-2000I,I)MI'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)2+H// .2#/S(003,I,RRHI,0;000,3,I0-D#2-2000I,I)MI'N
180
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)2+H// .2#/S(00:,I)#2I,00000,:,I2-D#2-2000I,I)2I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)2+H// .2#/S(00;,INDHI,<000,;,I2;-D#N-2000I,IMI'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)2+H// .2#/S(006,IK/TSI,00000,0,I0<-D#2-2000I,ISI'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)2+H// .2#/S(00<,ID+/2I,>000,2,I0;-D#2-2000I,IS)I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)2+H// .2#/S(00>,IR+1/RTSI,<;00,2,I0;-D#2-2000I,I)R+I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)2+H// .2#/S(00?,IA/R1/RTI,>000,:,I22-D#2-2000I,ISI'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)2+H// .2#/S(000,IM-&A/2I,6000,:,I0;-D#2-2000I,I)R+I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)P2/./S .2#/S(002,ISI,I23-D#2-2000I,I2;-D#2-2000I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)P2/./S .2#/S(00:,I&I,I2:-D#2-2000I,I2;-D#2-2000I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)P2/./S .2#/S(00:,ISI,I2>-D#2-2000I,I2?-D#2-2000I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)P2/./S .2#/S(000,I&I,I2<-D#2-2000I,I2>-D#2-2000I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)P2/./S .2#/S(006,I+I,I2>-D#2-2000I,I2?-D#2-2000I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)P2/./S .2#/S(00?,I&I,I0-#,-2000I,I2-#,-2000I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)P2/./S .2#/S(003,I&I,I2-#,-2000I,I;-#,-2000I'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)P2/./S .2#/S(00;,ISI,I0<-#,-2000I,N#22'N
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)P2/./S .2#/S(00>,ISI,I23-#,-2000I,N#22'N
&+MM-TN
$uer"es +elated To ,m(lo'ees Management A((l"cat"on
+: D-S)2H /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ D+-N/D -N TA/ 2ST 0; DHS
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ SHSDT/ - DD US 0;N
+: D-S)2H /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ D+-N/D T+DH
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ TR#N&(SHSDT/' S TR#N&(DD'N
(OTE:
TR#N& G#N&T-+N -S R/7#-R/D -N +RD/R T+ -,N+R/ T-M/ D-GG/R/N&/ 1/T=//N T=+ DT/S(
+: D-S)2H =A+ A./ D+-N/D -N TA/ 2ST =//K +G TA/ M+NTA
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ DD VS 2STPDH(DD' - <N
+: D-S)2H =A/N /M)2+H// 002 AS TK/N A-S G-RST S2RH
S/2/&T /M)NM/, 2STPDH(DD' C 0 RG-RST S2RH DT/R
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ S 002N
+: D/2/T/ /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ D+-N/D TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA
D/2/T/ GR+M /M)2+H// =A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHHHI' S T+P&AR(DD,IMMHHHHI'
181
+: D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+S/ S2RH RN,/ -S 1/T=//N 02,000 T+ 0:,000
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 1/T=//N 02000 ND 0:000N
+: D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ 1/2+N, T+ D/)RTM/NT 0 +R 3
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N (0,3'N
+: S/2/&T NM/S +G /M)2+H//S =A+S/ NM/S STRT =-TA IMI
S/2/&T /M)NM/
GR+M /M)2+H// =A/R/ /M)NM/ 2-K/ IM_IN
+: D/2/T/ TA+S/ /M)2+H//S =A/R/ NM/ AS TA/ &AR&T/R II
D/2/T/ GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)NM/ 2-K/ I__IN
+: S/2/&T /M)2+H//S =A/R/ S/&+ND &AR&T/R -N NM/ -S ISI
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)NM/ 2-K/ IPS_IN
+: S/2/&T TA+S/ /M)2+H//S =A+S/ S2RH -S N+T KN+=N
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 -S N#22N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ D+-N/D -N TA/ 2ST 20 DHS
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ SHSDT/ - DD US 20N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G 2/./S -G TA/ N#M1/R +G 2/./S -S M+R/ TAN 00
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /NDDT/ - STDT/ V 00N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,/M)NM/,DT/ +G D+-N-N,,N#M1/R +G M+NTAS +G /E)/R-/N&/ ND 1S-& S2RH
S/2/&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, DD, M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,DD' /E), S2
GR+M /M)2+H//N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ R/ DR=-N, M+R/ TAN 00000 ND TA/ D/S-,NT-+N -S &+NT-N-N,
M+R/ TAN 3 2/TT/RS
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 V 00000 ND 2/N,TA(D/S,' V 3N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+S/ NM/ -S &+NT-N-N, M+R/ TAN +N/ S)&/
182
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ -NSTR(/M)NM/, I I , 0, 2' UV 0N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G 2/./S =A/R/ TA/ 2/./ STRT/D -N TA/ )R/.-+#S M+NTA ND TA/ 2/./ -S N+T H/T
&+M)2/T/D
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ STDT/ 1/T=//N 2STPDH( DDPM+NTAS(STDT/,-2'' C 0 ND
2STPDH( DDPM+NTAS(STDT/,-0'' C 0
ND /NDDT/ -S N#22N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A/R/ 1S-& S2RH -S M+R/ TAN 00000 +R D/S-,NT-+N -S )2 ND
/E)/R-/N&/ -S M+R/ TAN 3 H/RS
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 V 00000 +R D/S, S I)2I ND M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,DD' V 36N

+: D-S)2H /M)N+,NM/ ND G-RST NM/ +G TA/ /M)2+H// ND =A/N /M)2+H// AS TK/N A-S G-RST S2RH
S/2/&T S#1STR(/M)NM/,0,-NSTR(/M)NM/,I I' -0' GNM/, 2STPDH(DD' C 0
GR+M /M)2+H//N
+: G-ND TA/ ./R,/ S2RH +G TA/ /M)2+H// =A+ D+-N/D -N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S/2/&T .,(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(DD,IHHHHI' S T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI'N
+: G-ND TA/ ./R,/ S2RH +G /&A D/)RTM/NT 1H TK-N, /M)2+H//S =A+ /RN M+R/ TAN 00000
S/2/&T D/)TN+, .,(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 V 00000
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S 2+N, =-TA 1+N#S =A-&A =-22 1/ 000_ +N S2RH G+R /M)2+H//S +G
D/)RTM/NT 0 ND <;_ G+R +TA/RS
S/2/&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, D/S,, DD, S2, S2 Q D/&+D/(D/)TN+,0,0(0,0(<;' 1+N#S
GR+M /M)2+H//N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G 2/./S TK/N 1H /M)2+H//S =A/R/ TH)/ +G 2/./ -S ISI ND 2/./ STRT/D +N M+NDH
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ 2/./TH)/ S ISI ND T+P&AR(STDT/,I!mDHI' S IM+NDHIN
+: D-S)2H /M)N+ ND N+( +G 2/./S TK/N 1H /M)2+H//
S/2/&T /M)N+, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/' RN+ 2/./SR
183
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H /M)N+N
+: D-S)2H D/S-,NT-+N ND T+T2 S2RH +G TA/ /M)2+H//S +G D/S-,NT-+N
S/2/&T D/S,,S#M(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H D/S,N
+: G-ND TA/ S#M +G S2R-/S -N /&A D/S-,NT-+N -N /&A D/)RTM/NT
S/2/&T D/)TN+, D/S,, S#M(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+, D/S,N

+: G-ND TA/ ./R,/ S2RH +G /&A D/)RTM/NT ND S/2/&T +N2H TA+S/ /M)2+H//S A.-N, S2RH M+R/
TAN 00000
S/2/&T D/)TN+, .,(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 V 00000
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+N
+: D-S)2H ME-M#M S2RH
S/2/&T ME(S2' GR+M /M)2+H//N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+ ,TH)/ +G 2/./,T+T2 N+ +G 2/./S TK/N
S/2/&T /M)N+,2/./TH)/, S#M( /NDDT/ -STDT/' RN+( 2/./SR
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H /M)N+, 2/./TH)/N
+: D-S)2H D/)TN+,M-N S2RH,ME S2RH ,D-GG/R/N&/ 1/T=//N ME ND M-N S2RH G+R TA/ D/)RTM/NTS
TAT A./ M+R/ TAN 2 /M)2+H//S
S/2/&T D/)TN+, M-N(S2', ME(S2', ME(S2' - M-N(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.-N, &+#NT(Q' V 2N
+: D-S)2H 2/./TH)/ ND A+= MNH T-M/S /&A /M)2+H// AS TK/N 2/./
S/2/&T 2/./TH)/, /M)N+, &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H 2/./TH)/,/M)N+N
184
+: D-S)2H /M)N+ +G TA/ /M)2+H// =A+ AS TK/N M+R/ TAN 2 2/./S -N TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA
S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHHHI' S T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHHHI'
,R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/ -STDT/' V 2N
+: D-S)2H D/S-,NT-+N TAT &+NT-N /-TA/R M+R/ TAN ; /M)2+H//S +R ./R,/ S2RH M+R/ TAN 02000
S/2/&T D/S,
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H D/S,
A.-N, &+#NT(Q' V ; +R .,(S2' V 02000N
+: D-S)2H TA/ TH)/ +G 2/./ TAT -S TK/N 1H M+R/ TAN 3 /M)2+H//S
S/2/&T 2/./TH)/
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H 2/./TH)/
A.-N, &+#NT (D-ST-N&T /M)N+' V 3N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,/M)NM/,DT/ +G D+-N-N,,D/)TNM/, S2RH ND A+D
S/2/&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, DD, D/)TNM/,S2, A+D
GR+M /M)2+H// /, D/)T D
=A/R/ /(D/)TN+ S D(D/)TN+N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,STDT/,/NDDT/,2/./NM/ G+R 22 TA/ &+M)2/T/D 2/./S
S/2/&T /M)N+, STDT/, /NDDT/, 2/./NM/
GR+M /M)P2/./S /2, 2/./S 2
=A/R/ /2(2/./TH)/ S 2(2/./TH)/ ND /NDDT/ -S N+T N#22N
+: D-S)2H D/)TN+,D/)TNM/,/M)NM/,H/RS +G /E)/R-/N&/ G+R 22 TA/ /M)2+H//S =-TA D/S-, I)R+I
S/2/&T /(D/)TN+, D/)TNM/, /M)NM/, TR#N&(M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,DD' 4 02'
GR+M /M)2+H// /, D/)T D
=A/R/ /(D/)TN+ S D(D/)TN+ ND D/S, SI)R+IN
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,/M)NM/,D/)TNM/,2/./NM/,STDT/ ND ME N+( +G 2/./S -N TA/ &T/,+RH
S/2/&T /2(/M)N+, /M)NM/, D/)TNM/, 2/./NM/,STDT/, N+2/./S
GR+M /M)2+H// /, D/)T D, /M)P2/./S /2, 2/./S 2
=A/R/ /(D/)TN+ S D(D/)TN+ ND /2(2/./TH)/ S 2(2/./TH)/
185
ND /2(/M)N+ S /(/M)N+N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G 2/./S TK/N 1H /M)2+H//S =A+ R/ A.-N, ID#K/I S TA/ A/D +G TA/
D/)RTM/NT(
S/2/&T /2(Q
GR+M /M)P2/./S /2, /M)2+H// /,D/)T D
=A/R/ /(/M)N+ S /2(/M)N+
ND /(D/)TN+ S D(D/)TN+ ND A+D S ID#K/IN
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ D+-N/D GT/R /M)2+H// I=-22HI AS D+-N/D(
S/2/&T /0(Q
GR+M /M)2+H// /0, /M)2+H// /2
=A/R/ /2(/M)NM/ S I=-22HI
ND /0(DD V /2(DDN
+: S/2/&T TA/ /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ TK/N 2/./ -N TA/ )R/S/NT M+NTA
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ -N
( S/2/&T /M)N+ GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHHHI' S T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHHHI'
'N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G D/)RTM/NTS =A-&A A./ M+R/ TAN 2 /M)2+H//S
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N
( S/2/&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.-N, &+#NT(Q' V 2'N
+: D-S2H TA/ D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ TK/N M+R/ TAN 00 2/./S
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ -N
( S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.-N, S#M( /NDDT/ - STDT/' V 00
'N
186
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G D/)RTM/NTS =A-&A A./ M+R/ TAN 3 /M)2+H//S D+-N/D -N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N
( S/2/&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(DD,IHHHHI' S T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI'
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.-N, &+#NT(Q' V 3
'N
+: D-S)2H TA/ NM/ +G TA/ /M)2+H// DR=-N, TA/ ME S2RH
S/2/&T /M)NM/ GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 S
( S/2/&T ME(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
'N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ AS TK/N M+R/ TAN 00 S-&K2/./S +R M+R/ TAN 0; 2/./S
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ -N
( S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ 2/./TH)/SISI
,R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/ ' V 00
'
+R /M)N+ -N
( S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/ ' V 0;
'N
187
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,/M)NM/,D/S-,NT-+N ND D/)TNM/ +G /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ N+T TK/N NH 2/./S -N
TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S/2/&T /M)N+,/M)NM/,D/S,,D/)TNM/
GR+M /M)2+H// /, D/)T D
=A/R/ /(D/)TN+ S D(D/)TN+
ND /M)N+ N+T -N
( S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IHHHHI' S T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI'
'N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G A+DIS
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)NM/ -N
( S/2/&T A+D
GR+M D/)T
'N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/)RTM/NTS -N =A-&A /M)2+H//S A./ TK/N ME N+ +G 2/./S
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N
(
S/2/&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)P2/./S /2, /M)2+H// /
=A/R/ /2(/M)N+ S /(/M)N+
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/' S
(
S/2/&T ME(S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/''
GR+M /M)P2/./S /2, /M)2+H// /
=A/R/ /2(/M)N+ S /(/M)N+
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+
'
'N
188
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,N++G2/./S G+R 22 /M)2+H//S =A+ R/ A/D/D 1H IST/./I
S/2/&T /M)N+, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/'
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ -N
(
S/2/&T /M)N+ GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N
(
S/2/&T D/)TN+
GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ A+D S IST/./I
'
'
,R+#) 1H /M)N+N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S DR=-N, T+) 2 A-,A/ST S2R-/S
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H// /
=A/R/ 2 V ( S/2/&T &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 V /(S2'N
+: DR+) N #N=NT/D &+2#MN GR+M NH T12/
TA-S -S D+N/ -N TAR// ST/)S(
0( &R/T/ T12/ N/=T12/ S S/2/&T ,1,& GR+M +2DT12/N
2( DR+) T12/ +2DT12/
3( R/NM/ N/=T12/ T+ +2DT12/
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G D/)RTM/NT -N =A-&A T2/ST +N/ /M)2+H// AS TK/N M+R/ N+( +G 2/./S TAN
./R,/ 2/./S +G 22 TA/ /M)2+H//S =A+ D+-N/D -N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N
( S/2/&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ -N
(
S/2/&T /M)N+
189
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/' V
(
S/2/&T .,(/NDDT/ - STDT/'
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI' S T+P&AR(STDT/,IHHHHI'
'
'
'N
+: A+= MNH /M)2+H//S R/ /RN-N, M+R/ TAN TA/ ./R,/ S2RH +G MN,/RS
S/2/&T &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 V ( S/2/&T .,(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ D/S, S IMN,/RI'N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ 1/2+N, T+ D/)RTM/NT 0 +R 3 ND DR= M+R/ TAN ;000 S2RH
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N (0,3' ND S2 V ;000N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G 2/./S =A/R/ TA/ /M)N+ -S -N TA/ RN,/ 003 T+ 000
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ 1/T=//N 003 ND 000N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A/R/ TA/ NM/ &+NT-NS 2/TT/R E +R O(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//S
=A/R/ NM/ 2-K/ I_E_I +R NM/ 2-K/ I_O_IN
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G D/)RTM/NT =A/R/ A/D +G D/)RTM/NT -S IST/./I ND TA/ D/)TNM/ &+NT-NS I)I S
TA/ 2ST &AR&T/R(
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ A+D S IST/./I ND D/)TNM/ 2-K/ I_)IN
+: D-S)2H &+NSTR-NTS +G /M)P2/./S T12/
S/2/&T Q GR+M #S/RP&+NSTR-NTS
=A/R/ T12/PNM/ S I/M)P2/./SIN
190
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,/M)NM/,DT/ +G D+-N-N, 5 /E)/R/-N&/ -N M+NTAS
S/2/&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, DD, M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,DD' RN+ M+NTASR
GR+M /M)2+H//N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,2/./TH)/,STDT/,N+ +G DHS 1/T=//N SHSDT/ 5 STDT/ G+R 2/./S TAT R/ N+T
&+M)2/T/D(
S/2/&T /M)N+, 2/./TH)/, STDT/, /NDDT/ - STDT/
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /NDDT/ -S N#22N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,/M)NM/,DT/ +N =A-&A /M)2+H// T++K G-RST S2RH (SS#M-N, +N 0ST +G /&A M+NTA
S2RH -S )-D'(
S/2/&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, 2STPDH(DD' C 0 RG-RST S2 DT/R
GR+M /M)2+H//N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ TA/ )TT/RN IT/I -N NM/ ND NM/ AS M+R/ TAN ; 2/TT/RS(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)NM/ 2-K/ I_T/_I ND 2/N,TA(/M)NM/' V ;N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G 2/./S 2+N, =-TA TA/ DT/ +G &+M-N, ST#RDH GT/R STDT/ ND N+( +G DHS +G
2/./S G+R 2/./S TAT R/ &+M)2/T/D(
S/2/&T /M)N+, 2/./TH)/,STDT/, N/ETPDH(STDT/,ISaturda%I', /NDDT/ - STDT/
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /NDT/ -S N+T N#22N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ D+-N/D -N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+S/ NM/ &+NT-NS I))I -N :TA,;TA,6TA )+S-T-+NS(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ -NSTR(/M)NM/,I))I' S :N
+R
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S#1STR(/M)NM/,:,3' SI))IN
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,NM/,A+2-DH =//K,=A-&A D/)/NDS +N TA/ D/)T S G+22+=SB D/)T0BM+NDH
D/)T2BTA#RSDH +TA/RSBS#NDH
S/2/&T /M)N+, /M)NM/,
191
D/&+D/(D/)TN+, 0,IM+NDHI,2,ITA#RSDHI,IS#NDHI' A+2-DH
GR+M /M)2+H//N
+: D-S)2H TA/ /M)N+,2/./TH)/,STDT/ -N IDD-MMI G+RMT ND /ND-N, DT/ G+R 22 TA/ 2/./S TAT R/
TK/N 1H /M)2+H/S =-TA N#M1/RS -N TA/ RN,/ 003-00< ND -N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R(
S/2/&T /M)N+, 2/./TH)/, T+P&AR(STDT/,IDD-MMI', /NDDT/
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ 1/T=//N 003 ND 00<
ND T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI' S T+P&AR(STDT/,IHHHHI'N

+: TR#N&T/ T-M/ )+RT-+N -N STRT-N, DT/ +G TA/ 2/./(
#)DT/ /M)P2/./S
S/T STDT/ S TR#N&(STDT/'N
+: D-S)2H TA/ S#M +G S2RH +G /&A D/)T
S/2/&T D/)TN+, S#M(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+2N
+: D-S)2H TA/ ./R,/ S2RH +G /&A D/)T 1H TK-N, /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ D+-N/D -N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R(
S/2/&T D/)TN+, .,(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI' S T+P&AR(DD,IHHHHI'
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,T+T2 N+(+G 2/./S TK/N 1H /M)2+H//
S/2/&T /M)N+, S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/'
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H /M)N+N
+: D-S)2H TA/ T+T2 N+( +G 2/./S TK/N G+R /&A 2/./TH)/
S/2/&T 2/./TH)/, S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/'
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H 2/./TH)/N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+ =A/R/ /M)2+H// AS TK/N M+R/ TAN 00 2/./S(
S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H /M)N+
192
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/' V 00N
+: D-S)2H TA/ H/R -N =A-&A M+R/ TAN ; /M)2+H//S A./ D+-N/D
S/2/&T T+P&AR(DD,IHHHHI'
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H T+P&AR(DD,IHHHHI'
A.-N, &+#NT(Q' V ;N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+ G+R /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ TK/N M+R/ TAN 20 2/./S -N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R(
S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI' S T+P&AR(STDT/,IHHHHI'
,R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/' V 20N
+: D-S)2H TA/ 2/./TH)/ TAT AS 1//N TK/N G+R M+R/ TAN 00 T-M/S
S/2/&T 2/./TH)/
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H 2/./TH)/
A.-N, &+#NT(Q' V 00N
+: D-S)2H D/)T,D/S-,NT-+N,H/R 5 N+( +G /M)2+H//S D+-N/D -N TAT H/R -N TAT D/)RTM/NT ND
D/S-,NT-+N(
S/2/&T D/)TN+, D/S,, T+P&AR(DD,IHHHHI', &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+, D/S,, T+P&AR(DD,IHHHHI'N
+: D-S)2H D/)T -N =A-&A TA/ .,/R,/ S2 +G NH S-N,2/ D/S-,NT-+N -S M+R/ TAN 00000(
S/2/&T D-ST-N&T D/)T
GR+M /M)2+H/
,R+#) 1H D/)T, D/S,
A.-N, .,(S2' V 0000N
+: D-S)2H D/)TN+,D-GG/R/N&/ 1/T=//N M-N 5 ME +G S2RH +G TA/ D/)T(
S/2/&T D/)TN+, ME(S2' - M-N(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+N
193
+: D-S)2H 2/./TH)/ G+R =A-&A M+R/ TAN 00 2/./S R/ TK/N -N TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA +R 20 2/./S TK/N
S+ GR(
S/2/&T 2/./TH)/
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHHHI' S T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHHHI'
,R+#) 1H 2/./TH)/
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/' V 00
#N-+N
S/2/&T 2/./TH)/
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H 2/./TH)/
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/' V 20

+: D-S)2H T+T2 N+(+G 2/./S +G 22 /M)2+H/S (&+NS-D/R-N, SHSDT/ S /ND-N, DT/ -G /ND-N, DT/ -S N+T
.-212/'(
S/2/&T S#M( N.2(/NDDT/,SHSDT/' - STDT/'
GR+M /M)P2/./SN
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,2/./TH)/ ,STDT/,N+( +G 2/./S 5 ME N+( +G 2/./S G+R TAT &T/,+RH(
S/2/&T /M)N+, /2(2/./TH)/,STDT/, /NDDT/ - STDT/, N+2/./S
GR+M /M)P2/./S /2, 2/./S 2
=A/R/ /2(2/./TH)/ S 2(2/./TH)/N
+: D-S)2H D/)TN+,D/)TNM/,/M)NM/,D/S-,NT-+N G+R TAT D/)T =A/R/ STRT-N, 2/TT/R -S II(
S/2/&T /(D/)TN+, D/)TNM/,/M)NM/,D/S,
GR+M /M)2+H// /, D/)T D
=A/R/ D/T)NM/ 2-K/ I_I ND /(D/)TN+ S D(D/)TN+N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,NM/,D/)TNM/,A+D G+R TA/ /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ N+T TK/N NH 2/./ S+ GR(
S/2/&T /M)N+,/M)NM/, D/)TNM/,A+D
GR+M /M)2+H// /, D/)T D
=A/R/ /M)N+ N+T -N
(S/2/&T /M)N+ GR+M /M)P2/./S'
ND /(D/)TN+ S D(D/)TN+N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,NM/,D/)TNM/,2/./NM/,STDT/,/NDDT/
S/2/&T /(/M)N+,/M)NM/,D/)TNM/, 2/./NM/,STDT/,/NDDT/
GR+M /M)2+H// /, D/)T D, /M)P2/./S /2
=A/R/ /(D/)TN+ S D(D/)TN+ ND /(/M)N+ S /2(/M)N+N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G D/)T -N =A-&A T 2/ST +N/ /M)2+H// AS D+-N/D -N TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA(
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N
194
( S/2/&T D/)TN+ GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHHHI' S T+P&AR(DD,IMMHHHHI' 'N
+: D-S)2H 2/./TH)/,2/./NM/,/M)N+ ND STDT/ G+R 22 TA/ 2/./S -N&2#D-N, 2/./TH)/S TAT A./
N+T 1//N #S/D 1H NH /M)2+H//(
S/2/&T 2(2/./TH)/,2/./NM/, /M)N+ , STDT/
GR+M /M)P2/./S /2, 2/./S 2
=A/R/ 2(2/./TH)/ S /2(2/./TH)/ (C'N

+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G 2/./S =A/R/ TA/ N+(+G DHS +G 2/./S -S M+R/ TAN TA/ N++GDHS +G 2/./
TK/N 1H 000 -N 2/./ TAT STRT/D +N ;-MR&A-00(
S/2/&T /0(Q
GR+M /M)P2/./S /0, /M)P2/./S /2
=A/R/ /2(STDT/S I0;-MR-2000I ND /2(/M)N+ S 000
ND /0(/NDDT/ - /0(STDT/ V /2(/NDDT/ - /2(STDT/N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G D/)T -N =A-&A TA/ .,/R,/ S2RH -S V 00000(
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N
( S/2/&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.-N, .,(S2' V 00000'N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G D/)T =A/R/ TA/ D/)T AS M+R/ TAN 3 /M)2+H//S DR=-N, M+R/ TAN ;000
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N
( S/2/&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 V ;000
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.-N, &+#NT(Q' V 3'N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ AS N+T TK/N S-&K 2/./ -N &#RR/NT M+NTA(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ N+T -N
( S/2/&T /M)N+
195
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ 2/./TH)/ S ISI
ND T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHHHI' S T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHHHI'
'N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S DR=-N, TA/ MES2(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 S
(S/2/&T ME(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//'N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S DR=-N, M+R/ S2RH TAN TA/ ./R,/ S2 +G /M)2+H//S D+-N/D -N TA/
&#RR/NT H/R(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 V
( S/2/&T .,(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI' S T+P&AR(DD,IHHHHI'
'N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G D/)TIS -N =A-&A N+ /M)2+H// D+-N/D -N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R(
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N+T -N
( S/2/&T D/)TN+ GR+M /M)2+H//
'N
+: D/2/T/ D/T-2S +G 2/./S TK/N 1H /M)2+H// =A+S/ /M)N+ -S TA/ A-,A/ST /M)N+
D/2/T/ GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ S ( S/2/&T ME(/M)N+' GR+M /M)2+H//'N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ R/ 1/2+N,-N, T+ )R+D#&T-+N D/)T ND A./ TK/N M+R/ TAN 20
2/./S S+ GR(
S/2/&T /(Q
GR+M /M)2+H// /, D/)T D
196
=A/R/ /(D/)TN+ S D(D/)TN+ ND D/)TNM/ S I)R+D#&T-+NI
ND /M)N+ -N
( S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/' V 20
'N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G 2/./S =A/R/ TA/ /M)2+H// S2 -S M+R/ TAN 00000 ND D+-N/D -N TA/ 2ST 6 M+NTAS(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ -N
( S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 V 00000 ND M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,DD' US 6
'N
+: Displa% details "! empl"%ees dra6ing t"p ; salaries(
This is d"ne using c"rrelated su38uer%( Su38uer% is used t" return
the num3er "! empl"%ees 6h"se salar% is greater than the salar% "! the
current empl"%ee in main 8uer%( -! that c"unt is less than ; that means
the empl"%ee is dra6ing "ne "! the t"p !i$e salraies(
select Q !r"m empl"%ee e
6here ; V
( select c"unt(distinct sal'
!r"m empl"%ee
6here sal V e(sal'N
+: #)DT/ TA/ S2RH +G /M)2+H// 002 =-TA TA/ ./R,/ S2RH +G A-S D/)RTM/NT(
#)DT/ /M)2+H// / S/T S2S ( S/2/&T .,(S2' GR+M /M)2+H// =A/R/ D/)TN+ S /(D/)TN+'
=A/R/ /M)N+ S 002N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G D/)RTM/NT -N =A-&A TA/R/ R/ A-,A/ST N#M1/R +G 2/./S TK/N
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N
(
S/2/&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)2+H// /,/M)P2/./S /2
=A/R/ /(/M)N+S/2(/M)N+
197
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/' S
( S/2/&T ME(S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/''
GR+M /M)2+H// /, /M)P2/./S /2
=A/R/ /(/M)N+ S /2(/M)N+
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+
'
'
+: R/NM/ &+2#MN )J T+ JO()&TE +G /M)2+H// T12/(
R/NM-N, &+2#MN D+N/ -N TAR// ST/)S(
0( &R/T/ N/= T12/ GR+M /M)2+H// T12/( ,-./ 2-S D+-NDT/ T+ DD &+2#MN -N 7#/RH(
2. #$%&'% '&()% '%*+),-%%
.. &S S%)%#' %*+/,0%*+/&*%0S&)012 2,3/1&'%0 1%S40 1%+'/,
5. 6$,* %*+),-%%;
;( DR+) /M)2+H// T12/(
7. 1$,+ '&()% %*+),-%%;
<( R/NM/ N/= T12/ T+ /M)2+H// T12/(
8. $%/&*% '%*+),-%% ', %*+),-%%;
+: S=) TA/ S2RH +G 000 =-TA S2RH +G 003(
D/&2R/
S2P003 /M)2+H//(S2_TH)/N
1/,-N
-- ,/T S2RH +G 003
S/2/&T S2 -NT+ S2P003
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ S 003N
-- #)DT/ S2RH +G 003 =-TA S2RH +G 000
#)DT/ /M)2+H//
S/T S2 S (S/2/&T S2 GR+M /M)2+H// =A/R/ /M)N+ S 000'
=A/R/ /M)N+ S 003N
-- #)DT/ S2RH +G 000 =-TA S2RH +G 003
198
#)DT/ /M)2+H//
S/T S2 S S2P003N
=A/R/ /M)N+ S 000N
COMMTI
/NDN
+: &R/T/ )R+&/D#R/ T+ TK/ /M)N+ ND 2/./TH)/ ND -NS/RT R+= -NT+ /M)P2/./S T12/ =-TA TA/
G+22+=-N, &+ND-T-+NS(
&A/&K =A/TA/R /M)N+ ND 2/./TH)/ R/ .2-D
&A/&K =A/TA/R /M)2+H// -S 2R/DH +N 2/./
&A/&K =A/TA/R /M)2+H// AS 2R/DH #S/D 22 2/./S -N TAT TH)/
-- )R+&/D#R/ T+ -NS/RT N/= R+= -NT+ /M)P2/./S T12/
-- TK/S /M)2+H// N#M1/R ND 2/./TH)/
-- STDT/ +G 2/./ -S SHSDT/ ND /NDDT/ -S N#22
&R/T/ +R R/)2&/ )R+&/D#R/ N/=2/./()/M)N+ N#M1/R, )2T &AR'
-S
STT#S N#M1/R(0'BS0N -- -N-T2-O/ .R-12/
&NT N#M1/R(3'N
TN2 N#M1/R(2'N
N2 N#M1/R(2'N
1/,-N
-- &A/&K =A/TA/R /M)2+H// N+( -S .2-D
S/2/&T 0 -NT+ &NT
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ S )/M)N+N
-- &A/&K =A/TA/R 2/./TH)/ -S .2-D
-- -G 2/./TH)/ -S .2-D TA/N ,/T ME N+( +G 2/./S
-- -N TAT 2/./TH)/
STT#S BS 0N
S/2/&T N+2/./S -NT+ TN2
GR+M 2/./S
199
=A/R/ 2/./TH)/ S )2TN
-- &A/&K =A/TA/R /M)2+H// AS 2R/DH -N 2/./
S/2/&T &+#NT(Q' -NT+ &NT
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ S )/M)N+ ND /NDDT/ -S N#22N
-G &NT UV 0 TA/N -- /M)2+H// -S 2R/DH +N 2/./
R-S/P))2-&T-+NP/RR+R(-20020,I/M)2+H// -S 2R/DH +N 2/./I'N
/ND -GN
-- &A/&K =A/TA/R /M)2+H// AS &R+SS/D TA/ 2-M-T
-- &A/&K N+( +G 2/./S +G TA-S TH)/ 2R/DH &+NS#M/D
S/2/&T S#M( /NDDT/-STDT/' -NT+ N2 GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ S )/M)N+ ND 2/./TH)/ S )2TN
-G N2 VS TN2 TA/N
R-S/P))2-&T-+NP/RR+R(-20030,I2R/DH &+NS#M/D T+T2 N#M1/R +G 2/./S -N TA-S 2/./TH)/I'N
/ND -GN
-- .2-D /NTRH, -NS/RT R+=
-NS/RT -NT+ /M)P2/./S .2#/S()/M)N+,)2T,SHSDT/,N#22'N
&+MM-TN
/E&/)T-+N
=A/N N+PDTPG+#ND TA/N
-- -G STT#S -S 0 TA/N G-RST S/2/&T R-S/ /E&/)T-+N
-G STT#S S 0 TA/N
R-S/P))2-&T-+NP/RR+R(-20000,I/M)2+H// N#M1/R -S N+T G+#NDI'N
/2S/ -- S/&+ND S/2/&T R-S/ /E&/)T-+N
R-S/P))2-&T-+NP/RR+R(-20020,I2/./TH)/ -S N+T G+#NDI'N
/ND -GN
=A/N +TA/RS TA/N
R-S/P))2-&T-+NP/RR+R(S72&+D/,S72/RRM'N
/NDN
200

+: &R/T/ G#N&T-+N T+ R/T#RN NM/S +G TA/ /M)2+H//S DR=-N, A-,/ST S2RH( -G TA/R/ -S M+R/ TAN +N/
/M)2+H//, /M)2+H// NM/S R/ T+ 1/ S/)RT/D 1H &+MM(
&R/T/ +R R/)2&/ G#N&T-+N ,/TAS/M)NM/S R/T#RN .R&AR2
-S
&#RS+R AS/M)P&#RS+R -S
S/2/&T /M)NM/ GR+M /M)2+H// =A/R/ S2 S (S/2/&T ME(S2' GR+M /M)2+H//'N
/NM/ .R&AR2(20'N
22NM/S .R&AR2(200'N
1/,-N
22NM/S BS IIN
G+R R/& -N AS/M)P&#RS+R
2++)
-- -G N+T G-RST NM/ TA/N DD &+MM
-G 2/N,TA(22NM/S' TS 0 TA/N
22NM/S BS 22NM/S ^^ I,IN
/ND -GN
22NM/S BS 22NM/S ^^ R/&(/M)NM/N
/ND 2++)N
R/T#RN 22NM/SN
/NDN
+: ,/T TA/ D/T-2S +G D/)T( =A-&A -S A/D/D 1H )/RS+N =-TA TA/ NM/ TAT &+NT-NS 2/TT/R I&I ND II(
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ A+D 2-K/ I_&__IN

201
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G D/)TIS =A/R/ TA/ D/)TN+ -S V00 ND D/)TNM/ /NDS =-TA II(
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ V 00 ND D/)TNM/ 2-K/ I_IN

+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ M+R/ TAN 00000 S2RH +R D/S,( ISI(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 V 00000 +R D/S, S ISIN
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,/M)NM/,S2RH R+#ND/D T+ 000IS(D+D ND N+(+G M+NTAS 1/T=//N T+DH ND DT/ +G
D+-N-N,(
S/2/&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, R+#ND(S2,-2' RS2R , DD, M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,DD' RN+ M+NTASR
GR+M /M)2+H//N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G 2/./S TAT =/R/ TK/N -N 2ST 20DHS(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ SHSDT/ -STDT/ US 20N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G 2/./S -N =A-&A TA/ N+(+G DHS +G 2/./S -S M+R/ TAN ;(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /NDDT/ - STDT/ V ;N
+: D-S)2H 22 S-&K 2/./S 1H /M)N+ 00:(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P2/./S =A/R/ /M)N+ S 00: ND 2/./TH)/ SISIN
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,2/./TH)/,N+(+G DHS +G 2/./ G+R 2/./S TAT =/R/ &+M)2/T/D(
S/2/&T /M)N+, 2/./TH)/, /NDDT/ - STDT/ RN+ DHSR
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /NDDT/ -S N+T N#22N
+: D-S)2H /M)2+H// =A/R/ /M)NM/ &+NT-NS 2/TT/RS IMI ND IDI -N NH +RD/R(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)NM/ 2-K/ I_M_I ND /M)NM/ 2-K/ I_D_IN
+: D-S)2H TA/ R+=S +G /M)2+H// T12/ =A/R/ /M)2+H// D+-N/D -N TA/ 2ST 6 M+NTAS ND S2V;000 ND
D/S,( -S N+T )R+,RMM/R(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 V ;000 ND M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,DD' US 6 ND D/S, UV I)R+IN
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G 2/./S TAT =/R/ TK/N -N TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHI' S T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHI'N
202
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,G-RST NM/,S2RH ND /E)/R-/N&/ -N H/RS -N TA/ &+M)NH(
S/2/&T /M)N+, S#1STR(/M)NM/, 0,D/&+D/(-NSTR(/M)NM/,I I',0,2/N,TA(/M)NM/',-NSTR(/M)NM/,I I'''
RG-RSTNM/R, S2, M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,DD' 4 02 R/E)(-N H/RSR
GR+M /M)2+H//N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G /M)2+H// =A+ D+-N/D -N TA/ M+NTAS +G D#2H -RR/S)/&T-./ +G TA/ H/R(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(DD,IMMI' S <N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H// =A+ A./ M+R/ TAN 00 &ARS -N TA/ NM/ +R A.-N, 2/TT/R I,I ND I&I -N
TA/ NM/(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ 2/N,TA(/M)NM/' V 00 ND /M)NM/ 2-K/ I_,_&IN
+: &AN,/ TA/ NM/ +G /M)2+H// 00; T+ #))/R&S/ ND R/M+./ 22 2/D-N, ND TR-2-N, S)&/S(
#)DT/ /M)2+H// S/T /M)NM/ S #))/R(TR-M(/M)NM/'' =A/R/ /M)N+ S 00;N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,2/./TH)/,TA/ M+NTA -N =A-&A 2/./ STRT/D ND TA/ M+NTA -N =A-&A 2/./ /ND/D G+R
2/./S =A/R/ TA/S/ T=+ M+NTAS R/ N+T SM/(
S/2/&T /M)N+, 2/./TH)/, T+P&AR(STDT/,IM+NTAI', T+P&AR(/NDDT/,IM+NTAI'
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMI' TS T+P&AR(/NDDT/,IMMI'N
+: D-S)2H 2/./S TAT /ND/D -N )R/.-+#S M+NTA(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(/NDDT/,IMMHHI' S T+P&AR( DDPM+NTAS(SHSDT/,-0', IMMHHI'N
+: D/2/T/ D/T-2S +G 2/./S =A/R/ TA/ 2/./ STRT/D -N TA/ G-RST =//K +G TA/ )R/.-+#S M+NTA(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ STDT/ 1/T=//N 2STPDH(DDPM+NTAS(SHSDT/,-2''C0
ND 2STPDH(DDPM+NTAS(SHSDT/,-2'' C <N
+: D-S)2H /M)NM/ -N #))/R&S/,DH +G D+-N-N, ND DT/ +G G-RST S2RH ND =//K DH +G G-RST S2RH(
S/2/&T #))/R(/M)NM/', DD, 2STPDH(DD' C 0, T+P&AR( 2STPDH(DD' C 0, IDHI'
GR+M /M)2+H//N
+: D-S)2H M+NTAS -N =A-&A /M)2+H//S D+-N/D -N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R(
S/2/&T D-ST-N&T T+P&AR(DD,IM+NTAI' RM+NTAR
GR+M /M)2+H//
+: D-S)2H .,(S2RH +G 22 TA/ /M)2+H//S(
S/2/&T .,(S2'
203
GR+M /M)2+H//N
+: D-S)2H 2/./TH)/,N+(+G T-M/S /M)2+H//S A./ TK/N TAT 2/./(
S/2/&T 2/./TH)/, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/'
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H 2/./TH)/N
+: D-S)2H D/)TN+,ND N+(+G /M)2+H//S D+-N/D -N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R(
S/2/&T D/)TN+, &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+N
+: D-S)2H M+NTA NM/ ND A+= MNH 2/./S STRT/D -N TAT M+NTA(
S/2/&T T+P&AR(STDT/,IM+NTAI', &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H T+P&AR(STDT/,IM+NTAI'N
+: D-S)2H TA/ /M)2+H// =A+ A./ TK/N M+R/ TAN 00 2/./S S+ GR(
S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/' V 00N
+: D-S)2H TA/ /M)2+H// =A+ AS TK/N M+R/ TAN ; S-&K 2/./S -N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R(
S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IHHHHI' S T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI'
,R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/' V ;N
+: D-S)2H D/)TN+,D/S, ND .,(S2RH(
S/2/&T D/)TN+, D/S,, .,(S2'
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+, D/S,N

204
+: D-S)2H H/R,N+(+G /M)2+H//S D+-N/D =-TA D/S, )R+,RMM/R(
S/2/&T T+P&AR(DD,IHHHHI', &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ D/S, S I)R+I
,R+#) 1H T+P&AR(DD,IHHHHI'N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,/M)NM/,D/)TNM/ G+R /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ D+-N/D -N TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA(
S/2/&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, D/)TNM/
GR+M /M)2+H// /, D/)T D
=A/R/ T+P&AR(DD,IHHHHI' S T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI' ND /(D/)TN+ S D(D/)TN+N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,/M)NM/,D/)TN+,D/)TNM/,2/./NM/,STDT/ G+R 22 2/./S TAT R/ N+T &+M)2/T/D(
S/2/&T /2(/M)N+,/M)NM/, /(D/)TN+,D/)TNM/, 2/./NM/, STDT/
GR+M /M)2+H// /, D/)T D, 2/./S 2, /M)P2/./S /2
=A/R/ /(D/)TN+ S D(D/)TN+ ND /(/M)N+ S /2(/M)N+ ND 2(2/./TH)/S /2(2/./TH)/N
+: D-S)2H /M)NM/ ND T+T2 N+(+G 2/./S TK/N(/M)NM/ AS T+ 1/ #N-7#/'
S/2/&T /M)NM/, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/'
GR+M /M)2+H// /, /M)P2/./S /2
=A/R/ /(/M)N+ S /2(/M)N+
,R+#) 1H /M)NM/N
+: D-S)2H /M)N+,/M)NM/,2/./TH)/,STDT/(-N&2#D/ /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ N+T TK/N NH 2/./ ND
D-S)2H TA/ DT/ -N TA/ S&/ND-N, +RD/R +G /M)N+(
S/2/&T /(/M)N+, /M)NM/, 2/./TH)/, STDT/
GR+M /M)2+H// /, /M)P2/./S /2
=A/R/ /(/M)N+ S /2(/M)N+ (C'N
+: D-S)2H TA/ 2/./S TAT =/R/ TK/N GT/R /M)N+ 006 T++K S-&K 2/./(SS#MM-N, 006 AS TK/N
+N2H +N/ S-&K 2/./'
S/2/&T /20(Q
GR+M /M)P2/./S /20, /M)P2/./S /22
=A/R/ /22(/M)N+ S 006 ND /22(2/./TH)/ S ISI
ND /20(STDT/ V /22(STDT/N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G D/)T( -N =A-&A =/ A./ N /M)2+H// =-TA TA/ NM/ &+NT-N-N, IK/.-NI(
205
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N ( S/2/&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)2+H// =A/R/ /M)NM/ 2-K/ I_K/.-N_I'N
+: D-S)2H A-,A/ST T+T2 N+(+G 2/./S TK/N 1H S-N,2/ /M)2+H//(
S/2/&T ME(S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/''
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H /M)N+N
+: D-S)2H A-,A/ST N+(+G DHS -N S-N,2/ 2/./(
S/2/&T ME(/NDDT/-STDT/'
GR+M /M)P2/./SN
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G D/)T =A/R/ D/)TN+ AS M+R/ TAN ; /M)2+H//S(
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N ( S/2/&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)2+H//
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+ A.-N, &+#NT(Q' V ;'N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H// =A+ -S DR=-N, TA/ ME(S2RH(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ S2 S ( S/2/&T ME(S2' GR+M /M)2+H//'N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G 2/./S TAT =/R/ TK/N 1H /M)2+H//S +G D/)T :(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ -N ( S/2/&T /M)N+ GR+M /M)2+H// =A/R/ D/)TN+ S :'N
+: D-S)2H D/)TN+ ND N+(+G /M)2+H// =A+ A./ TK/N 2/./ -N TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA(
S/2/&T D/)TN+, &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ -N ( S/2/&T /M)N+ GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHI' S T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHI'
'
,R+#) 1H D/)TN+N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ N+T TK/N NH 2/./ S+ GR(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ N+T -N ( S/2/&T /M)N+ GR+M /M)P2/./S'N
206
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ A./ TK/N 2/./ -N TA/ )R/.-+#S M+NTA ND AS
N+T TK/N NH 2/./ -N +N/ &#RR/NT M+NTA(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ -N ( S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHI' S T+P&AR( DDPM+NTAS(SHSDT/,-0',IMMHHI''
ND /M)N+ N+T -N
( S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHI' S T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHI'
'N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G D/)T( -N =A-&A T2/ST 2 /M)2+H// A./ TK/N M+R/ TAN ; S-&K 2/./S(
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N ( S/2/&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ -N ( S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S =A/R/ 2/./TH)/SISI
,R+#) 1H /M)N+ A.-N, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/' V ;'
'N
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G D/)TS( -N =A-&A T2/ST +N/ /M)2+H// -S &#RR/NT2H +N 2/./(
S/2/&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N
(S/2/&T D/)TN+ GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ -N
( S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ /NDDT/ -S N#22''N
207
+: D-S)2H D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =A+ R/ A/D/D 1H 1-22 +R =A+ A./ TK/N 2/./ +N )R/.-+#S
ITA#RSDHI
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H//
=A/R/ D/)TN+ -N (S/2/&T D/)TN+ GR+M D/)T =A/R/ A+D S I1-22I'
+R /M)N+ -N( S/2/&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P2/./S
=A/R/ TR#N&(STDT/' S N/ETPDH(SHSDT/-0;,IThursda%I''N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G /M)2+H//S =-TA G-RST 2 A-,A/ST S2RH(
S/2/&T Q GR+M /M)2+H// /
=A/R/ 2 V ( S/2/&T &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)2+H// =A/R/ S2 V /(S2'N
+: D-S)2H TA/ D/T-2S +G 2/./TH)/S =A/R/ TA/ 2/./ AS 1//N TK/N G+R M+R/ TAN ;0 T-M/S(
S/2/&T Q GR+M 2/./S
=A/R/ 2/./TH)/ -N ( S/2/&T 2/./TH)/
GR+M /M)P2/./S
,R+#) 1H 2/./TH)/
A.-N, &+#NT(Q' V ;0'N
+: &AN,/ TA/ D/)TN+ +G /M)2+H// 00: T+ D/)TN+( +G I-NT/RN/TI D/)T(
#)DT/ /M)2+H// S/T D/)TN+ S ( S/2/&T D/)TN+ GR+M D/)T =A/R/ D/)TNM/ SI-NT/RN/TI'
=A/R/ /M)N+ S 00:N
+: DR+) &+2#MN D/S,( GR+M /M)2+H// T12/(
ST/)0 B &R/T/ T12/ N/=/M) S S/2/&T /M)N+,/M)NM/,S2,D/)TN+, DD GR+M /M)2+H//N
ST/)2 B DR+) T12/ /M)2+H//N
ST/)3 B R/NM/ N/=/M) T+ /M)2+H//N
208
.T2,+ -M#.+TANT $U,+-,S
:0 To find the nth row of a ta$le
S72V Select Q!r"m emp 6here r"6id S (select ma9(r"6id' !r"m emp 6here r"6num US :'N
+r
S72V Select Q!r"m emp 6here r"6num US : minus select Q!r"m emp 6here r"6num US 3N
<0 To find d#2licate row"
S72V Select Q!r"m emp 6here r"6id in (select ma9(r"6id' !r"m emp gr"up 3% empn",ename, mgr, @"3, hiredate,
c"mm, deptn", sal'N
+r
S72V Select empn",ename,sal,@"3,hiredate,c"mm , c"unt(Q' !r"m emp gr"up 3% empn",ename,sal,@"3, hiredate,
c"mm ha$ing c"unt(Q' VS0N
=0 To delete d#2licate row"
S72V Delete emp 6here r"6id in (select ma9(r"6id' !r"m emp gr"up 3% empn",ename,mgr,@"3, hiredate, sal, c"mm,
deptn"'N
>0 To find the co#nt of d#2licate row"
S72V Select ename, c"unt(Q' !r"m emp gr"up 3% ename ha$ing c"unt(Q' VS 0N
?0 How to di"2la. alternati5e row" in a ta$leJ
S72V select Q!r"m emp 6here (r"6id,0' in (select r"6id,m"d(r"6num,2' !r"m emp'N
@0 6ettin- em2lo.ee detail" of each de2artment who i" drawin- ma1im#m "alJ
S72V select Q!r"m emp 6here (deptn",sal' in ( select deptn",ma9(sal' !r"m emp gr"up 3% deptn"'N
A0 How to -et n#m$er of em2lo.ee" in each de2artment ' in which de2artment i" ha5in- more than <?DD
em2lo.ee"J
S72V Select deptn",c"unt(Q' !r"m emp gr"up 3% deptn" ha$ing c"unt(Q' V2;00N
B0 To re"et the time to the $e-innin- of the da.
S72V Select t"Pchar(trunc(s%sdate',Mdd-m"n-%%%% hhBmiBss amM' !r"m dualN
C0 To find nth ma1im#m "al
S72V Select Q!r"m emp 6here sal in (select ma9(sal' !r"m (select Q!r"m emp "rder 3% sal' 6here r"6num US ;'N
209
F%(CTO(S
Guncti"ns can 3e categ"riFed as !"ll"6s(
Single r"6 !uncti"ns
,r"up !uncti"ns
S(6,E RO9 F%(CTO(S
Single r"6 !uncti"ns can 3e categ"riFed int" !i$e( These 6ill 3e applied !"r each r"6 and
pr"duces indi$idual "utput !"r each r"6(
Numeric !uncti"ns
String !uncti"ns
Date !uncti"ns
Miscellane"us !uncti"ns
&"n$ersi"n !uncti"ns
(%MERC F%(CTO(S
3s
Sign
S8rt
M"d
N$l
)"6er
/9p
2n
2"g
&eil
Gl""r
R"und
Trunk
1itand
,reatest
2east
&"alesce
a0 &BS
3s"lute $alue is the measure "! the magnitude "! $alue(
3s"lute $alue is al6a%s a p"siti$e num3er(
S.nta1: a3s (value'
E1:
S72V select a3s(;', a3s(-;', a3s(0', a3s(null' !r"m dualN
1S(;' 1S(-;' 1S(0' 1S(N#22'
---------- ---------- ---------- -------------
; -; 0
$0 S6(
Sign gi$es the sign "! a $alue(
S.nta1: sign (value'
E1:
S72V select sign(;', sign(-;', sign(0', sign(null' !r"m dualN
S-,N(;' S-,N(-;' S-,N(0' S-,N(N#22'
---------- ---------- ---------- --------------
0 -0 0
c0 S+RT
This 6ill gi$e the s8uare r""t "! the gi$en $alue(
S.nta1: s8rt (value' -- here $alue must 3e p"siti$e(
210
E1:
S72V select s8rt(:', s8rt(0', s8rt(null', s8rt(0' !r"m dualN
S7RT(:' S7RT(0' S7RT(N#22' S7RT(0'
---------- ------------- ----------------- ---------------
2 0 0
d0 MO)
This 6ill gi$e the remainder(
S.nta1: m"d (value0 divisor'
E1:
S72V select m"d(<,:', m"d(0,;', m"d(null,null', m"d(0,0', m"d(-<,:' !r"m dualN
M+D(<,:' M+D(0,;' M+D(N#22,N#22' M+D(0,0' M+D(-<,:'
------------ ---------- --------------------- ----------- -- -----------
3 0 0 -3
e0 (!,
This 6ill su3stitutes the speci!ied $alue in the place "! null $alues(
S.nta1: n$l (null_col0 replacement_value'
E1:
S72V select Q !r"m studentN -- here !"r 3rd r"6 marks $alue is null
N+ NM/ MRKS
--- ------- ---------
0 a 000
2 3 200
3 c
S72V select n", name, n$l(marks,300' !r"m studentN
N+ NM/ N.2(MRKS,300'
--- ------- ---------------------
0 a 000
2 3 200
3 c 300
S72V select n$l(0,2', n$l(2,3', n$l(:,3', n$l(;,:' !r"m dualN
N.2(0,2' N.2(2,3' N.2(:,3' N.2(;,:'
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
0 2 : ;
S72V select n$l(0,0', n$l(0,0', n$l(null,null', n$l(:,:' !r"m dualN
N.2(0,0' N.2(0,0' N.2(null,null' N.2(:,:'
---------- ---------- ----------------- ----------
0 0 :
211
f0 PO9ER
)"6er is the a3ilit% t" raise a $alue t" a gi$en e9p"nent(
S.nta1: p"6er (value0 exponent'
E1:
S72V select p"6er(2,;', p"6er(0,0', p"6er(0,0', p"6er(null,null', p"6er(2,-;' !r"m dualN
)+=/R(2,;' )+=/R(0,0' )+=/R(0,0' )+=/R(N#22,N#22' )+=/R(2,-;'
-------------- -------------- ----- --------- --------------- -------- ---------------
32 0 0 (0302;
-0 E7P
This 6ill raise e $alue t" the gi$e p"6er(
S.nta1: e9p (value'
E1:
S72V select e9p(0', e9p(2', e9p(0', e9p(null', e9p(-2' !r"m dualN
/E)(0' /E)(2' /E)(0' /E)(N#22' /E)(-2'
-------- --------- - ------- ------------- - ---------
2(<0>2>0>3 <(3>?0;60 0 (03;33;2>3
h0 ,(
This is 3ased "n natural "r 3ase e l"garithm(
S.nta1: ln (value' -- here $alue must 3e greater than Fer" 6hich is p"siti$e "nl%(
E1:
S72V select ln(0', ln(2', ln(null' !r"m dualN
2N(0' 2N(2' 2N(N#22'
------- ------- ------------
0 (6?30:<0>0
2n and /9p are recipr"cal t" each "ther(
/E) (3' S 20(0>;;36?
2N (20(0>;;36?' S 3
i0 ,O6
This is 3ased "n 00 3ased l"garithm(
S.nta1: l"g (00, value'-- here $alue must 3e greater than Fer" 6hich is p"siti$e "nl%(
E1:
S72V select l"g(00,000', l"g(00,2', l"g(00,0', l"g(00,null' !r"m dualN
2+,(00,000' 2+,(00,2' 2+,(00,0' 2+,(00,N#22'
--------------- ----------- ------------ -----------------
2 (30002???6 0
2N ($alue' S 2+, (/E)(0', $alue'
S72V select ln(3', l"g(e9p(0',3' !r"m dualN
212
2N(3' 2+,(/E)(0',3'
------- -----------------
0(0?>6022? 0(0?>6022?
E0 CE,
This 6ill pr"duce a 6h"le num3er that is greater than "r e8ual t" the speci!ied $alue(
S.nta1: ceil (value'
E1:
S72V select ceil(;', ceil(;(0', ceil(-;', ceil( -;(0', ceil(0', ceil(null' !r"m dualN
&/-2(;' &/-2(;(0' &/-2(-;' &/-2(-;(0' &/-2(0' &/-2(N#22'
--------- ----------- ---------- ------------ -------- --------------
; 6 -; -; 0
k0 F,OOR
This 6ill pr"duce a 6h"le num3er that is less than "r e8ual t" the speci!ied $alue(
S.nta1: !l""r (value'
E1:
S72V select !l""r(;', !l""r(;(0', !l""r(-;', !l""r( -;(0', !l""r(0', !l""r(null' !r"m dualN
G2++R(;' G2++R(;(0' G2++R(-;' G2++R(-;(0' G2++R(0' G2++R(N#22'
----------- ------------- ------------ -------------- ----------- ----------------
; ; -; -6 0
l0 RO%()
This 6ill r"unds num3ers t" a gi$en num3er "! digits "! precisi"n(
S.nta1: r"und (value0 precision'
E1:
S72V select r"und(023(23:;', r"und(023(23:;,2', r"und(023(23;:,2' !r"m dualN
R+#ND(023(23:;' R+#ND(023(23:;,0' R+#ND(023(23:;,2' R+#ND(023(23;:,2'
--------------------- ------------------------ ----------------------- -----------------------
023 023 023(23 023(2:
S72V select r"und(023(23:;,-0', r"und(023(23:;,-2', r"und(023(23:;,-3',
r"und(023(23:;,-:' !r"m dualN
R+#ND(023(23:;,-0' R+#ND(023(23:;,-2' R+#ND(023(23:;,-3' R+#ND(023(23:;,-:'
------------------------ ------------------------- ------------------------ ------------------------
020 000 0 0
S72V select r"und(023,0', r"und(023,0', r"und(023,2' !r"m dualN
R+#ND(023,0' R+#ND(023,0' R+#ND(023,2'
----------------- ----------------- ----------------
023 023 023
S72V select r"und(-023,0', r"und(-023,0', r"und(-023,2' !r"m dualN
R+#ND(-023,0' R+#ND(-023,0' R+#ND(-023,2'
213
------------------ ----------------- -------------------
-023 -023 -023
S72V select r"und(023,-0', r"und(023,-2', r"und(023,-3', r"und(-023,-0', r"und(-023,-
2', r"und(-023,-3' !r"m dualN
R+#ND(023,-0' R+#ND(023,-2' R+#ND(023,-3' R+#ND(-023,-0' R+#ND(-023,-2'
R+#ND(-023,-3'
------------- ------------- ------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
020 000 0 -020 -000 0
S72V select r"und(null,null', r"und(0,0', r"und(0,0', r"und(-0,-0', r"und(-2,-2' !r"m
dualN
R+#ND(N#22,N#22' R+#ND(0,0' R+#ND(0,0' R+#ND(-0,-0' R+#ND(-2,-2'
----------------------- -------------- -------------- ---------------- ----------------
0 0 0 0
m0 TR%(C
This 6ill truncates "r ch"ps "!! digits "! precisi"n !r"m a num3er(
S.nta1: trunc (value0 precision'
E1:
S72V select trunc(023(23:;', trunc(023(23:;,2', trunc(023(23;:,2' !r"m dualN
TR#N&(023(23:;' TR#N&(023(23:;,2' TR#N&(023(23;:,2'
--------------------- ----------------------- -----------------------
023 023(23 023(23
S72V select trunc(023(23:;,-0', trunc(023(23:;,-2', trunc(023(23:;,-3',
trunc(023(23:;,-:' !r"m dualN
TR#N&(023(23:;,-0' TR#N&(023(23:;,-2' TR#N&(023(23:;,-3' TR#N&(023(23:;,-:'
------------------------ ------------------------ ----------------------- ------------------------
020 000 0 0
S72V select trunc(023,0', trunc(023,0', trunc(023,2' !r"m dualN
TR#N&(023,0' TR#N&(023,0' TR#N&(023,2'
---------------- ---------------- -----------------
023 023 023
S72V select trunc(-023,0', trunc(-023,0', trunc(-023,2' !r"m dualN
TR#N&(-023,0' TR#N&(-023,0' TR#N&(-023,2'
----------------- ----------------- -----------------
-023 -023 -023
S72V select trunc(023,-0', trunc(023,-2', trunc(023,-3', trunc(-023,-0', trunc(-023,2',
trunc(-023,-3' !r"m dualN
214
TR#N&(023,-0' TR#N&(023,-2' TR#N&(023,-3' TR#N&(-023,-0' TR#N&(-023,2' TR#N&(-
023,-3'
------------- ------------- ------------- -------------- ------------- --------------
020 000 0 -020 -023 0
S72V select trunc(null,null', trunc(0,0', trunc(0,0', trunc(-0,-0', trunc(-2,-2' !r"m dualN
TR#N&(N#22,N#22' TR#N&(0,0' TR#N&(0,0' TR#N&(-0,-0' TR#N&(-2,-2'
----------------------- ------------- ------------- --------------- ----------------
0 0 0 0
n0 BT&()
This 6ill per!"rm 3it6ise and "perati"n(
S.nta1: 3itand (value10 value2'
E1:
S72V select 3itand(2,3', 3itand(0,0', 3itand(0,0', 3itand(null,null', 3itand(-2,-3' !r"m
dualN
1-TND(2,3' 1-TND(0,0' 1-TND(0,0' 1-TND(N#22,N#22' 1-TND(-2,-3'
-------------- --------------- -------------- ------------------------ -----------------
2 0 0 -:
o0 6RE&TEST
This 6ill gi$e the greatest num3er(
S.nta1: greatest (value10 value20 value. 9 valuen'
E1:
S72V select greatest(0, 2, 3', greatest(-0, -2, -3' !r"m dualN
,R/T/ST(0,2,3' ,R/T/ST(-0,-2,-3'
-------------------- -----------------------
3 -0
-! all the $alues are Fer"s then it 6ill displa% Fer"(
-! all the parameters are nulls then it 6ill displa% n"thing(
-! an% "! the parameters is null it 6ill displa% n"thing(
20 ,E&ST
This 6ill gi$e the least num3er(
215
S.nta1: least (value10 value20 value. 9 valuen'
E1:
S72V select least(0, 2, 3', least(-0, -2, -3' !r"m dualN
2/ST(0,2,3' 2/ST(-0,-2,-3'
-------------------- -----------------------
0 -3
-! all the $alues are Fer"s then it 6ill displa% Fer"(
;0 CO&,ESCE
This 6ill return !irst n"n-null $alue(
S.nta1: c"alesce (value10 value20 value. 9 valuen'
E1:
S72V select c"alesce(0,2,3', c"alesce(null,2,null,;' !r"m dualN
&+2/S&/(0,2,3' &+2/S&/(N#22,2,N#22,;'
------------------- -------------------------------
0 2
STR(6 F%(CTO(S
-nitcap
#pper
2"6er
2ength
216
Rpad
2pad
2trim
Rtrim
Trim
Translate
Replace
S"unde9
&"ncat ( L ^^ L &"ncatenati"n "perat"r'
scii
&hr
Su3str
-nstr
Dec"de
,reatest
2east
&"alesce
a0 (TC&P
This 6ill capitaliFe the initial letter "! the string(
S.nta1: initcap (strin!'
E1:
S72V select initcap(Ic"mputerI' !r"m dualN
-N-T&)
-----------
&"mputer
$0 %PPER
This 6ill c"n$ert the string int" uppercase(
S.nta1: upper (strin!'
E1:
S72V select upper(Ic"mputerI' !r"m dualN
#))/R
-----------
&+M)#T/R
c0 ,O9ER
This 6ill c"n$ert the string int" l"6ercase(
S.nta1: l"6er (strin!'
E1:
S72V select l"6er(I&+M)#T/RI' !r"m dualN
2+=/R
-----------
c"mputer
d0 ,E(6TH
This 6ill gi$e length "! the string(
S.nta1: length (strin!'
217
E1:
S72V select length(Ic"mputerI' !r"m dualN
2/N,TA
-----------
>
e0 RP&)
This 6ill all"6s %"u t" pad the right side "! a c"lumn 6ith an% set "! characters(
S.nta1: rpad (strin!0 len!t :0 paddin!_car;'
E1:
S72V select rpad(Ic"mputerI,0;,IQI', rpad(Ic"mputerI,0;,IQÌ' !r"m dualN
R)D(I&+M)#T/RI R)D(I&+M)#T/RI
---------------------- ----------------------
c"mputerQQQQQQQ c"mputerQ`Q`Q`Q
-- De!ault padding character 6as 3lank space(
f0 ,P&)
This 6ill all"6s %"u t" pad the le!t side "! a c"lumn 6ith an% set "! characters(
S.nta1: lpad (strin!0 len!t :0 paddin!_car;'
E1:
S72V select lpad(Ic"mputerI,0;,IQI', lpad(Ic"mputerI,0;,IQÌ' !r"m dualN
2)D(I&+M)#T/RI 2)D(I&+M)#T/RI
--------------------- ---------------------
QQQQQQQc"mputer Q`Q`Q`Qc"mputer
De!ault padding character 6as 3lank space(
-0 ,TRM
This 6ill trim "!! un6anted characters !r"m the le!t end "! string(
S.nta1: ltrim (strin! :0unwanted_cars;'
E1:
S72V select ltrim(Ic"mputerI,Ic"I', ltrim(Ic"mputerI,Ic"mI' !r"m dualN
2TR-M( 2TR-M
-------- ---------
mputer puter
S72V select ltrim(Ic"mputerI,IputerI', ltrim(Ic"mputerI,I"mputerI' !r"m dualN
2TR-M(I& 2TR-M(I&
---------- ----------
218
c"mputer c"mputer
-! %"u ha$enMt speci!% an% un6anted characters it 6ill displa% entire string(
h0 RTRM
This 6ill trim "!! un6anted characters !r"m the right end "! string(
S.nta1: rtrim (strin! :0 unwanted_cars;'
E1:
S72V select rtrim(Ic"mputerI,IerI', rtrim(Ic"mputerI,IterI' !r"m dualN
RTR-M( RTR-M
-------- ---------
c"mput c"mpu
S72V select rtrim(Ic"mputerI,Ic"mputM', rtrim(Ic"mputerI,Ic"mputeI' !r"m dualN
RTR-M(I& RTR-M(I&
---------- ----------
c"mputer c"mputer
-! %"u ha$enMt speci!% an% un6anted characters it 6ill displa% entire string(
i0 TRM
This 6ill trim "!! un6anted characters !r"m the 3"th sides "! string(
S.nta1: trim (unwanted_cars !r"m strin!'
E1:
S72V select trim( IiI !r"m IindianiI' !r"m dualN
TR-M(
-----
ndian
S72V select trim( leadingIiI !r"m IindianiI' !r"m dualN -- this 6ill 6"rk as 2TR-M
TR-M(2
------
ndiani
S72V select trim( trailingIiI !r"m IindianiI' !r"m dualN -- this 6ill 6"rk as RTR-M
TR-M(T
------
-ndian
E0 TR&(S,&TE
This 6ill replace the set "! characters, character 3% character(
S.nta1: translate (strin!0 old_cars0 new_cars'
E1:
219
S72V select translate(IindiaI,IinI,I9%I' !r"m dualN
TRNS
--------
9%d9a
k0 REP,&CE
This 6ill replace the set "! characters, string 3% string(
S.nta1: replace (strin!0 old_cars :0 new_cars;'
E1:
S72V select replace(IindiaI,IinI,I9%I', replace(LindiaM,MinM' !r"m dualN
R/)2&/ R/)2&/
----------- -----------
E%dia dia
l0 SO%()E7
This 6ill 3e used t" !ind 6"rds that s"und like "ther 6"rds, e9clusi$el% used in 6here clause(
S.nta1: s"unde9 (strin!'
E1:
S72V select Q !r"m emp 6here s"unde9(ename' S s"unde9(ISM-TI'N
-------- -------- ----- ----- ------------ --------- ----------
<36? SM-TA &2/RK <?02 0<-D/&->0 ;00 20
m0 CO(C&T
This 6ill 3e used t" c"m3ine t6" strings "nl%(
S.nta1: c"ncat (strin!10 strin!2'
E1:
S72V select c"ncat(Ic"mputerI,I "perat"rI' !r"m dualN
&+N&T(I&+M)#T/RI
-------------------------
c"mputer "perat"r
-! %"u 6ant t" c"m3ine m"re than t6" strings %"u ha$e t" use c"ncatenati"n "perat"r (^^'(
S72V select Ih"6I ^^ I areI ^^ I %"uI !r"m dualN
IA+=I^ÎR/
---------------
h"6 are %"u
n0 &SC
This 6ill return the decimal representati"n in the data3ase character set "! the !irst character "! the string(
S.nta1: ascii (strin!'
E1:
220
S72V select ascii(IaI', ascii(IappleI' !r"m dualN
S&--(II' S&--(I))2/I'
------------ ------------------
?< ?<
o0 CHR
This 6ill return the character ha$ing the 3inar% e8ui$alent t" the string in either the data3ase character set "r
the nati"nal character set(
S.nta1: chr (number'
E1:
S72V select chr(?<' !r"m dualN
&AR
-----
a
20 S%BSTR
This 6ill 3e used t" e9tract su3strings(
S.nta1: su3str (strin!0 start_cr_count :0 no_of_cars;'
E1:
S72V select su3str(Ic"mputerI,2', su3str(Ic"mputerI,2,;', su3str(Ic"mputerI,3,<' !r"m
dualN
S#1STR( S#1ST S#1STR
---------- ------- --------
"mputer "mput mputer
-! no_of_cars parameter is negati$e then it 6ill displa% n"thing(
-! 3"th parameters e9cept strin! are null "r Fer"s then it 6ill displa% n"thing(
-! no_of_cars parameter is greater than the length "! the string then it ign"res and calculates 3ased "n the
"rginal string length(
-! start_cr_count is negati$e then it 6ill e9tract the su3string !r"m right end(
0 2 3 : ; 6 < >
& + M ) # T / R
-> -< -6 -; -: -3 -2 -0
;0 (STR
This 6ill all"6s %"u !"r searching thr"ugh a string !"r set "! characters(
S.nta1: instr (strin!0 searc_str :0 start_cr_count :0 occurrence; ;'
E1:
221
S72V select instr(Iin!"rmati"nI,I"I,:,0', instr(Iin!"rmati"nI,I"I,:,2' !r"m dualN
-NSTR(I-NG+RMT-+NI,I+I,:,0' -NSTR(I-NG+RMT-+NI,I+I,:,2'
------------------------------------ -------------------------------------
: 00
-! %"u are n"t speci!%ing start_cr_count and occurrence then it 6ill start search !r"m the 3eginning and !inds
!irst "ccurrence "nl%(
-! 3"th parameters start_cr_count and occurrence are null, it 6ill displa% n"thing(
r0 )ECO)E
Dec"de 6ill act as $alue 3% $alue su3stituti"n(
G"r e$er% $alue "! !ield, it 6ill checks !"r a match in a series "! i!4then tests(
S.nta1: dec"de (value0 if10 ten10 if20 ten20 99. else'N
E1:
S72V select sal, dec"de(sal,;00,I2"6I,;000,IAighI,IMediumI' !r"m empN
S2 D/&+D/
----- ---------
;00 2"6
2;00 Medium
2000 Medium
3;00 Medium
3000 Medium
;000 Aigh
:000 Medium
;000 Aigh
0>00 Medium
0200 Medium
2000 Medium
2<00 Medium
2200 Medium
3200 Medium
S72V select dec"de(0,0,3', dec"de(0,2,3,:,:,6' !r"m dualN
D/&+D/(0,0,3' D/&+D/(0,2,3,:,:,6'
----------------- ------------------------
3 6
-! the num3er "! parameters are "dd and di!!erent then dec"de 6ill displa% n"thing(
-! the num3er "! parameters are e$en and di!!erent then dec"de 6ill displa% last $alue(
-! all the parameters are null then dec"de 6ill displa% n"thing(
-! all the parameters are Fer"s then dec"de 6ill displa% Fer"(
"0 6RE&TEST
222
This 6ill gi$e the greatest string(
S.nta1: greatest (strn!10 strin!20 strin!. 9 strin!n'
E1:
S72V select greatest(IaI, I3I, IcI', greatest(IsatishI,IsrinuI,IsakethI' !r"m dualN
,R/T ,R/T
------- -------
c srinu
t0 ,E&ST
This 6ill gi$e the least string(
S.nta1: greatest (strn!10 strin!20 strin!. 9 strin!n'
E1:
S72V select least(IaI, I3I, IcI', least(IsatishI,IsrinuI,IsakethI' !r"m dualN
2/ST 2/ST
------- -------
a saketh
#0 CO&,ESCE
This 6ill gi$es the !irst n"n-null string(
S.nta1: c"alesce (strn!10 strin!20 strin!. 9 strin!n'
E1:
S72V select c"alesce(IaI,I3I,IcI', c"alesce(null,IaI,null,I3I' !r"m dualN
&+2/S&/ &+2/S&/
----------- -----------
a a
)&TE F%(CTO(S
S%sdate
&urrentPdate
&urrentPtimestamp
S%stimestamp
2"caltimestamp
D3timeF"ne
Sessi"ntimeF"ne
T"Pchar
T"Pdate
ddPm"nths
M"nthsP3et6een
Ne9tPda%
223
2astPda%
/9tract
,reatest
2east
R"und
Trunc
Ne6Ptime
&"alesce
+racle de!ault date !"rmat is DD-M+N-HH(
=e can change the de!ault !"rmat t" "ur desired !"rmat 3% using the !"ll"6ing c"mmand(
S72V alter sessi"n set nlsPdateP!"rmat S LDD-M+NTA-HHHHMN
1ut this 6ill e9pire "nce the sessi"n 6as cl"sed(
a0 SHS)&TE
This 6ill gi$e the current date and time(
E1:
S72V select s%sdate !r"m dualN
SHSDT/
-----------
2:-D/&-06
$0 C%RRE(TF)&TE
This 6ill returns the current date in the sessi"nMs timeF"ne(
E1:
S72V select currentPdate !r"m dualN
&#RR/NTPDT/
------------------
2:-D/&-06
c0 C%RRE(TFTMEST&MP
This 6ill returns the current timestamp 6ith the acti$e time F"ne in!"rmati"n(
E1:
S72V select currentPtimestamp !r"m dualN
&#RR/NTPT-M/STM)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
2:-D/&-06 03(:2(:0(3>336? M C0;B30
d0 SHSTMEST&MP
This 6ill returns the s%stem date, including !racti"nal sec"nds and time F"ne "! the data3ase(
E1:
S72V select s%stimestamp !r"m dualN
SHST-M/STM)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
224
2:-D/&-06 03(:?(30(>300?? M C0;B30
e0 ,OC&,TMEST&MP
This 6ill returns l"cal timestamp in the acti$e time F"ne in!"rmati"n, 6ith n" time F"ne in!"rmati"n sh"6n(
E1:
S72V select l"caltimestamp !r"m dualN
2+&2T-M/STM)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
2:-D/&-06 03(::(0>(;02><: M
f0 )BTMEWO(E
This 6ill returns the current data3ase time F"ne in #T& !"rmat( (&""rdinated #ni$ersal Time'
E1:
S72V select d3timeF"ne !r"m dualN
D1T-M/O+N/
---------------
-0<B00
-0 SESSO(TMEWO(E
This 6ill returns the $alue "! the current sessi"nMs time F"ne(
E1:
S72V select sessi"ntimeF"ne !r"m dualN
S/SS-+NT-M/O+N/
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
C0;B30
h0 TOFCH&R
This 6ill 3e used t" e9tract $ari"us date !"rmats(
The a$aila3le date !"rmats as !"ll"6s(
S.nta1: t"Pchar (date, format'
)&TE FORM&TS
D -- N" "! da%s in 6eek
DD -- N" "! da%s in m"nth
DDD -- N" "! da%s in %ear
MM -- N" "! m"nth
M+N -- Three letter a33re$iati"n "! m"nth
M+NTA -- Gull% spelled "ut m"nth
RM -- R"man numeral m"nth
DH -- Three letter a33re$iated da%
225
DH -- Gull% spelled "ut da%
H -- 2ast "ne digit "! the %ear
HH -- 2ast t6" digits "! the %ear
HHH -- 2ast three digits "! the %ear
HHHH -- Gull !"ur digit %ear
SHHHH -- Signed %ear
- -- +ne digit %ear !r"m -S+ standard
-H -- T6" digit %ear !r"m -S+ standard
-HH -- Three digit %ear !r"m -S+ standard
-HHH -- G"ur digit %ear !r"m -S+ standard
H, HHH -- Hear 6ith c"mma
H/R -- Gull% spelled "ut %ear
&& -- &entur%
7 -- N" "! 8uarters
= -- N" "! 6eeks in m"nth
== -- N" "! 6eeks in %ear
-= -- N" "! 6eeks in %ear !r"m -S+ standard
AA -- A"urs
M- -- Minutes
SS -- Sec"nds
GG -- Gracti"nal sec"nds
M "r )M -- Displa%s M "r )M depending up"n time "! da%
(M "r )(M -- Displa%s (M "r )(M depending up"n time "! da%
D "r 1& -- Displa%s D "r 1& depending up"n the date
(D "r 1(& -- Displa%s D "r 1& depending up"n the date
GM -- )re!i9 t" m"nth "r da%, suppresses padding "! m"nth "r da%
TA -- Su!!i9 t" a num3er
S) -- su!!i9 t" a num3er t" 3e spelled "ut
S)TA -- Su!!i9 c"m3inati"n "! TA and S) t" 3e 3"th spelled "ut
TAS) -- same as S)TA
E1:
S72V select t"Pchar(s%sdate,Idd m"nth %%%% hhBmiBss am d%I' !r"m dualN
T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IDD M+NTA HHHHAABM-
----------------------------------------------------
2: decem3er 2006 02B03B23 pm sun
S72V select t"Pchar(s%sdate,Idd m"nth %earI' !r"m dualN
T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IDDM+NTAH/RI'
-------------------------------------------------------
2: decem3er t6" th"usand si9
S72V select t"Pchar(s%sdate,Idd !mm"nth %earI' !r"m dualN
T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IDD GMM+NTA H/RI'
-------------------------------------------------------
226
2: decem3er t6" th"usand si9
S72V select t"Pchar(s%sdate,Iddth DDTAI' !r"m dualN
T+P&AR(S
------------
2:th 2:TA
S72V select t"Pchar(s%sdate,Iddspth DDS)TAI' !r"m dualN
T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IDDS)TADDS)TA
------------------------------------------
t6ent%-!"urth T=/NTH-G+#RTA
S72V select t"Pchar(s%sdate,Iddsp Ddsp DDS) I' !r"m dualN
T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IDDS)DDS)DDS)I'
------------------------------------------------
t6ent%-!"ur T6ent%-G"ur T=/NTH-G+#R
i0 TOF)&TE
This 6ill 3e used t" c"n$ert the string int" data !"rmat(
S.nta1: t"Pdate (date'
E1:
S72V select t"Pchar(t"Pdate(I2:4dec42006I,Idd4m"n4%%%%I', Idd Q m"nth Q da%I' !r"m dualN
T+P&AR(T+PDT/(I2:4D/&420
--------------------------
2: Q decem3er Q Sunda%
-- -! %"u are n"t using t"Pchar "racle 6ill displa% "utput in de!ault date !"rmat(
E0 &))FMO(THS
This 6ill add the speci!ied m"nths t" the gi$en date(
S.nta1: addPm"nths (date0 no_of_monts'
E1:
S72V select addPm"nths(t"Pdate(I00-@an-0??0I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I', ;' !r"m dualN
DDPM+NTAS
----------------
00-D#N-?0
227
S72V select addPm"nths(t"Pdate(I00-@an-0??0I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I', -;' !r"m dualN
DDPM+NTA
---------------
00-#,->?
-! no_of_monts is Fer" then it 6ill displa% the same date(
-! no_of_monts is null then it 6ill displa% n"thing(
k0 MO(THSFBET9EE(
This 6ill gi$e di!!erence "! m"nths 3et6een t6" dates(
S.nta1: m"nthsP3et6een (date10 date2'
E1:
S72V select m"nthsP3et6een(t"Pdate(I00-aug-0??0I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I', t"Pdate(I00-@an-
0??0I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I'' !r"m dualN
M+NTASP1/T=//N(T+PDT/(I00-#,-0??0I,IDD-M+N-HHHHI',T+PDT/(I00-DN-
0??0I,IDD-M+N-HHHHI''
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
<
S72V select m"nthsP3et6een(t"Pdate(I00-@an-0??0I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I', t"Pdate(I00-aug-
0??0I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I'' !r"m dualN
M+NTASP1/T=//N(T+PDT/(I00-DN-0??0I,IDD-M+N-HHHHI',T+PDT/(I00-#,-
0??0I,IDD-M+N-HHHHI''
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-<
l0 (E7TF)&H
This 6ill pr"duce ne9t da% "! the gi$en da% !r"m the speci!ied date(
S.nta1: ne9tPda% (date0 day'
E1B
S72V select ne9tPda%(t"Pdate(I2:-dec-2006I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I',IsunI' !r"m dualN
N/ETPDH(
-------------
30-D/&-06
-- -! the da% parameter is null then it 6ill displa% n"thing(
228
m0 ,&STF)&H
This 6ill pr"duce last da% "! the gi$en date(
S.nta1: lastPda% (date'
E1:
S72V select lastPda%(t"Pdate(I2:-dec-2006I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I',IsunI' !r"m dualN
2STPDH(
-------------
30-D/&-06
n0 E7TR&CT
This is used t" e9tract a p"rti"n "! the date $alue(
S.nta1: e9tract ((%ear ^ m"nth ^ da% ^ h"ur ^ minute ^ sec"nd', date'
E1:
S72V select e9tract(%ear !r"m s%sdate' !r"m dualN
/ETR&T(H/RGR+MSHSDT/'
------------------------------------
2006
-- H"u can e9tract "nl% "ne $alue at a time(
o0 6RE&TEST
This 6ill gi$e the greatest date(
S.nta1: greatest (date10 date20 date. 9 daten'
E1:
S72V select greatest(t"Pdate(I00-@an-?0I,Idd-m"n-%%I',t"Pdate(I00-mar-?0I,Idd-m"n%%I',t"Pdate(I00-apr-
?0I,Idd-m"n-%%I'' !r"m dualN
,R/T/ST(
-------------
00-)R-?0
20 ,E&ST
This 6ill gi$e the least date(
S.nta1: least (date10 date20 date. 9 daten'
E1:
S72V select least(t"Pdate(I00-@an-?0I,Idd-m"n-%%I',t"Pdate(I00-mar-?0I,Idd-m"n%%I', t"Pdate(I00-apr-?0I,Idd-
m"n-%%I'' !r"m dualN
2/ST(
-------------
00-DN-?0
229
;0 RO%()
R"und 6ill r"unds the date t" 6hich it 6as e8ual t" "r greater than the gi$en date(
S.nta1: r"und (date0 (da% ^ m"nth ^ %ear)'
-! the sec"nd parameter 6as year then r"und 6ill checks the m"nth "! the gi$en date in the !"ll"6ing ranges(
DN -- D#N
D#2 -- D/&
-! the m"nth !alls 3et6een DN and D#N then it returns the !irst da% "! the current %ear(
-! the m"nth !alls 3et6een D#2 and D/& then it returns the !irst da% "! the ne9t %ear(
-! the sec"nd parameter 6as mont then r"und 6ill checks the da% "! the gi$en date in the !"ll"6ing ranges(
0 -- 0;
06 -- 30
-! the da% !alls 3et6een 0 and 0; then it returns the !irst da% "! the current m"nth(
-! the da% !alls 3et6een 06 and 30 then it returns the !irst da% "! the ne9t m"nth(
-! the sec"nd parameter 6as day then r"und 6ill checks the 6eek da% "! the gi$en date in the !"ll"6ing
ranges(
S#N -- =/D
TA# -- S#N
-! the 6eek da% !alls 3et6een S#N and =/D then it returns the pre$i"us sunda%(
-! the 6eekda% !alls 3et6een TA# and S#N then it returns the ne9t sunda%(
-! the sec"nd parameter 6as null then it returns n"thing(
-! the %"u are n"t speci!%ing the sec"nd parameter then r"und 6ill resets the time t" the 3egining "!
the current da% in case "! user speci!ied date(
-! the %"u are n"t speci!%ing the sec"nd parameter then r"und 6ill resets the time t" the 3egining "!
the ne9t da% in case "! s%sdate(
E1:
S72V select r"und(t"Pdate(I2:-dec-0:I,Idd-m"n-%%I',I%earI', r"und(t"Pdate(I00-mar- 06I,Idd-m"n-%%I',I%earI'
!r"m dualN
R+#ND(T+P R+#ND(T+P
------------ ---------------
00-DN-0; 00-DN-06
S72V select r"und(t"Pdate(I00-@an-0:I,Idd-m"n-%%I',Im"nthI', r"und(t"Pdate(I0>-@an- 0:I,Idd-m"n-
%%I',Im"nthI' !r"m dualN
R+#ND(T+P R+#ND(T+P
------------- ---------------
230
00-DN-0: 00-G/1-0:
S72V select r"und(t"Pdate(I26-dec-06I,Idd-m"n-%%I',Ida%I', r"und(t"Pdate(I2?-dec-
06I,Idd-m"n-%%I',Ida%I' !r"m dualN
R+#ND(T+P R+#ND(T+P
-------------- --------------
2:-D/&-06 30-D/&-06
S72V select t"Pchar(r"und(t"Pdate(I2:-dec-06I,Idd-m"n-%%I'', Idd m"n %%%% hhBmiBss amI'!r"m dualN
T+P&AR(R+#ND(T+PDT/(I
---------------------------------
2: dec 2006 02B00B00 am
r0 TR%(C
Trunc 6ill ch"ps "!! the date t" 6hich it 6as e8ual t" "r less than the gi$en date(
S.nta1: trunc (date0 (da% ^ m"nth ^ %ear)'
-! the sec"nd parameter 6as year then it al6a%s returns the !irst da% "! the current %ear(
-! the sec"nd parameter 6as mont then it al6a%s returns the !irst da% "! the current m"nth(
-! the sec"nd parameter 6as day then it al6a%s returns the pre$i"us sunda%(
-! the sec"nd parameter 6as null then it returns n"thing(
-! the %"u are n"t speci!%ing the sec"nd parameter then trunk 6ill resets the time t" the 3egining "!
the current da%(
E1:
S72V select trunc(t"Pdate(I2:-dec-0:I,Idd-m"n-%%I',I%earI', trunc(t"Pdate(I00-mar-06I,Idd-m"n-%%I',I%earI'
!r"m dualN
TR#N&(T+P TR#N&(T+P
------------- --------------
00-DN-0: 00-DN-06
S72V select trunc(t"Pdate(I00-@an-0:I,Idd-m"n-%%I',Im"nthI', trunc(t"Pdate(I0>-@an-0:I,Idd-m"n-%%I',Im"nthI'
!r"m dualN
TR#N&(T+P TR#N&(T+P
231
------------- -------------
00-DN-0: 00-DN-0:
S72V select trunc(t"Pdate(I26-dec-06I,Idd-m"n-%%I',Ida%I', trunc(t"Pdate(I2?-dec-06I,Iddm"n- %%I',Ida%I' !r"m
dualN
TR#N&(T+P TR#N&(T+P
------------- --------------
2:-D/&-06 2:-D/&-06
S72V select t"Pchar(trunc(t"Pdate(I2:-dec-06I,Idd-m"n-%%I'', Idd m"n %%%% hhBmiBss amI' !r"m dualN
T+P&AR(TR#N&(T+PDT/(I
---------------------------------
2: dec 2006 02B00B00 am
"0 (E9FTME
This 6ill gi$e the desired timeF"neMs date and time(
S.nta1: ne6Ptime (date0 current_time<one0 desired_time<one'
$aila3le timeF"nes are as !"ll"6s(
TMEWO(ES
ST4DT -- tlantic standard4da% light time
1ST41DT -- 1ering standard4da% light time
&ST4&DT -- &entral standard4da% light time
/ST4/DT -- /astern standard4da% light time
,MT -- ,reen6ich mean time
AST4ADT -- laska-Aa6aii standard4da% light time
MST4MDT -- M"untain standard4da% light time
NST -- Ne6!"undland standard time
)ST4)DT -- )aci!ic standard4da% light time
HST4HDT -- Huk"n standard4da% light time
232
E1:
S72V select t"Pchar(ne6Ptime(s%sdate,IgmtI,I%stI',Idd m"n %%%% hhBmiBss amI' !r"m dualN
T+P&AR(N/=PT-M/(SHSDT
-----------------------------------
2: dec 2006 02B;0B20 pm
S72V select t"Pchar(ne6Ptime(s%sdate,IgmtI,IestI',Idd m"n %%%% hhBmiBss amI' !r"m dualN
T+P&AR(N/=PT-M/(SHSDT
-----------------------
2: dec 2006 06B;0B26 pm
t0 CO&,ESCE
This 6ill gi$e the !irst n"n-null date(
S.nta1: c"alesce (date10 date20 date. 9 daten'
E1:
S72V select c"alesce(I02-@an-?0I,I03-@an-??I', c"alesce(null,I02-@an-?0I,I23-mar-?>I,null'
!r"m dualN
&+2/S&/( &+2/S&/(
------------- ------------
02-@an-?0 02-@an-?0
MSCE,,&(EO%S F%(CTO(S
#id
#ser
.siFe
Rank
DensePrank
a0 %)
This 6ill returns the integer $alue c"rresp"nding t" the user currentl% l"gged in(
E1:
233
S72V select uid !r"m dualN
#-D
----------
30?
$0 %SER
This 6ill returns the l"ginMs user name(
E1:
S72V select user !r"m dualN
#S/R
----------------
SK/TA
c0 !SWE
This 6ill returns the num3er "! 3%tes in the e9pressi"n(
E1:
S72V select $siFe(023', $siFe(Ic"mputerI', $siFe(I02-@an-?0I' !r"m dualN
.S-O/(023' .S-O/(I&+M)#T/RI' .S-O/(I02-DN-?0I'
------------- ----------------------- ----------------------
3 > ?
d0 R&(8
This 6ill gi$e the n"n-se8uential ranking(
E1:
S72V select r"6num,sal !r"m (select sal !r"m emp "rder 3% sal desc'N
R+=N#M S2
---------- ----------
0 ;000
2 3000
3 3000
: 2?<;
; 2>;0
234
6 2:;0
< 0600
> 0;00
? 0300
00 02;0
00 02;0
02 0000
03 0000
0: ?;0
0; >00
S72V select rank(2?<;' 6ithin gr"up("rder 3% sal desc' !r"m empN
RNK(2?<;'=-TA-N,R+#)(+RD/R1HS2D/S&'
---------------------------------------------------------
:
d0 )E(SEFR&(8
This 6ill gi$e the se8uential ranking(
E1:
S72V select densePrank(2?<;' 6ithin gr"up("rder 3% sal desc' !r"m empN
D/NS/PRNK(2?<;'=-TA-N,R+#)(+RD/R1HS2D/S&'
-----------------------------------------------------------------
3
CO(!ERSO( F%(CTO(S
1inPt"Pnum
&hart"r"6id
R"6idt"char
T"Pnum3er
T"Pchar
T"Pdate
a0 B(FTOF(%M
This 6ill c"n$ert the 3inar% $alue t" its numerical e8ui$alent(
S.nta1: 3inPt"Pnum( binary_bits'
235
E1:
S72V select 3inPt"Pnum(0,0,0' !r"m dualN
1-NPT+PN#M(0,0,0'
------------------------
6
-! all the 3its are Fer" then it pr"duces Fer"(
-! all the 3its are null then it pr"duces an err"r(
$0 CH&RTORO9)
This 6ill c"n$ert a character string t" act like an internal "racle r"6 identi!ier "r r"6id(
c0 RO9)TOCH&R
This 6ill c"n$ert an internal "racle r"6 identi!ier "r r"6id t" character string(
d0 TOF(%MBER
This 6ill c"n$ert a char "r $archar t" num3er(
e0 TOFCH&R
This 6ill c"n$ert a num3er "r date t" character string(
f0 TOF)&TE
This 6ill c"n$ert a num3er, char "r $archar t" a date(
6RO%P F%(CTO(S
Sum
$g
Ma9
Min
&"unt
,r"up !uncti"ns 6ill 3e applied "n all the r"6s 3ut pr"duces single "utput(
a0 S%M
This 6ill gi$e the sum "! the $alues "! the speci!ied c"lumn(
S.nta1: sum (column'
236
E1:
S72V select sum(sal' !r"m empN
S#M(S2'
----------
3>600
$0 &!6
This 6ill gi$e the a$erage "! the $alues "! the speci!ied c"lumn(
S.nta1: a$g (column'
E1:
S72V select a$g(sal' !r"m empN
.,(S2'
---------------
2<;<(0:2>6
c0 M&7
This 6ill gi$e the ma9imum "! the $alues "! the speci!ied c"lumn(
S.nta1: ma9 (column'
E1:
S72V select ma9(sal' !r"m empN
ME(S2'
----------
;000
d0 M(
This 6ill gi$e the minimum "! the $alues "! the speci!ied c"lumn(
S.nta1: min (column'
E1:
S72V select min(sal' !r"m empN
M-N(S2'
----------
;00
e0 CO%(T
This 6ill gi$e the c"unt "! the $alues "! the speci!ied c"lumn(
237
S.nta1: c"unt (column'
E1:
S72V select c"unt(sal',c"unt(Q' !r"m empN
&+#NT(S2' &+#NT(Q'
-------------- ------------
0: 0:
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VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur-603 202, Kancheepuram District, Tamilnadu

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