doi:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1845.001.01.

82
1845; v. 1; p. 381-389 Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society

Charles Darwin and D. T. A.

Expedition. London, pp. 214. 1842.

R.N. during the Years 1832 to 1836: Naturalist to the
the Beagle under the Command of Capt. Fitzroy,
being the first Part of the Geology of the Voyage of
The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs ;

Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society

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Society of London
1845 Geological
381
V. NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS.
L T~E STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS; being
the f i rst Part of the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle under
the Command of Capt. _Fitzroy, R. N. during t~e Years 1832 to
1836. By CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., Nat ural i st to t he
Expedition. London, pp. 214. 1842.
MR. DARW~, i n addition to his j our nal of t he voyage of t he
Beagle, has since published, wi t h the approval of the Lords Com-
missioners of the Treasury, two volumes havi ng reference to
geological s ubj e c t s - - t he results of i nvest i gat i ons made duri ng hi s
expedition.
It is to be regretted, t hat the publication of these volumes was
delayed i n consequence of the i l l heart h of t he author, whi ch
long prevent ed the close attention necessary to prepare his ob-
servations for the press. We have reason to rejoice t hat t he
works themselves requi re no apology for the state in whi ch t hey
appear.
The object of the volume at present before us, is to describe i n
detail t he general structure and the circumstances of formation of
coral reefs, wi t h the object of expl ai ni ng and supporting certain
views of t he action of di st urbi ng forces, assumed by t he author to
have produced elevations and depressions of the sea bottom, and
i n this way accounting for many geological phenomena i n different
parts of t he world, and of various periods.
There are two great classes of coral-reefs, i n one or the other
of whi ch t he whole number may be i ncl uded: those, namely,
whi ch exhi bi t near the surface no evidence of any solid rock
from whi ch t hey may have o r i g i n a t e d - the barrier and atoll-
formed reefs, and those whi ch are called f r i ngi ng- r eef s - where,
owing to the nat ure of t he slope and t he vi ci ni t y of land, t here
can be no doubt as to t he origin. The former class (i ncl udi ng
t he lagoon islands) have attracted most attention, and offer t h e
most st ri ki ng phenomena, but both of t hem are ext remel y
interesting.
The t er m " a t o l l " is used by the i nhabi t ant s of the islands i n t he
Indi an ocean to di st i ngui sh circular groups of coral islets some-
times called "Lagoon islands," a ki nd of salt-water lake or lagoon
bei ng often formed by a nearl y continuous curved line of such
reefs, onl y l eavi ng one or two outlets. Barri er-reefs are l i t t l e
less marvellous i n t hei r structure t han t he atolls, the band of
coral-reef sometimes forming a fri nge of land, whi l e sometimes
~8~ NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS.
t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e r e e f i s onl y i n d i c a t e d by a l i ne of br e a ke r s ,
o r a f e w s ma l l i sl et s c r o wn e d wi t h c oc oa - nut t r e e s ; a nd t h e r e e f
i n t hi s cas e i s at a c ons i de r a bl e di s t a nc e f r om a c e n t r a l i sl and,
wh i c h is n o t i t s e l f d u e t o t h e l a bour s of t h e cor al pol yp.
F r i n g i n g , or s hor e- r eef s , di f f er f r om b a r r i e r - r e e f s i n not h a v i n g
wi t h i n t h e m a b r o a d c h a n n e l of deep wa t e r , a n d i n not l y i n g so
f a r f r om t h e shor e. T h e r e a r e o t h e r ki nds of r eef s al l i ed mo r e or
l ess n e a r l y t o one or t h e o t h e r of t h e s e ; b u t t h e y possess com-
p a r a t i v e l y l i t t l e i nt e r e s t . Wi t h r e s pe c t t o t h e or i gi n of al l t he s e
r eef s, t h e g r e a t di f f i cul t y l i es i n e x p l a i n i n g t h e f ounda t i on of t h e
b a r r i e r a n d a t ol l - f or me d cl ass, t he f r i n g i n g - r e e f s r e q u i r i n g l i t t l e
c ons i de r a t i on.
KZl ~LINO ATOLL
(Chart and Vertical Section).
5
"., $ .':
" ' . . . . . . . . . ' "
b c d e f
a. Sea level at low water ; depth 25 fathoms at 150 yards from the edge of
t he reef.
b. Out er edge o the fiat part of the reef which dries at low water ; this edge
is either a mound or consists of jagged rugged points.
c. A fiat of corm rock covered at high water.
d. A projecting ledge of brecciated coral rock washed by the waves at high
water.
e. Loose fragmemts of coral only reached ~by the sea during gales, and its
upper part (6 to 12 feet high) clothed with vegetation.
f . Low water level of the lagoon.
N o t e . The dotted line in the chart marks the limit of shallow water.
: Mr. Da r wi n has d e s c r i b e d e v e r y e x i s t i n g c or a l - r e e f i n ge ogr a -
pl ai eal o r d e r so f ar as he possessed i n f o r ma t i o n ( wi t h t h e e xc e pt i on
DARW1N ON CORAL REEFS. 383
of some on t he coast of Brazil), and has marked t hem on a map
wi t h colours distinguishing t he different kinds. He has t hus
i l l ust rat ed his own hypothesis on t he subject, namely, t hat in bot h
atolls and barri er-reefs, t he foundation on whi ch t he coral was
pri mari l y at t ached has subsided, and t hat duri ng this downward
movement t he reefs have grown upwards.
I n order to gi ve as distinct an idea as possible of t he nat ure of
t he various l~inds of coral reefs, a detailed account is gi ven of one
example charact eri st i c of each cl ass: t he one selected as illus-
t rat i ng t he subject of lagoon islands or " atolls," is Keel i ng Atoll,
of whi ch a reduced chart and vert i cal section are here appended.
The first t hi ng to be observed wi t h regard to t he formation of
these reefs, is, t hat t he living coral animal does not endure ex-
posure to t he rays of t he sun even for a very short t i me; and t hat
consequently it is only at t he out er edge, below t he level of low-
water, t hat t he r eef increases, or at least t hat those species to
which t he gr eat mass of t he r eef is due can exist. The most
abundant coral on this out er edge was found to be t he Porites,
whi ch forms gr eat i rregul arl y rounded masse~ from four to eight
feet broad, and little less in t hi ckness; but a species of Mitlepora
(M. complanata) is also able to resist the fury of t he waves, and
grows in thick vertical plates, intersecting each at her at vari ous
angles, formi ng an ext remel y strong honey-combed mass, whi ch
general l y affects a circular form, t he margi nal plates only being
alive. The corals i nhabi t i ng t he protected crevices on t he out er
reef, and those in t he i nt eri or of t he lagoon, are quite distinct, and
belong to much more delicate varieties.
Fr om soundings t aken outside t he r eef at Keel i ng Atoll, t he
wat er was found to deepen gradual l y for a space bet ween 100 and
200 yar ds wide, but beyond this, t he sides plunge into t he
unfat homabl e ocean at an angle of 45 . To t he depth ~ of 10
or 12 fathoms, t he bottom seems to be, i nvari abl y, living coral ;
between t hat depth and 20 fathoms, about an equal number of
times sand and coral ; but of t went y-fi ve soundings at a gr eat er
depth t han 25 fathoms, every one showed the bottom covered wi t h
sand, t he sand consisting of finely pounded fragment s of st ony
corals. At a distance of a mile and a quar t er from t he breakers
no bottom was found wi t h a line 7200 feet in length, provi ng t hat
t he submari ne slope was gr eat er t han t hat of any volcanic cone.
The char t and section represent a ri ng par t l y formed of small
islets on a coral reef, but i f t he par t above t he level (c), whi ch is
j ust covered at hi gh water, were removed, t here would be a simple
r eef whi ch forms what is essentially t he "atoll," and i t encloses
t he lagoon on all sides, except at t he nort hern end, wher e t here
are t wo open spaces. The r eef varies in wi dt h from 250 to 500
yards ; its surface is level, or ver y slightly inclined Cowards t he
lagoon, and t he islets are first formed bet ween 200 and 300 yar ds
from its out er edge, t hrough t he accumulation of a pile of f r ag-
ments t hr own t oget her by some unusual l y st rong gale. They are
aft erwards increased by t he addition of fragment s on t hei r out er
~4 N~TICES OF NEW BOOKS.~
side, and t he fragment s become in time cemented into a solid mass,
ei t her made up of part i al l y r ounded fragment s of corals of various
sizes, or of calcareous sandstone, formed of a conglomerate in whi ch
t he st ruct ure of t he coral has often become much obscured or
ent i rel y lost.
The i nt eri or of the lagoon is t he next subject t hat requires
notice. I n t he case before us, about hal f its area consists of
sedi ment and hal f of coral reefs ; but t he corals are ver y different
from those on the outside, and are much more delicate. The reefs
also are softer, and increase ver y rapi dl y.
The sediment from t he deepest part s in the lagoon consists of
calcareous sand, and large soft banks o similar mud have been ob-.
served in other atolls. When dry, t hi s mud so closely resembles
chalk, t hat it can scarcely be distinguished from t hat substance.
Lar ge shoals of fishes, and many ot her animals, are found to
feed upon the branches of t he living coral, and t he excrement of
these must constantly produce vast quantities of fine calcareous
mud.
J udgi ng from old chart s of Keel i ng Atoll, the coral polyp has
added much to t he solid mat t er of t he reef wi t hi n a ver y moderate
period, and tlm islets have also great l y increased ; but so far is this
from bei ng the consequence of any general elevation of the land,
t hat t here is good evidence in proof of a small subsidence. At any
rat e, t here i~ evidence here of a severe st ruggl e in progress be-
t ween t he nicely balanced powers of l and and water, and i f left
undi st urbed, it is manifest, t hat t hough t he islets may increase,
and t he lagoon become part l y filled up, t he general increase sea-
wards, and even t he final conversion of t he lagoon into land, must
necessarily be exceedingly slow.
Keel i ng Atoll may be t aken as a fai r exampl e of the very
numerous rings of coral reefs and coral islands in t he Pacific and
I ndi an Oceans ; but many of t hem are much l arger, and some, on
t he ot her hand, exceedingly small, and t he nat ure of the sub-
mari ne slope is, in t he great maj ori t y of cases, similar. But aI-
t hough such is t he case, general l y, t here are two exceptions so
remarkabl e, t hat some special notice is due to them. These ex-
ceptions consist of t he reefs whi ch form t he Maldive Archipelago,
and t hose which compose t he great Chagos Bank.
The Mal di ve Archi pel ago is 470 miles in length, wi t h an
aver age breadt h of about 50 miles, t he dimensions of t he largest
atoll are 88 miles by 20, and like t he other l arger ones, it is
breached by numerous deep-wat er channels leading into the la-
goon. The separate portions of t he r eef between these channels
are, in many cases, especially in t he more nort hern atolls, t rue
ri ng-shaped atolls differing only frcom those in t he open sea by
being based on a shallow foundation, and grouped closely together
on one l arge platform, wi t h t he margi nal rings, formi ng the ex-
t ernal atoll, arranged in a rudel y formed circle. The lagoons in
t he atolls of this l arge group are from 10 to 20 fathoms deeper in
t he southern t han in t he nort hern part . I t is observed in this
DARWIN ON CORAL REEFS. 385
group, as in atolls generally, that the channel is generally situated
on the side least exposed to the prevailing winds and the heavy
seas.
It appears, with regard to the islets formed in this group, t hat
some of them have come into existence as land only within a few
years, while others are fast wearing away.
The great Chagos Bank is described by Capt. Moresby, as " a
half-drowned atoll." Its longer axis is about 90 miles, and it is
70 miles in width across the broadest park The central part
consists of a level muddy flat between 40 and 50 fathoms deep,
surrounded on all sides, with the exception of some breaches, by
the steep edges of a set of sand-banks, varying in breadth from 5
to 12 miles, and rudely arrangedi n a circle. These banks are about
16 fathoms beneath the surface, and are bordered by a rim about a
mile wide, consisting of smooth hard rock, and only about 5 or l 0
fathoms beneath the surface. At the distance of half a mile from
one part of this rim, no bottom was found with 190 fathoms, and
off another point, none with 210 fathoms. The circumstances
and cause of this submerged condition will require subsequent
consideration.
Bar r i e r reefs resemble, in general form of structure, the atoll
reef~ already described, but they inclose l~:nd and a lagoon channel
instead of a lagoon or mere sheet of water. They are, however,
sometimes of vast dimensions, one on the west coast of :New
Caledonia being 400 miles in length and upwards of eight leagues
from the shore,, and the Australian barrier extending along the
eastern and north-eastern coast of that vast island for nearly a
thousand miles, its average distance from the coast being between
20 and 30 miles. It is observed in many of these reefs that
the coral banks rise from far greater depths than the animal can
exist in, and the living corals form a comparatively small proportion
of the whole amount.
Fri ngi ng or shore reefs differ from barrier reefs, as has been
already stated, by the absence of a lagoon channel and by the close
relation in their horizontal extension with the probable slope be-
neath the sea of the adjoining land. The reefs round the island
of Mauritius offer a good example of this-class ; and here, as in
barrier reefs, the reef is breached by a straight passage in front of
every river and streamlet. ~
Many islands are fringed by reefs of this kind, but where the
sea deepens rapidly, the reef~ are narrow, often not more than
50 or 100 yards wide, and they have a nearly smooth hard surface
scarcely uncovered at low water, and without an interior shoal
channel. Thei r dimensions and structure, in fact, depend entirely
* Thi s pecul i ar i t y is expl ai ned af t er war ds by Mr . Dar wi n, and an account . i s
gi ven of ot her causes unf avour abl e t o t he advance of t he coral ani mal , but i t is
st at ed t hat one of t hese f r i ngi ng reefs, i f el evat ed in a perfect condi t i on above
t he level of t he sea, ought t o pr esent t he si ngul ar appear ance of a br oad dr y
moat wi t hi n a l ow mound. Thi s, however, woul d be gr eat l y modi f i ed by the
act i on of t he sea dur i ng t he el evat i on. ( See p. . 54. )
VOL. I. C C
386
NOTI CES OF NE W BOOKS.
on t he degree of inclination of t he submari ne slope, conjoined
wi t h t he fact, t hat reef-building polyps can only exist at limited
depths ; so t hat , where t he sea is shallow, t hey lose their fri ngi ng
character, and appear as separate and i rregul arl y scattered patches,
often of considerable area. These reefs also are generally higher
and more perfect on the out er side, assuming t he appearance of
atolls, owing to t he more vigorous growt h of t he coral where most
exposed. They differ, however, from atolls in being less deep, in
havi ng t hei r form less defined, and in being based on a shallow
foundation.
Coral reefs are, for the most par t confined to t he tropical seas,
but ext end as far as latitude 32 15' 1~. (at t he Bermuda islands),
and on t he western shores of Aust ral i a to 29 S.
They do not seem to be influenced by the presence or absence
of volcanic centres, but are t ot al l y absent in certain large districts
within t he tropical seas, and this apparent l y capricious distribution
cannot be explained by any obvious causes. I t seems beyond a
doubt t hat t he strongest and most massive corals flourish best
where most exposed, while t he presence of mud and sand, and of
bracki sh or fresh water, is hi ghl y i nj uri ous Different species
abound in each of the different zones of depth, and in the case of
some reefs t here is no new mat eri al added above t he lowest level
which t he wat er attains ; although, in others, t he growt h continues
to hi gh wat er mark. There is also a fact of singular interest and
importance wi t h regard to this point in the occasional submerged
reefs in t he Chagos Bank and elsewhere, which, in some instances,
appear to have remained stationary for a ver y long period, and
have no t endency to grow upwards. I t is supposed by the aut hor
t hat , in their case the whole group of reefs has subsided some
seven or eight fathoms, so t hat the species building near the sur-
face were destroyed, and ot her species preferri ng this depth having
succeeddd to them, there is now little tendency to grow upwards.
There is, at any rate, no equal tendency to grow upwards in all
coral reefs, but t hei r growt h is unequal and dependent on circum-
stances,
There is no doubt t hat coral, under favourable conditions of
growth, increases to an enormous extent, and ver y r api dl y; and
although there are many instances on record of reefs which have
not increased for many years, t her e are others telling a very dif-
ferent tale. The case of Mat i l da Atoll, described by Captain
Beechey, is quoted as an exampl e of this l at t er kind, this atoll
havi ng been converted in 34 years from being a r eef of rocks into
a lagoon island, 14 miles in length, wi t h one of its sides covered
nearl y all t he way wi t h hi gh trees. Some experi ment s are also
mentioned in which it has been attempted to measure the rat e of
increase of different kinds of corals, and as one of t he results of
these is an instance of a growt h two feet thick of coral accumu-
lated on the copper bottom of a vessel in t he course of t went y
months.
Careful exami nat i on by soundings, t oget her wi t h such other
observations as can be made on t he subject, all unite in proving
DAR~ VI N ON CORAL R E E F S . 387
t hat the reef-building coral animal does not general l y live at a
great er depth t han about t hi r t y fathoms, and this is not invalidated
by the fact t hat living specimens have been found occasionally at
much gr eat er depth. The great est depths at whi ch t he ordi nary
species grow appear to be those of t he more nort hern part s of t he
Red Sea ; but it is well known and has been al ready mentioned,
t hat coral reefs occasionally exhibit a much gr eat er thickness t han
this depth, although t he lower portion is in such cases dead.
Havi ng t hus described the chief phenomena of coral reeih, and
t he circumstances of t hei r growth, t he aut hor enters on t he subject
of t he t heory of t he formation of t he different classes of them, and
shows t he unsound nat ur e of t he t heory most general l y received,
namely, t hat t hey are based on submari ne craters, and also of t he
bet t er t heory of Chamisso, t hat t he out er portions of a reef, being
of t he most vigorous growt h, would first reach t he surface. ~ei t her
of these theories, however, account for bar r i er reefs.
The cause t hat has gi ven to atolls and bar r i er reefs t hei r cha-
racteristic forms, is supposed by Mr. Dar wi n to have been t he
gradual subsidence of portions of t he bed of the ocean over l arge
areas, and is part l y deduced from t he consideration of these two
circumstances, viz. : - - first, t hat reef-building corals flourish only at
limited depths, and, secondly, t hat vast areas are interslbersed wi t h
coral reefs and coral islets, none of whi ch rise to a gr eat er hei ght
above t he level of t he sea t han t hat at t ai ned by mat t er t hrown
up by t he waves and winds. The foundation of each r eef is as-
sumed to have been rocky, but it cannot be t hought probable t hat
the broad summit of a mountain lies buri ed at t he depth of a few
fathoms beneat h every atoll, wi t h no one point of rock projecting
above the surface over such a wide extent, and i t is known t hat
neither t he flat disk of an abraded point, nor any other rocky
foundation, is ever at t he top of t he reef. Besides the evidence
in favour of a subsidence havi ng t aken place, derived from these
and other considerations connected wi t h the general appearance of
t he rocks, ot her evidence is adduced showing t he probability
of this view, which is t hen proved to expl ai n in a ver y simple
manner t he ordi nary phenomena of fri ngi ng reefs, barri ers, and
atolls, and some of the less regul ar forms of t he two great classes
of reefs, and it only remai ns to consider whet her t he actual dis-
tribution of. coral reefs and their rel at i ve condition, agrees wi t h
such a t heory of their formation. A chapt er is added on this sub-
ject, and is gccompanied by a coloured chart of all known coral
reefs and islands, one colour being used to mar k barri er reefs and
atolls, and anot her distinguishing the fri ngi ng reefs which form a
distinct t ype of structure. I n this chart t he difference between
t he atolls and barri er reefs is indicated by t he t i nt ; so t hat the
one colour marks t hose districts in whi ch it is supposed t hat sub-
sidence has t aken place at a slow but steady rate, allowing of t he
gradual accumulation of extensive coral reefs, while t he other
denotes t hat no such change of level to any sensible ext ent haS
tal~en place.
c c ~
388 NOTI CES OF NEW BOOKS.
On exami ni ng t he map wi t h a vi ew to det er mi ne t he val ue of
t he t heor y of subsidence, i t is at once seen, t hat whi l e atolls and
bar r i er reefs are gener al l y near t oget her, t he f r i ngi ng reefs are
ei t her di st ant from these, or i n t he except i onal cases, t her e is i n-
dependent evi dence of osci l l at i ons of l evel have t aken place, sub-
subsi dence havi ng preceded t he el evat i on of t he l at t er, and el eva-
t i on ha vi ng preceded t he subsi dence of t he f or mer class.
Ther e is however some di r ect evi dence i n t he ext er nal appear-
ance, of ma ny of t he atolls t hat subsi dence has t aken pl ace;
fi ssures formed by ear t hquakes and ot her recorded phenomen
suffi ci ent l y pr ovi ng t hat subt er r aneous movement of t hi s ki nd is
i n progress, whi l e, on t he ot her hand, wi t h r egar d to t he f r i ngi ng
reefs, t he y are all si t uat ed i n di st ri ct s wher e el evat i on of t he sur-
face woul d seem to be goi ng on. The Soci et y Isles, and t he
numer ous i sl ands and reefs of t he Low Ar chi pel ago, are r emar k
able i nst ances of subsidence, whi l e t he Sandwi ch I sl ands and t he
Phi l i ppi nes are equal l y s t r i ki ng exampl es of r ecent el evat i on. I t
is wor t hy of not i ce also, t hat in t he vi ci ni t y of t hose areas of sub-
si dence whi ch are mar ked by t he pr esence of coral reefs of t he
bar r i er and atoll ki nd, t her e is a t ot al absence of volcanoes of r ecent
action, whi l e t hey abound i n t he di st ri ct s wher e r i ngi ng reefs occur.
I n conclusion, Mr. Dar wi n di rect s at t ent i on to t he vast ext ent
of t he areas of subsi dence and el evat i on on t he eart h' s surface,
whet her as i ndi cat ed by t he exi st ence of coral reefs, or by t he pl ai n
evi dence of observed appearances. I t seems t hat i n t he space of
ocean ext endi ng from t he sout her n end of t he Low Ar chi pel ago to
t he nor t her n end of Mar shal l Archi pel ago, a l engt h of 4500 miles,
ever y i sl and wi t h one except i on is atoll-formed. ~Vith r egar d to
t he di st r i ct we are told : - -
" Th e east er n and wes t er n boundar i es ( t he cont i nent s of Af r i ca and S.
Ame r i c a ) ar e r i si ng areas, t he cent r al spaces o f t he gr eat I ndi an and Paci fi c
oceans ar e mos t l y subsi di ng ; bet ween t hem, nor t h of Aust r al i a, lies t he mos t
br oke n l and on t he gl obe, and t her e t he r i si ng par t s ar e s ur r ounded and pene-
t r at ed by ar eas of subsi dence, so t hat t he pr evai l i ng move me nt s now in pro-
gress s eem t o accord wi t h t he act ual st at es of sur f ace of t he gr eat divisions of
t he wor l d" Page 143.
Since, t herefore, i t appears, t hat whi l e t he surface of di fferent
ki nds of coral reefs differs but l i t t l e, t he bar r i er r eef or r i ng of
coral sur r oundi ng an i sl and becomi ng an at ol l when t he l and dis-
appears, and bei ng di st i ngui shed from t he f r i ngi ng r eef by t he pre-
sence of a deep wat er l agoon or moat bet ween t he r eef and t he
cent r al expanse ; and si nce also t he coral ani mal is found not to
exi st except at ver y l i mi t ed dept hs compared wi t h t he act ual dept h
of coral i n t he reefs, i t r esul t s t hat N
,, There is no dif~culty respecting the foundations on which fring|ng reefs
are based, while with barrier reef and atolls there is a great apparent difllculty
on this head ; - - in barrier reefs, from the improbability of the rock of the coast
or of banks of sediment extending in every instance so far seaward within the
required depth'; and in atolls, from the immensity of the spaces over which
they are interspersed, and the apparent necessity for believing that they are all
supported on mountain summits, which, although rising very near to the sur-
DXRW~ ON CORAL REEFS. 3 8 9
face l evel of t he sea, in no one i nst ance emer ge above it. To escape t hi s l at t er
most i mpr obabl e admi ssi on, whi ch i mpl i es t he exi st ence of submar i ne chai ns o f
mount ai ns of al most t he same hei ght ext endi ng over areas of ma ny t hous and
squar e miles, t her e is but one al t ernat i ve, namel y, t he pr ol onged subsi dence o f
t he f oundat i ons on whi ch t he at ol l s were pr i mar i l y based, t oget her wi t h t he
upwa r d gr owt h of t he r eef - const r uct i ng corals. On this vi ew ever y di ffi cul t y
vanishes ; f r i ngi ng reefs are t hus conver t ed in bar r i er reefs, and bar r i er reefs,
when enci r cl i ng islands, are t hus conver t ed i nt o at ol l s t he i nst ant t he last pi n-
nacl e of l and sinks beneat h t he surface of t he ocean.
" Fi nal l y, when t he t wo gr eat t ypes of s t r u c t u r e - - t h e bar r i er reefs and
at ol l s on t he one hand, and fri ngi ng-reefs on tile o t h e r - - a r e lald down i n
col our s on t he map, a magr, ificent and har moni ous pi ct ur e of t he movement s
whi ch t he cr ust of t he ear t h has wi t hi n a l at e per i od under gone, is pr esent ed t o
us. We t her e see vast areas rising, wi t h vol cani c mat t er ever y now and t he n
bur s t i ng f or t h t hr ough t he vent s or fissures wi t h whi ch t hey ar e t raversed. We
see ot her wi de spaces sl owl y si nki ng wi t hout any volcanic out bur st s, and we
ma y feel sur e t hat t hi s si nki ng must have been i mmense in amount as wel l as
i n area, t hus to have bur i ed, over t he br oad face of t he ocean, ever y one of t hose
mom~tains above whi ch at ol l s Pow stand, l i ke monument s, mar ki ng t he pl ace o f
t hei r f or mer existence. Ref l ect i ng how power f ul all agent wi t h respect t o de-
nudat i on, and consequent l y t o t he nat ur e and t hi ckness of t he deposi t s i n
accumul at i on, t he sea mus t ever be when act i ng for pr ol onged per i ods on t he
l and dur i ng ei t her its slow emer gence or subsi dence: refl ect i ng also on t h e
final effects of t hese movement s in t he i nt er change of l and and ocean- wat er on
t he cl i mat e of t he eart h, and on t he di st r i but i on of or gani c beings, I may be
pe r mi t t e d t o hope, t hat t he concl usi ons deri ved f r om t he st.udy of coral f or ma-
t i ons, or i gi nal l y at t empt ed mer el y t o expl ai n t hei r pecul i ar f or ms, may be
t hought wor t hy of t he at t ent i on of geol ogi st s. " Pages 146-- 1' t8.
D. T. A.
I I . TRAVELS in NORTH AMERmA, with Geological Observations ou
the UNITED STATES, CANADA, and NOVA SCOTIA. By CHARLES
LYELL, Esq. F. R. S. 2 Vols. 12mo. pp. 588. Map and Pl at es.
So far as regards geology, Mr. Lyell' s work is eminently valu-
able, since it presents a connected view of t he results of a l arge
number of careful surveys of different part s of t he Cont i nent of
Nor t h America, by means of a coloured geological map, in which
the whole amount of information at present known on the subject
of Nor t h Ameri can geology is incorporated. The importance of
this as a means of simplifying and general]sing t he notions of
Engl i sh geologists wi t h regard to t he succession of st rat a on
t he other side of t he At l ant i c, it would be difficult to estimate too
highly.
Mr. Lyel l has also added much to t he knowledge hi t hert o
possessed on t he subject of Ameri can geology by his own i nvest i -
gations in t he field, and in t he present notice we propose to point
out in order t he various geological mat t er s touched on in the
work before us, commencing wi t h t he older rocks, and so ap-
proaching l ast of all to those of newer date. The l at t er indeed,
although perhaps t he most i mport ant , we shall here scarcely
allude to, because, havi ng formed the subject of communications to
the Geological Society, t hey ei t her have been al ready or will be
hereaft er described in gr eat er detail t han even in the book itself
c c 3