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Experiment1:TheHallEffect
Aim:

The aim of this experiment was to first learn about and then use the Hall Effect and collect
conductivity measurements to determine the carrier transport properties (including carrier type,
concentration, and Hall mobility) for the semiconductor sample provided, which in this case was
Germanium (Ge).

Method/Procedure:
`

1. The above figure shows the equipment needed and how needed to be configured for this
experiment. We used the AC/DC power supply to set the current through the Germanium
(Ge) sample to 5mA. We used the oscilloscope to check the transverse voltage, and used the
potentiometer on the Ge sample, to zero out the voltage if a non-zero voltage was recorded.
We also made sure that the Oscilloscope is set to <100mV/div to get a more accurate
reading, and then we tried to zero the crystal to <1mV offset.
2. Ge module sample was connected to the Oscilloscope and AC/DC Power Supply, and placed
in the air gap of the Electromagnet, which in turn was connected to a DC Power Supply (Grey
Box).
3. The current was set to 5mA using the AC/DC Power Supply, and the flux density set to 0.4T
using the DC power supply, to record the hall voltage using the oscilloscope. We used the
DC Power Supply
AC/DC
Ammeter
0-10mA
Oscilloscope
V
Germanium
A
AC/DC Power Supply
Electromagnet
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calibration chart provided to determine which current corresponds to each flux density. We
reduced the flux density to zero in small increments, taking current readings simultaneously.
4. The flux density was set to 0.3T. We set the drift current to 10mA, and recorded the Hall
Voltage. The current was gradually reduced to 0mA, and recorded readings along the way.
5. Ge sample was then removed from electromagnet, and drift current set to 5mA. The drift
voltage,

was measured longitudinally across the sample in order to calculate the plates
resistance.
Error:

There were a number of possible sources of error in this experiment which had to be taken into
account. The absolute error in the Magnetic flux density, drift current and Hall Voltage were noted
and are shown in the results, and also represented graphically with the use of error bars.
Calculations of these errors is shown below:

Magnetic Flux Density
There are two sources of error in the magnetic flux measurement. The first is the limitation in the
reading from the ammeter on the DC power supply, and the second is the error in reading values
from the Calibration Chart for Magnetic Flux to Current.
There error in the ammeter reading is0.005A. Measurements from the calibration chart were
taken with a ruler with the smallest measurement being 1mm, making the absolute error in the ruler
measurement as0.5. From the ammeter reading on the chart, the absolute error is0.2mm.
Thus making the total absolute error measurement from the horizontal axis as0.7mm.
Measuring the magnetic flux, we use the same chart and as the line has a slope at about30. Hence
we can calculate an approximate absolute error of30 0.7 = 0.404. Adding this to the
absolute error from the ruler,0.5mm we get a total absolute error of0.9041mm, or 0.0071T
Drift Current
Error from the drift current is half the minimum unit of measurement obtained from the ammeter in
the DC power supply, which is0.1mA.
Hall Voltage
The absolute error in the Hall voltage is similar to above, half the minimum unit of measurement
obtain from the oscilloscope, which is 0.5mV for the first 8 measurements, and 0.05mV from the
last 2 measurements (different scale).
Data:

Drift Current = I
y
= 5mA 0.1
Plate Dimensions:
Length = d
y
= 15.69mm0.005mm
Width = d
x
= 2.87mm0.005mm
Thickness = d
z
= 0.99mm0.005mm
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The results for the first part of the experiment, Hall Voltage vs. Magnetic Flux Density is shown
below:
Table 1: Hall Voltage vs. Magnetic Flux Density
Reading Magnetic Flux, () Hall Voltage,

()
1 0.40 0.357
2 0.36 0.330
3 0.32 0.316
4 0.28 0.2795
5 0.24 0.257
6 0.20 0.205
7 0.16 0.177
8 0.12 0.133
9 0.08 0.0755
10 0.06 0.0349

The results for the second part of the experiment, where the Flux density was set to
B = 0.3T 0.0071T and the corresponding Hall Voltage recorded:
Table 2: Hall Voltage vs. Drift Current
Reading Drift Current,

() Hall Voltage,

()
1 0.01 0.636
2 0.009 0.566
3 0.008 0.498
4 0.007 0.432
5 0.006 0.367
6 0.005 0.303
7 0.004 0.238
8 0.003 0.177
9 0.002 0.114
10 0.001 0.054
0 0.0073

For the Third part of the experiment, we found that there was a calibration error with the
oscilloscope as when we swapped the leads on the Ge sample module, we obtained to voltages with
opposite signs, but also with different magnitudes. (As there are two results for the Drift voltage, the
absolute error, needs to be multiplied by 2)
Drift Current =

= 5 0.1
Drift Voltage =

=
|17.8|+|20.1|
2
= 18.95 0.05
We can then use Ohms law to find the resistance:
=

Plate Resistance =

=
18.95
0.005
= 3790 = .
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As we are dividing values, the percentage errors need to be added. So we have 0.2638% error in
Voltage measurement, and a 2% error in the current measurement, giving a total of 2.2638% error in
the resistance. Converting this to an absolute error we have 3.79
2.2638
100
= 00858.
So the final result is:
= . .

Treatment/Analysis of Results:

1. Plotting Hall Voltage vs. Flux Density,

. , and determine

The above graph was obtained by using a linear regression.
By using a regressions of the Hall Voltage vs. the Magnetic Flux, we obtained an equation for the line
of best fit going through the points, as well as the origin as when there is no magnetic field, there
should be now voltage. The equation, and thus slope of the line is below:

= 0.645
The equation for the Hall Coefficient is:

= Hall Coefficient (
3
/)

= Hall Field ( )
= Drift Current Density (/
2
)
= Magnetic Flux Density ()

y = 0.9645x
R = 0.9689
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
H
A
L
L

V
O
L
T
A
G
E

(
V
)
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY, B (T)
Hall Voltage vs. Flux Density
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= Hall Voltage (V)

= Width of Germanium Sample (m)

= Thickness of Germanium Sample (m)

Hence we have:

Substituting our slope of the trend line, and values for the width and thickness of the Germanium
sample, we obtained:
0.9645 =

0.005
0.00099

= 0.190971

Taking error into account, we have:
0.1
5
100% = 2% error in
I

0.005
0.99
100 = 0.505% error in
d
z

Giving a total percentage error of 2.5051% and absolute error of 0.0048

in the calculation of

,
hence:

= .

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2. Plotting Hall Voltage vs. Drift Current,

, and again determine

Due to the calibration error in the oscilloscope, we decided to leave the trend line as is, and
avoid regressing through the origin as it would just create more error, and be less accurate to
our results, thus the equation for the linear trend line is:

= 64.141

0.0136
Rearranging the previous equation to fit the above line equation of

, and then
substituting values of flux density, plate dimensions, and slope of the trend line, we have a result
another resistance value of:

64.1409 =

0.3
0.00099

= .

Taking error into account, we have:
0.007091
0.3
100% = 2.634% error in

0.005
0.99
100 = 0.5051% error in
d
z

Giving a total percentage error of 2.634% and absolute error of 0.00607

in the calculation of

,
hence:

= .

y = 64.141x - 0.0136
R = 0.9996
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
-0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012
H
A
L
L

V
O
L
T
A
G
E

(
V
)
DRIFT CURRENT (A)
Hall Voltage vs. Drift Current
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3. Calculate conductivity, carrier type, Hall mobility and doping density of Ge Sample
Carrier Type
The carrier type is determined by a few different factors in this experiment including the direction of
the magnetic field, the drift current and the hall field. The direction of the magnetic field was
determined by observing the direction of the current in the coil around the electromagnet, and using
the right-hand rule to find that the direction of the magnetic field was up through the magnet as
shown below:
From the above diagram and the direction of the magnetic field, we can determine that the drift
current,

, runs in the opposite direction (as can be seen in above diagram), and from the positive
terminal, to the negative terminal, in the direction of the positive y axis. Using the other right-hand
force rule it was determined that the charge carriers, were forced left, in the direction of the
negative x axis. The hall coefficients were positive, and hence the accumulated charge must be near
the negative terminal (if negative), and positive terminal (if positive), the dominant charge carriers
are therefore electrons (negatively charged), making the Germanium sample n-type.
Conductivity
Using the dimensions of the Ge plate as well as the plate resistance previously calculated, we can
find the resistivity, :
=

As conductivity is the inverse of the resistivity we have:
Conductivity = =
1

=
0.01569
(0.00099 0.00287) 3.79 10
3
= 1.457
1

1

Including the sources of error previously calculated we must add these percentage errors, and then
convert to an absolute error to obtain:
2.264 +0.0319 +0.505 +0.174 = 2.974% = 0.0432
Giving a final expression of:
= = .

M
a
g
n
e
t
i
c

F
i
e
l
d



+

Force
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Hall Mobility
The Hall mobility (

) refers to the ease of which the carrier of a charge moves through a given
material. The Hall mobility is determined primarily using the Hall coefficient. As we have two
calculated values, to calculate the Hall mobility of the Ge sample it is more accurate to take the Hall
coefficient that was calculated with the lowest discrepancy between the created trend line and plot
points. As can be seen from the graph of Hall Voltage vs. Drift Current, the trend line is a much
better fit than the Hall Voltage vs. Magnetic Flux Graph. Hence using the

value from the graph in

question 2 is the most accurate for calculating the Hall Mobility. So we have:
=

= 0.212 1.457 = 0.309

2


Including the error also previously calculated we have a total of 5.844% error, or:
=

= .

Doping Density
Doping Density is given by the equation below, and substituting the same Hall Coefficient as above,
and incorporating the sources of error, we have:
=
1

=
1
0.212 1.602 10
19

Error comes to:
0.0312 +2.87 = 2.901%
= = .

Discrepancies with expectations of Germanium
The expectation for Germanium is that its intrinsic carrier concentration (for un-doped Ge),

is
2.4 10
19

3
. (Silicon Far East 2004)
The carrier concentration, that was calculated from over values in this experiment was
approximately 1.23 times greater than this intrinsic carrier concentration.
Since >

, this is consistent with the previous determination that the Ge sample is an n-type,
however the difference between them is not specifically large. This discrepancy, may be due to the
doping level, as the concentration of donor ions may be quite minimal, creating a smaller carrier
concentration. There were also other possible error sources from the equipment used (mainly the
oscilloscope) and the data provided.
The mobility of the charge carriers in a material can be measured in terms of both the Hall and drift
mobility of a given sample. Hence, the calculate value for Hall mobility can be compared to the
expected value of Ge (Silicon Far East 2004).



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This is shown below:
Expected
D
= 0.39

2


Calulated
D
= 0.309

2


Comparison

H

=
0.309
0.39
= .
As can be seen our value for the Hall Mobility is 0.792 times smaller than the expected value. This
comes back to the carrier concentration, and because the carrier concentration of this n-type
substance was not as high as expected, the mobility of the holes in this Ge may have a lower
mobility, and be the cause of this overall lower Hall Mobility.

Potential Sources of Error
As can be expected in any experiment, there were many sources for error, ranging from limitations
in the equipment, to basic human error. All of the equipment used including the ammeters on the
power supplies and the oscilloscope all had limitations in the measurements given (most of which
have been accounted for).
As can be seen from the first graph in question 1 of Hall Voltage vs. Magnetic Flux Density, the trend
line doesnt go through many points, and an inaccurate relationship exists between them. This can
come down to a few different factors.
As stated previously the Calibration Chart that we had to read off had many potential
sources of error as there were no increments to read off, and the only way to get values of
current and magnetic flux, was to use a ruler and then interpolate to find points.
The differences in the permanent moment of the magnet may cause some discrepancies in
the calibration values of the magnet that also could have affected the result.
When we set the settings for the oscilloscope to try get an accurate reading, we had to zero the
crystal to a less than a 1mV offset. This could have created some sources of error if the crystal was
not close enough to a 1mv offset.

Conclusion:
This experiment was completed well, and the pattern of results suggests that our data is fairly
accurate, but does have a few discrepancies, most of which have been explained, although we
understand that there are other sources of error. The values obtained for Germanium including, hall
mobility, carrier concentration, and conductivity are similar to the expected values, but do not
completely match the expected values.
There were a few ways that could have been used to increase the accuracy of our concentration and
mobility values of germanium, or the Hall Coefficients calculated including improving the accuracy of
reading the calibration chart or using a different method of determining the flux density, or conduct
multiple trials and obtain an average to get more accurate data. However, overall it was a successful
experiment.
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Additional Research Component - Hall Devices:

Hall Sensor
Hall Effect devices are used for exploring the basic electronic properties of semi-conductor materials
(Popovic 2004). The most common device that applies the concepts of the Hall Effect is a Hall Sensor,
or Hall Switch. The sensor is a device that detects the presence of a magnetic field. It is used in a
variety of industrial applications as well as automotive vehicles.

When there is a current source, and a magnetic field that are perpendicular to each other, there is a
forces created (Lorentz Force) that creates a hall field orthogonal to the current and field. A switch
will turn on due to the creation of a potential difference.
Advantages of a Hall Switch is (Hall-Effect Sensor Application, n.d.):
The sensors are not affected by the presence of natural distractions, i.e. dirt and water.
There is also no contact between the magnetic field and the material, so the components of
the switch are not prone to wear and tear
Hall-Effect sensors are capable of switching at higher frequencies then other inductive or
capacitive sensors because of the presence of the Lorentz Force. This effect requires less
time than an oscillator takes to build up the magnetic or static field. At higher frequencies,
and inductive or capacitive sensor output begins to distort the signal while a Hall Sensors
output remains clean and undistorted. There are capable of switching at 100KHz
Disadvantages of a Hall Switch:
There are two common disadvantages of a Hall Sensor. Firstly that readings are often
inaccurate if there is an unwanted magnetic field surrounding the sensor
The second disadvantage is that the Hall Voltage produced is often very small and is required
to be amplified if needed.
Applications of a Hall-Effect Sensor:
Automotive Ignition System In an automotive ignition system, some blades are mounted
on the distributor shaft so that a sensor can generate a trigger pulse as the crankshaft
rotates. The signal is used for ignition timing. The purpose of these blades is to disrupt the
flux lines for the electromagnet that will be past to the Hall Sensor
Other applications include Magnetic Pistons and also office equipment such as a Printer
Cover
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References:

Hyperphysics 2000, Hall Effect. Available from: http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/%20magnetic/hall.html. [5 April 2013].
Popovic, R S 2004, Hall Effect Devices, IOP Publishing, London
Parish, G 2013, Electronic Materials and Devices, Lecture Notes ENSC3014, the University of
Western Australia, Crawley 2013
Silicon Far East 2004, Properties of Si, Ge, and GaAs at 300K. Available from:
http://www.siliconfareast.com/sigegaas.htm. [4th April 2013].
Bartelt, T n.d., Hall-Effect Sensor Application. Available from: <http://www.wisc-
online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=IAU7607>. [5 April 2013].