Areviewonmicrowave baking of foods

Gu lu mSumnu
Middle East Technical University, Food Engineering Department, 06531Ankara,Turkey
(Received1October1999; Accepted in revised form19 October 2000)
Summary Microwaves interact withpolar molecules and chargedparticles of foodtogenerateheat.There
are differences between the heating mechanisms of microwave and conventional heating. The
use of microwave heating has the advantage of saving energy and time, improving both nutri-
tional qualityand acceptabilityof some foods by consumers. Microwave ovens are successfully
used both in homes and in the food service industry. However, there are still problems in per-
fecting microwave baking, therefore it is a popular research area. The main problems found to
occur in microwave-bakedfoodproducts are lowvolume, toughor firmtexture, lackof brown-
ing and flavour development. Recent studies aim to improve the quality of microwave-baked
products. This article reviews the basic principles of microwave baking, problems commonly
occurring in microwave-bakedproducts andfinallystudies published concerning microwave-
baked products.
Keywords Bread, browning, cake, microwave-baked products.
Introduction
Microwave food processes offer a lot of advantages
such as less start-up time, faster heating, energy effi-
ciency, space savings, precise process control, selec-
tive heating and food with high nutritional quality
(Decareau &Peterson, 1986).Today there is a micro-
wave generation of consumers and 95%of all house-
holds in the US own at least one microwave oven.
There are also a high concentration of microwave
ovens in Canada, several European countries, Japan
and Australia. There is a large market for microwave
foods and one of the potentially important growth
areas is microwave-baked products which have, so
far, been disappointing for consumers. Quality pro-
blems associatedwith microwave baking include re-
duced height of the product, dense or gummy
texture, crumb hardness and an undesirable moist-
ure gradient along a vertical axis in the final baked
product (Bell & Steinke, 1991). One of the reasons
for these problems is that physicochemical changes
and interactions of major ingredients, which would
normally occur over a lengthy baking period in a
conventional system, can not always be completed
during the short baking period of a microwave sys-
tem (Hegenbert, 1992). Other reasons are the differ-
ences between microwave and other heating
mechanisms and specific interactions of each com-
ponent in the formulation with microwave energy
(Goebel et al., 1984).Yin &Walker (1995) stated that
the reasons for quality changes in microwave-baked
breads were insufficient starch gelatinization, mi-
crowave-induced gluten changes and rapidly gener-
ated gas and steamcaused by the heating mode.
The biggest difference between convection ovens
and microwave ovens is the inability of the micro-
wave ovens to induce browning. The cool ambient
temperature inside a microwave oven causes surface
cooling of microwave-baked products and low sur-
face temperature prevents Maillard browning reac-
tions from being formed, these are responsible for
the production of many flavoured and coloured
compounds (Decareau, 1992; Hegenbert, 1992).
Brown surfaces, produced by the Maillard reaction
and caramelization of sugars, are a result of high
temperatures accompanied by dehydration (Burea
et al., 1987).
The short microwave baking time may also influ-
ence flavour development, as the flavour compounds
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2001, 36, 117^127 117
2001Blackwell Science Ltd
Correspondent: Fax: 190 312 2101270;
e-mail: gulum@metu.edu.tr
may not have the opportunity to develop as they
would under conventional baking. Microwave en-
ergy causes different flavour components to become
completely volatilized at different rates and in differ-
ent proportions than occurs during conventional
heating. It was also found that different chemical re-
actions take place during microwave cooking as op-
posed to conventional cooking; in this way different
flavours are produced. These flavours may not taste
bad, however the goal of microwave technology has
been to match the known, conventionally prepared
flavour profile (Hegenbert, 1992).
Thus, the mechanismand the speed of microwave
heating is a major problemin the formulation of ba-
kery products. Additional product development will
be necessary in order to formmicrowave-baked sys-
tems that will have the same volume, texture and eat-
ing quality as those associated with conventionally
preparedones. Because starch is the primary consti-
tuent of bakery products it is logical to assume that
the understanding starch behaviour will play an im-
portant role in the improvements in this area. This
reviewdiscusses various aspects of baking with mi-
crowave energy.
Principles of microwave heating
The major mechanisms of microwave heating of
foods involve orientation polarization and interfa-
cial (space charge) distribution. Some dielectric ma-
terials contain permanent dipoles that tend to
reorient under the influence of alternating fields,
thus causing orientation polarization (Metaxas &
Meredith, 1983). Heat is generated because of the in-
abilityof rotating molecules tokeep pace withthe al-
ternating field. Because of its dipolar nature, water,
the major constituent of most food products, is the
main source of microwave interactions with food
materials. Interfacial distribution arises owing to
the charge build up in the interfaces of components
in heterogeneous systems (Metaxas & Meredith,
1983). In interfacial distribution any charged parti-
cles in foods will experience a force alternating at
the rate of microwave frequency. The net force will
accelerate the particle in one direction and then in
the opposite. The accelerated particle collides with
adjacent particles and heat is generatedby this colli-
sion (Buffler, 1993). For microwave heating the en-
ergy equation includes a heat generation term:
@T
@t
X
2
T
Q
C
p
1
whereT is temperature, t is time, a is thermal diffu-
sivity, r is density, C
p
is specific heat of the material
and Qis the heat generatedper unit volume of mate-
rial.
The heat generated per volume of material per
time (Q) represents the conversion of electromag-
netic energy. Its relationship to the electric field in-
tensity (E) at that location can be derived from
Maxwell's equations of electromagnetic waves as
shown by Metaxas &Meredith (1983):
Q 2
0

00
fE
2
2
where the magnetic losses of the food material have
been ignored. e
0
is the dielectric constant of free
space, e0 is the dielectric loss factor of the food, f is
the frequencyofoven and Eis the electric field inten-
sity.
The driving forces for heat and mass transfer
when a food is heated by microwave differ from con-
ventional methods. In foods heated by microwave,
time^temperature profiles within the product are
caused by internal heat generation owing to the ab-
sorption of electrical energy from the microwave
field and heat transfer by conduction, convection
and evaporation (Mudgett, 1982). The surface tem-
perature of a food heated by microwave energy is
cooler than the interior because of the lackof ambi-
ent heat and the cooling effects of evaporation (Dec-
areau, 1992). Aporous media was found to be hotter
in the inside when heated by microwaves and hotter
on the outside when heated by convection (Wei
et al., 1985a, 1985b). Compared to conventional
heating, moisture flows, owing to concentration
and pressure gradients, are uniquely and signifi-
cantly altered during microwave heating. The extent
to which each of these is affected in a particular si-
tuation is difficult to extract from the literature. Re-
latively large amounts of internal heating seem to
result in increased moisture vapour generation in-
side a solid food material, which creates significant
internal pressure and concentration gradients (Dat-
ta, 1990).
Food properties affecting microwave baking
Dielectric properties and penetration depth are the
electrical properties which play an important role
118 Review of microwave baking G. Sumnu
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2001, 36, 117^127 2001Blackwell Science Ltd
in improving the quality of microwave-baked pro-
ducts. The dielectric properties can be divided into
the dielectric constant and the dielectric loss factor.
These properties reflect the ability of a material to
store and dissipate electrical energy respectively
(Mudgett, 1982). Knowledge of the dielectric prop-
erties of food materials is essential for proper under-
standing of the heating pattern during microwave
baking of foods, these properties depend on fre-
quency, moisture content, bulkdensityand tempera-
ture of the food (Calay et al., 1995).
Data are available on dielectric properties of var-
ious foods (Bengtsson & Risman1971, Tinga &Nel-
son, 1973; Buffler, 1993). However, dielectric data are
limited on individual components such as starches,
which are, in fact, the main component of baked
products.
Nelson et al. (1991) showed that dielectric proper-
ties of potato starch changed with moisture content
and temperature. Dielectric properties of potato
starch in both gelatinized and granular form were
compared at 25 8C for solutions having 40^100%
water andgelatinizedstarchwas showntohave high-
er loss factor values than the granular form (Roe-
buck et al., 1972). Ryyna nen et al. (1995) showed
that the dielectric constant and its loss factor of po-
tato, wheat, corn and waxy corn starch solutions at
lowconcentrations (5^30%) decreasedwith increas-
ing temperatures and increasing starch concentra-
tions. Dielectric properties were determined for
tapioca, corn, wheat, rice, waxy maize and amylo-
maize starches in granular and solution forms at dif-
ferent temperatures (Ndife et al., 1998a) and were
shown to be dependent on temperature, moisture
content and starch type. Dielectric constant and the
loss factor of granular starches increasedwhile those
of starch solutions decreased with temperature in-
crease.Wheat, corn andrice starches hadhigher loss
factors than the other starches and could be used in
microwave bakery products where incomplete gela-
tinization is a problem.
Penetration depth is defined as the distance from
the surface of material at which the power drops to
1/e from its value at the surface shown in equation 3
(Metaxas &Meredith, 1983).
Z

0
22
0

0:5
1

00

0

2
" #
0:5
1
8
<
:
9
=
;
0:5
3
where Z is the penetration depth (cm), l
0
is
the
wave-
length in free space, e9 is the dielectric constant and
e0 is the dielectric loss factor.
This equation indicates that penetration depth in-
creases with decreasing frequency. Ingeneral the pe-
netration depth at frequencies below 100 MHz
presents little problems for penetration unless the
loss factors are high. At frequencies near micro-
wave-heating regimes the penetration depth is smal-
ler, and often the size of the material to be treated is
many times larger than the penetration depth and
microwave heating may result in non-uniformities
in temperature distribution (Metaxas & Meredith,
1983).
The relative magnitudes of penetration depth and
sample size determine the uniformity of heating. If
the penetration depth is much larger than the sam-
ple size there will be little variation inthe rate of heat
fromsurface to the interior of food and the resulting
heating will be uniform (Datta, 1990).When the pe-
netration depth is much less than the sample size
heating will be restrictedto near the surface andwill
be non-uniform. In the extreme case of a very small
penetration depth, non-uniform profiles, typical of
conventional heating, would be expected.
Specific heat is often a neglectedparameter in mi-
crowave heating but it should have an overriding ef-
fect especially for foods that have a low dielectric
constant such as fats and oils. It is generally believed
that oil samples heat faster thanwater samples of the
same mass (Barringer et al., 1994). Specific heat can
cause a material with a low dielectric constant to
heat well in the microwave field (Schiffmann, 1986).
However, it was shown that for sufficiently large and
thick samples oil may heat faster in a microwave
oven than does water of the same mass. However,
the trendwas not true in smaller samples (Barringer
et al., 1994). These workers proposed that micro-
wave heating rates of large samples were dependent
on specific heat while dielectric properties became
significant in small samples. Studies on specific heat
of starches coupled to electrical properties may be
helpful in elucidating the baking mechanism in the
microwave oven. Lelievre (1992) showed that there
was a change in heat capacity during gelatinization
of starch. Specific heat of corn starch^sucrose^
water systems increased with the increase of moist-
ure, sucrose content or temperature (Sopade & Le-
grys, 1991). The specific heat capacity of corn starch
was found to be similar to rice starch and higher
than wheat starch (Ndife et al., 1998b).
Review of microwave baking G. Sumnu 119
2001Blackwell Science Ltd International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2001, 36, 117^127
Comparisonof microwave baking with
conventional baking
Baking is a complex process that brings about a ser-
ies of physical, chemical andbiochemical changes in
foodsuchas gelatinizationof starch, denaturation of
protein, liberation of carbon dioxide from leavening
agents, volume expansion, evaporation of water,
crust formation and browning reactions. It can be
described as a simultaneous heat and mass transfer
within the product and with the environment inside
the oven.
During conventional baking heat is transferred,
mainly by convection, from the heating media and
by radiation from oven walls to the product surface
followed by conduction to the centre (Sablani et al.,
1998). There is also conduction from the product
container and convection in the product by the
movement of water vapour as the temperature rises.
In microwave ovens heat is generated by the interac-
tion of microwaves with charged particles and polar
molecules. After the heat is generated conduction
takes place. Because the time of heating is very fast
inthe microwave oventhere may not be enough time
for either starch gelatinization, starch conversion by
enzymes or enough expansion of dough/batter and
final setting of the dough/batter into a rigid crumb
structure. The net result is low quality microwave-
baked products. Moisture movement during micro-
wave heating of solid moist food materials is consid-
ered to result from pressure and concentration
gradients. Positive pressures generated inside a food
material increase the flow of vapour and liquid
through the food to the surface. Evaporation at the
surface is more important in microwave heating
than in conventional heatingbecause more moisture
moves fromthe interior (Datta, 1990).
Pei (1982) has classified conventional baking into
four baking stages:
(a) formation of white crust;
(b) heat transmission from crust to interior;
(c) gelatinization or cooking process, and
(d) browning.
Usually a microwave oven at 2450 MHz is used in
baking applications. Microwave heating eliminates
the first stage given above. In conventional baking
bread dough has many air inclusions, which are
good insulators, and heat transfer into these materi-
als is very difficult and slow. However, because mi-
crowave baking has a different heat transfer
mechanismthe insulationproblemis reduced, parti-
cularly in stage b from above, by means of penetra-
tion of microwaves inside the bread. The
temperature of the microwave-baked product rises
rapidly to the cooking stage of the conventional bak-
ing process. So the overall baking time is shortened.
Pei (1982) reported that if microwave ovens replace
conventional ovens onlyone third of the baking time
would be necessary. Because the first stage is elimi-
nated in the microwave oven the crust will not form
at all. Foods baked in a microwave oven typically do
not brown as its surface does not reach temperatures
required for caramelization and Maillard browning
reactions.
During microwave baking, individual flavour
components are subjected to losses through distilla-
tion, flavour binding by starches and proteins and
chemical degradation. Possible solutions to these
problems include substitution of modified starches
by low amylose starches, thus eliminating the num-
ber of potential binding sites (Osnabrugge, 1989).
Special flavours, developed for microwave-baked
products, can be used to improve the final taste of
the product. Flavours added to microwave systems
must supply not only a characteristic attribute such
as lemon, butter or vanillabut also the typical baked
taste given by the Maillard reactions and carameli-
zation of sugars (Steinke et al., 1989). Analysis of
white cake batter, microwave-baked cake and con-
ventionally-baked cake revealed that diacetyl, C
4
^
C
10
aldehydes, C
4
^C
10
alcohols and C
8
^C
11
dienals
were common. Microwave cake appeared to lack
many of the nutty, brown and caramel type aromas
observed in the conventional cake and was more si-
milar to batter (Whorton &Reineccius, 1990).
Owing tothe differences betweenthe mechanisms
of microwave and conventional baking the products
baked in the microwave oven have inferior quality.
However microwave baking has some advantages:
(1) microwave baking provides a final product with
higher nutritive value than conventional baking
(Tsen et al., 1977; Tsen, 1980);
(2) baking times are reduced to a few minutes and
energy cost is less, and
(3) microwave equipment requires less space.
Therefore developing high quality microwave-baked
products represents a challenge to food technolo-
gists. Because starch is the primary constituent of
most bakery products, a thorough understanding of
the effects of microwaves on starch will play an im-
120 Review of microwave baking G. Sumnu
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2001, 36, 117^127 2001Blackwell Science Ltd
portant role in improving the quality of microwave-
baked goods.
With this aim in mind the effects of microwave
and conventional heating on microstructural char-
acteristics of starch gelatinization were determined
by light microscopy or scanning electron micro-
scopy (Goebel et al., 1984; Huang et al., 1990; Pra-
kash, 1991). Wheat starch samples heated
conventionally were found to be structurally more
uniform when compared to those heated by micro-
waves (Goebel et al., 1984). Each combination of
particular starch water ratios and heating patterns
resulted in characteristic gelled and nongelled re-
gions that could be observed visually. Swelling pat-
terns of starch granules were different in potatoes
heated by microwave oven and by conduction
(Huang et al., 1990). Conversely, no differences in
gelatinization pattern or gel structure were found in
samples heated by microwave and conventional
heating by other researchers (Zylema et al., 1985;
Prakash, 1991). Starch type was found tobe a signifi-
cant factor affecting the rate of gelatinization in mi-
crowave ovens (Ndife et al., 1998b). An example is
the gelatinization of corn starch, determined by dif-
ferential scanning calorimetry, which was found to
be significantly lower and slower than wheat and
rice starch. The low dielectric loss factor and high
thermal properties (specific heat and gelatinization
enthalpy) of corn starchwould account for its slower
rate of gelatinization in comparison to wheat and
rice starch.Wheat and rice starches might not show
such poor starch gelatinization in microwave-baked
products.
The effects of microwave and conventional heat-
ing on water mobility of a starch^gluten and water
mixture was investigated by nuclear magnetic reso-
nance (Umbach et al., 1992). The effects of heating
were made evident by a decrease in self diffusion
coefficient values indicating an increased binding
and redistribution of water between starch and glu-
ten. Not much difference was seen between conven-
tional and microwave heating.
Achievement of browning in microwave-
baked products
The problem that has been previously highlighted,
that microwave baking gives a relatively low food
surface temperature and the low surrounding tem-
peratures do not enable the browning reactions to
occur, also causes dough products, which are ex-
pected to be crisp and brown after baking, to be-
come soggy. When heated for a longer period they
become dry and brittle but never brown. In order to
achieve browning and crisping reactions the food
surface has to reach at least 150 8C(Sheppard, 1989).
One commercial approach to solve this problem
has been the use of susceptor lids manufactured by
different companies such as Advanced Deposition
Technologies Inc. (Taunton, USA) and Trykko Pack
A/S (Esbjerg, Denmark). Susceptors consist of me-
tallized plastic filmlaminated to paperboard on top
of which, or within which, the product is placed.
They absorb microwave energy and convert it into
heat which is transferred to the product by conduc-
tion or radiation creating localized areas of high
temperature on the food surface. The temperature
of the susceptor may reach 200^260 8C. The high
temperature achieved evaporates the water and
crisps andbrowns the product (Zuckerman &Miltz,
1992). The rate at which susceptors heat up depends
primarily on electrical properties. For susceptors
the most commonly used parameter to describe
electrical properties is its surface resistivity.
Salt and colouring compounds, sometimes mixed
with fats and sugars, have also been used to raise the
surface temperature of the product to obtain some
degree of browning.The MRI phase mapping meth-
od showed that the addition of salt increased the en-
ergy absorption near the surface leading to a higher
temperature (Nott et al., 1999). Pfizer Specialty
Chemicals (New York, USA) has developed a
browning agent that develops a brown colour on
food surfaces during microwave heating (Fellenz &
Moppett, 1991). This browning agent when applied
to the surface of foods provides only a slightly
browned appearance prior to heating. This further
develops into a desirable rich brown baked appear-
ance during microwave baking. The same food, if
heated in the conventional oven, will also develop a
desirable brown colour. The browning agent is an
emulsion formulation. The browning agent does not
impart flavour to baked food and can be used in var-
ious breads.
The combination of microwave and forced con-
vection heating does give a typical surface browning
and flavour development in microwave-baked pro-
ducts (Decareau, 1992). Impingement systems have
also been designed for combination heating with
microwaves to achieve browning in baked products.
Review of microwave baking G. Sumnu 121
2001Blackwell Science Ltd International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2001, 36, 117^127
Impingement is the process of directing jets of fluid
at the surface to accelerate the surface heating (Ova-
dia & Walker, 1998). Rapid microwave baking of the
product interior can be matched by the rapid impin-
gement baking of the crust. Moreover, higher eva-
porative moisture loss inherent to microwave
baking might be reduced by the crust formed by im-
pingement baking. Phase control which is a novel
method of microwave heating canbe used to control
heating rates and temperature distribution in the
product (Bows et al., 1999). Because this method of-
fers opportunities for direct control of microwave
field and the consequent temperature distribution it
may, in the future, be used during baking of foods to
achieve browning.
Relativelylittle has beenpublished inthe scientific
literature about the browning phenomena in micro-
wave-baked products. It has been reported that
browning of the dough using susceptors during mi-
crowave baking followed a first order reaction
(Zuckerman & Miltz, 1997). The temperature of the
dough at the dough susceptor interface in a micro-
wave oven increased logarithmically with time and
was a function of the weight and dimensions of the
product (Zuckerman &Miltz, 1995).
Microwave-baked products
Microwave cakes
Common complaints about microwave cakes are the
low volumes and the tough textures achieved. Most
of the researchers used model systems tounderstand
the effects of ingredients on the mechanism of mi-
crowave baking (Baker et al., 1990a; Lambert et al.,
1992; Sumnu, 1997). Baker et al. (1990a) compared
the effects of different types of emulsifiers and su-
crose on temperature profiles of batter formulations
heated by microwave or conventional heat sources
and found that temperature profiles differed more
based on the heating mode than on the formulation
variation. The cake structure appeared more vari-
able in conventionally baked cakes than in micro-
wave-baked cakes as a function of the formulation
change. The air-cell structure was found to be the
most uniform for crystalline sucrose cakes that are
heated by microwave energy (Baker et al., 1990a).
Lambert et al. (1992) found that temperature gradi-
ents were smaller in leavened systems than unlea-
vened systems during microwave baking of model
cakes. Baker et al. (1990b) reported that the direc-
tion of temperature gradients in cakes baked in mi-
crowave ovens depended on whether the pan
material was glass or metal. Cakes baked in glass
pans in microwave and conventional ovens had si-
milar cross sectional areas and weight losses com-
pared to ones baked in metal pans.
Many people have the perception that products
are drier after microwave heating. Moisture loss
rates of cakes baked in microwave oven were found
tobe greater than the ones baked in convection oven
(Lambert et al., 1992; Capp, 1993; Sumnu, 1997). On
the contrary, Baker et al. (1990a) showed that con-
ventionallybaked cakes lost more water than micro-
wave-baked cakes. Methyl cellulose was shown tobe
an effective hydrocolloid to improve moisture reten-
tion of microwave cakes as well as their height and
texture (Bell &Steinke, 1991). Many instant starches
with different hydration rates and water holding ca-
pacities can be used to increase moisture retention
during microwave baking (Zallie, 1988). Pregelati-
nized starches with a high cold paste viscosity tie up
agreater amount of water, whichyields a more moist
product.
Martin & Tsen (1981) used a response surface
methodology to find the optimum conditions for
microwave baking a high ratio cake by considering
the effects of baking time, water level and baking-
powder blend. However, it was not possible to opti-
mize different quality measurements with a given
combination of acidulent levels and baking time.
The increase in water content reduced the volume
of the cakes baked at the highest power of the micro-
wave oven. Cakes baked at 100% power level were
superior tothose preparedby using 70%power level
in specific volume and crumb compression. When
effects of starches on the quality of microwave cakes
were investigated wheat starch cakes had superior
quality when compared with rice and corn starch
cakes (Sumnu, 1997). Optimum shortening content,
water content, emulsifier content, processing time
and power were determined so that microwave
cakes had the same quality as conventional cakes in
terms of texture and volume. Power was found to be
the most efficient variable affecting cake volume,
tenderness and uniformity. In order to determine
the effects of different starches on flavour of micro-
wave cakes, wheat, rice, potato and corn starch
cakes were prepared by using the optimized model
formulation from the studies of Sumnu (1997) and
122 Review of microwave baking G. Sumnu
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2001, 36, 117^127 2001Blackwell Science Ltd
(Draper &Ndife, 1998). Anuntrained sensory panel
evaluated the flavour of the cakes. The type of starch
used in a cake batter was found to have a significant
influence on the flavour intensity perception of the
cake. All the cakes had relatively low flavour inten-
sity ratings which indicates that flavour loss in mi-
crowave oven could be attributed to factors other
than starch.
Microwave bread
In order to eliminate the crust colour problem, Lor-
enz et al. (1973) emphasized the importance of
bread formulation by using relatively dark doughs
(rye, whole-wheat). Whole-wheat and rye bread
baked in microwave ovens were firmer than bread
baked in conventional oven after 1, 2, and 4 days of
storage. Owing to the lack of the caramelization re-
actions and also the low development of flavour
compounds during microwave baking the whole
wheat breads had the poorer flavour scores com-
pared with conventional heating. No significant dif-
ference in flavour was detected between rye breads
baked in microwave ovens and those baked in con-
ventional ovens. The texture of the rye and whole-
wheat breads baked in the microwave oven was de-
scribed by the panelists as being slightly tough and
rubbery.
Hybrid or multimedia ovens combining impinge-
ment with microwaves have been introduced so as to
overcome the problem related to crustless or unac-
ceptable colour of products baked using microwaves
(Smith, 1986; Walker &Li, 1993).
Conventional formulations of bread or bread-like
doughs develop unacceptable textures when baked
in the microwave oven (Lorenz et al., 1973; Ovadia
& Walker, 1996). The exterior parts are rubbery and
tough and the interior parts are firm and difficult to
chew (Shukla, 1993). Firmness and toughness are
two separate properties. Firmness can be character-
ized by the force required to compress a given area
by 25%of its thickness. Toughness canbe character-
ized by the exertion required to pull a slice of bread
apart (Ovadia & Walker, 1996). Various methods
were used to measure the microwave-induced
toughness but these methods were not sensitive and
reliable enough to differentiate between toughness
and firmness (Dahle & Montgomery, 1978; Rogers
et al., 1990). Miller &Hoseney (1997) measured mi-
crowave-induced toughness by cutting bread slices
with awire cutter attachedto atexture analyzer (Tex-
ture Technologies, Scarsdale, USA/Stable Micro
Systems, Surrey, UK). The peak force required to
cut the bread was taken as a measure of toughness.
The method was not, however, able to differentiate
bread toughness frombread firming.
Toughness is relatedtoglutenwhile firmness is re-
lated to starch granules. Microwave-baked products
with acceptable texture can be achieved by manipu-
lating the gluten protein network, the size and the
swelling of starch granules and the moisture level.
The firmness problem of bread interiors is asso-
ciated with the large diameter, preswollen starch
granules. Incorporating fat and emulsifiers to inhi-
bit gelatinization can reduce the size of starch gran-
ules. Solutions to the problem of toughening on the
exterior involve depolymerizing the gluten protein
by reducing the size of the gluten proteins by break-
ing the disulfide bonds. Sulfhydryl-containing
agents such as L-cysteine, glutathione, yeast autoly-
sate and potassium or sodium bisulphite used in
conventional formulations for this purpose can be
added in microwave reformulation at levels two to
three times higher than conventional uses. Design-
ing a low moisture dough in which water activity is
further reduced by salts and dextrose and addition
of texturizing agents helps to obtain a more uniform
texture in microwave-baked breads (Shukla, 1993).
This indicates that conventional formulations can
be improved or a new formulation can be designed
to solve the problemof toughness or firmness in mi-
crowave-baked breads. Processing conditions can
also be adjusted to decrease the toughness or firm-
ness in microwave-baked breads. Ovadia & Walker
(1996) showedthat an increase in microwave energy,
power and pressure increased the toughness signifi-
cantly.
Breads baked in microwave oven stale faster com-
pared to the ones baked in conventional ovens. In
conventionally baked breads starch molecules can
reassociate and a crystalline structure may redeve-
lop during storage. There is an increase in rigidity
which is known as starch retrogradation (Biliaderis,
1992). Starch retrogradation is related to the rapid
gelation of amylose and recrystalization of amylo-
pectin fractions (Gidley, 1989). Nowadays amylo-
pectin retrogradation is considered to be the main
cause of bread firming during storage (Inagaki &
Seib, 1992). Water mobility within the product plays
an important role in stalingof starch-basedproducts
Review of microwave baking G. Sumnu 123
2001Blackwell Science Ltd International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2001, 36, 117^127
(Martin et al., 1991). Ruan et al. (1996) studied
water mobility during storage of sweet rolls by using
pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance and magnetic
resonance imaging methods and identified different
fractions of water with different mobility.Water mo-
bility was highly correlated with staling. The me-
chanism of accelerated staling in breads baked in a
microwave oven is not yet clear. The probable causes
may be the same as those suggested to cause staling
of microwave heated breads:
(1) more amylose is leached out of starch granules
with increase in the amount of starch gel;
(2) there is more disorder among amylose mole-
cules in this gel, and
(3) upon cooling and firming amylose becomes
more highly ordered and closely packed than
conventionally reheated bread (Higo & Nogu-
chi, 1987).
When the effects of water absorption, mixing time,
gluten level and oxidation on the quality of micro-
wave conventionally baked bread and convention-
ally baked breads were determined the optimum
levels of these factors were the same for both heating
modes but specific volume, staling properties and
total scores were inferior for microwave-baked buns
(Willyard,1998).This showedthat processing condi-
tions should be changed to improve the quality of
microwave bread. The effects of yeast, proof time
and fermentation time on a low protein, weak flour
and the same flour fortifiedwith 5%vital wheat glu-
ten were investigated. Increasing yeast level and
proof time produced a microwave-baked bun that
was equal in quality with a conventionally baked
bun. The fermentation time had little effect on the
qualityof the bun. No difference was determined be-
tween the quality of microwave conventionally
baked buns formulated with weak flour and high
protein flour. Ovadia (1983) foundthat breads baked
from hard wheat flour were found to have a more
rubbery tough internal texture than those baked
fromsoft wheat flour.
An important advantage of microwave baking
over conventional baking is that microwave-baked
breads are more nutritious than conventionally
baked breads because essential amino acids, nor-
mally made unavailable by the Maillard browning
reactions, are still available after microwave baking
(Tsen, 1980). Another advantage of microwave bak-
ing is that it eliminates the problemof a-amylase ac-
tivity, which causes the crumb to be sticky.
Microwaves penetrate the dough and denature a-
amylase before the enzyme activity produces sticky
dextrin (Chamberlain, 1973).
Other microwave-baked products
The proofing and frying of doughnuts was devel-
oped in the late 1960s and early 1970s. There were
more than 20 proofers and six fryers operating in
US. Today none of the systems remain (Schiffmann,
1992). Doughnut proofing by using microwave en-
ergy can be accomplished in 4 min compared with
40^60 min in conventional proofing (Russo, 1971;
Schiffmann et al., 1971). The proofing and frying
process for doughnuts requires special flours and
dough conditions to control dough rheology, struc-
tural integrityand fat absorption (Schiffmann et al.,
1971).The cake-doughnuts (including chemical rais-
ing agents) were first fried in hot fat and subsequent
microwave baking enabled the products to bake
more rapidly (Rosenberg & Bo gl, 1987). Browning
of the dough was achieved by deep-frying on both
sides. The interior of the doughnuts were light with
a non-uniformstructure of lowdensity.
The use of microwave heating for final baking of
cookies results in a more uniformmoisture distribu-
tion than does forced convection (Schiffmann,
1992). After conventional baking at 240 8C for 4
min cookies were baked further in microwave ovens
to study the effects of microwave baking on the
moisture gradient and overall quality of the cookies
(Bernussi et al., 1998). The introduction of micro-
wave heating during conventional heating decreased
the moisture gradient and total cookie moisture
content. Applying high and medium settings for 30
or 40 s avoided the occurrence of cracking. However
the use of microwave heating did result inthe shrink-
age of the product. It was suggested that microwave
heating could be successfully introduced in the final
stages of cookie baking, producing products with
excellent properties and no cracking.
Radiofrequency (RF) dielectric heating was ori-
ginally used commercially in post-bake drying of
cookies in 1980 (Zhao et al., 2000). RF is used to
heat foods at a typical frequency of 27.12 MHz,
which is lower than microwave heating frequencies.
RF heating of foods is similar in effect to microwave
heating. The technology of RF heating involves ap-
plying a high voltage signal to a set of parallel elec-
trodes (Zhao et al., 2000). Food is located between
124 Review of microwave baking G. Sumnu
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2001, 36, 117^127 2001Blackwell Science Ltd
the electrodes and current flows through the food.
As a result, rotation of polar molecules take place
and heating occurs in a similar way to microwave
heating. RF units installed in sequence after the
conventional oven were shown to increase the bak-
ing speed 30% to 50% (Jones, 1987). RFenergy was
used to remove excess moisture uniformly from
crackers and cookies and no discolouration and fla-
vour damage took place owing to the thermal build
up (Zhao et al., 2000).
Bagel structure, after either baking by conven-
tional forced air or microwave heating methods
after the boiling step, were examined by scanning
electron microscopy and showed a difference in cell
matrix development and starch swelling as a func-
tion of location and heating method (Umbach et al.,
1990). Differences in temperature histories and
water loss rates were found.When mobility of water
nuclei at the various stages of baking was deter-
mined by nuclear magnetic resonance differences
were found in moisture content in the sampled areas
within and between heating methods. However, it
was not possible to differentiate changes at the mole-
cular level when the water content exceeded 34%.
The conventionally-baked bagel lost more water
during baking than the microwave-baked bagel.
However, crumbs fromthe microwave-baked bagels
had lower moisture contents than that from conven-
tionally-baked bagels. This suggests that most of the
water loss in the microwave-baked bagels occurred
after they were removed from the oven owing to the
absence of a crust.
Conclusions
Microwaves interact with certain molecules and
heat up the dough or a batter under ambient oven
conditions in a very short time. There is not enough
time for completion of essential physical, chemical
and biological changes and the surface temperature
of microwave-baked products can not reach the ne-
cessary temperatures required for browning reac-
tions. Therefore, microwave-baked products have
inferior quality compared to conventionally-baked
ones. The microwave-baked products have a low
volume, tough or firm texture and they lack both
brown colour and crust formation. The problem of
low volume, which is a resultant of incomplete gela-
tinization of starch, can be overcome by using preg-
elatinized starches or starches having high dielectric
properties and low gelatinization enthalpy. High
moisture loss in microwave-baked cakes can be
eliminated by using hydrocolloids. Developing a
new formulation or improving the conventional for-
mulaby using some additives may solve the problem
of firmness or toughness of bakedproducts. Suscep-
tors can be used to increase the surface temperature
of the doughwhich is needed for development of the
browning reaction. Browning or crisping of pro-
ducts baked in microwave oven can also be achieved
by using commercial coatings or heating the baked
product in a conventional oven for a short time. In-
vestigating starch gelatinization, protein relaxation,
water mobilityand interaction of individual compo-
nents spectroscopically (by using nuclear magnetic
resonance, differential scanning calorimetry, mag-
netic resonance imaging techniques etc.) will ad-
vance the understanding of how batter or dough-
based products react during microwave baking.
Moreover, modelling the changes of electrical, ther-
mal and functional properties of batter or dough
during microwave baking will be helpful to mini-
mize the problems in microwave-baked products.
Improving the qualityof microwave-baked products
will remain a challenging topic in the future. If suc-
cess is achieved, there will be great savings in time
and energy and products with high nutritive value
will be obtained.
References
Baker, B.A., Davis, E.A. & Gordon, J. (1990a). The influence
of Sugar and Emulsifier type during Microwave and
Conventional Heating of a Lean Formula Cake Batter. Cer-
eal Chemistry, 67, 451^457.
Baker, B.A., Davis, E.A. & Gordon, J. (1990b). Glass and
metal pans for use in microwave and conventionally heated
cakes. Cereal Chemistry, 67, 448^451.
Barringer, S.A., Davis, E.A., Gordon, J. et al. (1994). Effect of
sample size on the microwave heating rate: Oil vs. Water.
American Institute of Chemical Engineers Journal, 40,
1433^1439.
Bell, D.A. & Steinke, L.W. (1991). Evaluating structure and
texture effects of metylcellulose gums in microwave baked
cakes. Cereal FoodsWorld, 36, 941^944.
Bengtsson, N.E. & Risman, P.O. (1971). Dielectric properties
of foods at 3 GHz as determined by a cavity perturbation
technique. II. Measurements of food materials. Journal of
Microwave Power, 6, 107^110.
Bernussi, A.L.M., Chang, Y.K. & Marinez-Bustos, F. (1998).
Effects of production by microwave heating after conven-
tional baking on moisture gradient and product quality of
biscuits (cookies). Cereal Chemistry, 75, 606^611.
Review of microwave baking G. Sumnu 125
2001Blackwell Science Ltd International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2001, 36, 117^127
Biliaderis, C.G. (1992). Structures and Phase-Transitions of
Starch in Food Systems. Food Technology, 46, 98^109.
Bows, J.R., Patrick, M.L., Janes, R. et al. (1999). Microwave
phase control heating. International Journal of Food
Science and Technology, 34, 295^304.
Buffler, C. (1993). Microwave Cooking and Processing: Engi-
neering Fundamentals for the Food Scientist. Pp. 6^7, 150^
151. NewYork: Avi Book.
Burea, M.P., Chiriife, J., Resnik, S.L. et al. (1987). Non-
enzymatic browning in liquid model systems of high water
activity: Kinetics of colour changes due to caramelization
of various sugars. Journal of Food Science, 52, 1059^1062.
Calay, R.K., Newborough, M., Probert, D. et al. (1995). Predic-
tive equations for dielectric properties of foods. Interna-
tional Journal of Food Science &Technology, 29, 699^713.
Capp, S.M. (1993). The effects of starch substitutions on the
baking performance on high ratio layer cakes baked in
microwave and convection ovens. MS Thesis. Columbus,
OH: The Ohio State University.
Chamberlain, N. (1973). Microwave energy in the baking of
bread. Food Trade Review, 9, 8^12.
Dahle, L.K. & Montgomery, E.P. (1978). A method for
measuring strength and extensibility of bread crumb. Cer-
eal Chemistry, 55, 197^203.
Datta, A.K. (1990). Heat and mass transfer in the microwave
processing of food. Chemical Engineering Progress, 86, 47^
53.
Decareau, R.V. (1992). Microwave Foods: NewProduct Devel-
opment. P. 117. Connecticut: Food Nutrition Press Inc.
Decareau, R.V. & Peterson, R. (1986). Microwave Processing
and Engineering. Pp. 18^21. Chichester: Ellis Horwood.
Draper, C.A. & Ndife, M.K. (1998). Determination of flavor
retention in microwave cake model systems. IFT Annual
Meeting, June 2024, 1998, Atlanta, Georgia.
Fellenz, D.C. & Moppett, F.K. (1991). Browning Agent
Enhances Visual Appeal of Microwaved Foods. FoodTech-
nology, 45, 111.
Gidley, M.J. (1989). Molecular mechanisms underlying
amylose aggregation and gelation. Macromolecules, 22,
351^358.
Goebel, N.K., Grider, J., Davis, E.A. etal. (1984).The effects of
microwave energy and conventional heating on wheat
starch granule transformations. Food Microstructure, 3,
73^82.
Hegenbert, S. (1992). Microwave quality: Coming of age. Food
Product Design, 17, 29^52.
Higo, A. & Noguchi, S. (1987). Comparative studies on food
treated with microwave and conductive heating. I. Process
of bread hardening by microwave heating. Journal of the
Japanese Society of Food Science and Technology, 34, 781^
787.
Huang, J., Hess, W.M., Weber, D.J. et al. (1990). Scanning
electron microscopy: Tissue characteristics and starch
granule variations of potatoes after Microwave and Con-
ductive heating. Food Structure, 9, 113^112.
Inagaki, T. & Seib, P.A. (1992). Firming of Bread Crumb with
Cross-Linked Waxy Barley Starch Substituted for Wheat-
Starch. Cereal Chemistry, 69, 321^325.
Jones, P.L. (1987). Radiofrequency processing in Europe.
Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy,
22, 143^153.
Lambert, L.L.P., Gordon, J. & Davis, E.A. (1992). Water loss
and structure development in model cake systems heated by
microwave and convection methods. Cereal Chemistry, 69,
303^309.
Lelievre, J. (1992). Thermal analysis of carbohydrates as
illustrated by aqueous starch systems. In: Developments in
Carbohydrate Chemistry (edited by R.J. Alexander & H.F.
Zoebel). Pp. 137^161. St Paul, Minnesota: The American
Association of Cereal Chemists.
Lorenz, K., Charman, E. & Dilsaver, W. (1973). Baking with
microwave energy. Food Technology, 27, 28^36.
Martin, D.J. & Tsen, C.C. (1981). Baking high ratio white layer
cakes with microwave energy. Journal of Food Science, 46,
1507^1513.
Martin, M.L., Zeleznak, K.J. & Hoseney, R.C. (1991). A
mechanism of bread firming. I. Role of starch swelling.
Cereal Chemistry, 68, 498^503.
Metaxas, A.C. & Meredith, R.J. (1983). Industrial Microwave
Heating. Pp. 6, 80. London: Peter Peregrinus.
Miller, R.A. & Hoseney, R.C. (1997). Method to measure
microwave-induced toughness of bread. Journal of Food
Science, 62, 1202^1204.
Mudgett, R.E. (1982). Electrical Properties of Foods in
Microwave Processing. Food Technology, 36, 109^115.
Ndife, M.K., Sumnu, G. & Bayindirli, L. (1998a). Dielectric
properties of six different species of starch at 2450 MHz.
Food Research International, 31, 43^52.
Ndife, M.K., Sumnu, G. & Bayindirli, L. (1998b). Differential
scanning calorimetry determination of gelatinization rates in
different starches due to microwave heating. Lebensmittel
Wissenschaft und Technologie, 31, 484^488.
Nelson, S.O., Prakash, A. & Lawrence, K. (1991). Moisture and
Temperature dependence of the Permittivities of some
Hydrocolloids at 2.45 GHz. Journal of Microwave Power
and Electromagnetic Energy, 26, 178^185.
Nott, K.P., Hall, L.D., Bows, J.R. et al. (1999). Three-dimen-
sional MRI mapping of microwave induced heating pat-
terns. International Journal of Food Science and
Technology, 34, 305^315.
Osnabrugge, W.V. (1989). How to flavour baked goods and
snacks effectively. Food Technology, 43, 74.
Ovadia, D.Z. (1983). Combined microwave baking and
modulating vacuum cooling of bread. Bachelor's Thesis.
Haifa, Israel: The Israel Institute of Technology.
Ovadia, D.Z. & Walker, C.E. (1996). Microwave pressure
baking with vacuum cooling. Proceedings of the 31st
Microwave Power Symposium. Pp. 8992. Manassas, VA:
International Microwave Power Institute.
Ovadia, D.Z. & Walker, C.E. (1998). Impingement in Food
Processing. Food Technology, 52, 46^52.
Pei, D.C. (1982). Microwave baking: New developments. Ba-
kers Digest, 56, 8^12.
Prakash, A. (1991). The effect of microwave energy on the
structure and function of food hydrocolloids. MS Thesis.
Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University.
Roebuck, B.D., Goldblith, S.A. & Westphal, W.B. (1972).
Dielectric properties of carbohydrate-water mixtures at
126 Review of microwave baking G. Sumnu
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2001, 36, 117^127 2001Blackwell Science Ltd
microwave frequencies. Journal of Food Science, 37, 199^
204.
Rogers, D.E., Doescher, L.C. & Hoseney, R.C. (1990). Texture
characteristics of microwave reheated bread. Cereal Chem-
istry, 67, 188^191.
Rosenberg, U. & Bo gl, W. (1987). Microwave thawing, drying
and baking in the food industry. FoodTechnology, 41, 85^91.
Ruan, R., Almaer, S., Huang, V.T. et al. (1996). Relationships
between firming and water mobility in starch-based food
systems during storage. Cereal Chemistry, 73, 328^332.
Russo, J.R. (1971). Microwaves proof donuts. FoodEngineer-
ing, 43, 55^58.
Ryyna nen, S., Risman, P.O. & Ohlsson, T. (1995). The
dielectric properties of Native starch solutions-A research
note. Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic En-
ergy, 31, 50^53.
Sablani, S.S., Marcotte, M., Baik, O.D. et al. (1998). Modelling
of simultaneous heat andwater transport inthe baking pro-
cess. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie, 31, 201^
209.
Schiffmann, R.F. (1986). Food Product Development for
Microwave Processing. Food Technology, 40, 94^98.
Schiffmann, R.F. (1992). Microwave processing in the U.S.
Food Industry. Food Technology, 48, 50^52, 56.
Schiffmann, R.F., Stein, E.W. & Kaufman, H.B. (1971). The
microwave proofing of yeast raised dougnuts. Baker's Di-
gest, 45, 55^61.
Sheppard, J.R. (1989). Browning and crisping theory; Could
microwave brown food? Journal of Packaging Technology
and Science, 2, 63^67.
Shukla, T.P. (1993). Bread and Bread-like dough formulations
for the microwave. Cereal FoodsWorld, 38, 95^96.
Smith, D.P. (1986). Food finishing microwave tunnel utilizes
jet impingement and infrared sensing for process control.
Food Technology, 40, 113^116.
Sopade, P.A. & Legrys, G.A. (1991). Specific heat capacity of
starch-sucrose systems. Food Control, 2, 50^52.
Steinke, J.A., Frick, C., Strassburger, K. & Gallagher, J. (1989).
Interaction of flavor systems in the microwave environment.
Cereal FoodsWorld, 34, 330^332.
Sumnu, S.G. (1997). Optimization of microwave baking of
cakes. PhD Thesis. Ankara, Turkey: Middle East Technical
University.
Tinga, W. & Nelson, S. (1973). Dielectric properties of
materials for microwave processing-tabulated. Journal of
Microwave Power, 8, 23^65.
Tsen, C.C. (1980). Microwave energy for bread baking and its
effect on the nutritive value of bread. A review. Journal of
Food Protection, 43, 638^640.
Tsen, C.C., Redy, P.R.K. & Gehrke, C.W. (1977). Effects of
conventional baking, microwave baking and steaming on the
nutritive value of regular and fortified breads. Journal of
Food Science, 42, 402^406.
Umbach, S.L., Davis, E.A. & Gordon, J. (1990). Effects of heat
and water transport on the bagel making process: Conven-
tional and microwave heating. Cereal Chemistry, 67, 355^
360.
Umbach, S.L., Davis, E.A., Gordon, J. et al. (1992).Water self-
diffusion coefficients and dielectric properties determined
for starch-gluten-water mixtures heated by microwave and
conventional methods. Cereal Chemistry, 69, 637^642.
Walker, C.E. & Li, A. (1993). Impingement oven technology-
Part III: Combining impingement with microwave. Ameri-
can Institute of BakingTechnology Bulletin, 15, 1^6.
Wei, C.K., Davis, H.R., Davis, E.A. et al. (1985a). Heat and
mass transfer water-laden sand stone: microwave heating.
American Institute of Chemical Engineers Journal, 31,
842^848.
Wei, C.K., Davis, H.R., Davis, E.A. et al. (1985b). Heat and
mass transfer water-laden sand stone: convective heating.
American Institute of Chemical Engineers Journal, 31,
1338^1348.
Whorton, C. & Reineccius, G. (1990). Current developments in
microwave flavors. Cereal FoodsWorld, 35, 553^559.
Willyard, M.R. (1998). Conventional browning and microwave
baking of yeast raised dough. Cereal FoodsWorld, 43, 131^
138.
Yin, Y. & Walker, C.E. (1995). A quality comparison of breads
baked by conventional versus non-conventional ovens: a
review. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 67,
283^291.
Zallie, J.P. (1988). The role and function of starches in
microwaveable food formulation. Proceedings of MW
Foods, March 8, 1988, Chicago, Illinois.
Zhao, Y., Flugstad, B., Kolbe, E. etal. (2000). Usingcapacitive
(Radiofrequency) dielectric heating in food processing and
preservation-A review. Journal of Food Process Engineer-
ing, 23, 25^55.
Zuckerman, H. & Miltz, J. (1992). Characterization of thin
layer susceptors for the microwave oven. Journal of Food
Processingand Preservation, 16, 193^204.
Zuckerman, H. & Miltz, J. (1995). Temperature profiled at
susceptor/product interface during heating in the microwave
oven. Journal of Food Processingand Preservation, 19, 385^
398.
Zuckerman, H. & Miltz, J. (1997). Prediction of dough
browning in the microwave oven from temperatures at the
susceptor/product interface. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und
Technologie, 30, 519^524.
Zylema, B.J., Grider, J.A., Gordon, J. et al. (1985). Model
wheat starch systems heated by microwave irradiation and
conduction with equalized heating times. Cereal Chemis-
try, 62, 447^453.
Review of microwave baking G. Sumnu 127
2001Blackwell Science Ltd International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2001, 36, 117^127