INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN

PIPES AND CHANNELS

Shear Stress Distribution

Figure 5.1 Fluid

element in steady
flow through pipe.

where:

Simplifying and dividing by 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝐿 Eq. 5.1

By taking 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑤 and 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑤 , where 𝜏𝑤 and 𝑟𝑤 are
the shear stress at the wall and the radius of the tube.
Then the equation becomes:
Eq. 5.2

Subtracting Eq. 5.1 from Eq. 5.2 gives

Figure 5.2 Variation of Shear Stress in Pipe.
Relation between skin friction and wall
shear
From the Bernoulli Equation in Chap. 4:

Or

For a definite length L of pipe, 𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝐿 in Eq. 5.2

becomes ∆𝑝𝑠 𝐿. Eliminating ∆𝑝𝑠 gives the ff. relation:
The friction factor

A common parameter useful in the study of turbulent

flow is the fanning friction factor:

Relations between skin friction parameters

from which
Flow in noncircular channels
𝑆
𝑟𝐻 =
𝐿𝑃
where 𝑆 = cross sectional area of channel
𝐿𝑃 = perimeter of channel in contact with fluid

For the special case of a circular tube,

𝜋 𝐷2 4 𝐷
𝑟𝐻 = =
𝜋𝐷 4
For the annulus between two concentric pipes,
2 2
𝜋 𝐷0 4 − 𝜋 𝐷𝑖 4 𝐷0 − 𝐷𝑖
𝑟𝐻 = =
𝜋𝐷𝑖 + 𝜋𝐷0 4
Laminar Flow in Pipes and Channels
Laminar flow of Newtonian fluids
 Velocity distribution

From the definition of viscosity

The minus sign accounts for the fact that u decreases

as r increases.
Integration using the boundary condition: u = 0 at r = rw

Then,
local velocity

The maximum value of the local velocity is

Dividing the local velocity equation by the maximum velocity

equation gives:
  Average velocity

Figure 5.3 Velocity distribution

in pipe, fully developed flow
of newtonian fluid, for laminar
flow and for turbulent flow at
Re = 10,000
 Kinetic energy correction factor
The kinetic energy factor α is calculated from

where

The final result is α = 2.0

 Momentum correction factor

where

The result is β = 4/3

 Hagen-Poiseuille equation
Laminar flow of non-newtonian liquids

 For fluids following the power law model, the

velocity variation with radius follows the formula:

 The pressure difference for the flow of a power law

fluid is:

where: 𝑛′ = 0.5 𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 , 𝑛′ = 1.0 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ,

𝑛′ = 2.0 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 , 𝐾 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
For the velocity variation in the annular space, the following
equation applies:

The boundary between the plug and the remaining fluid is

The velocity in the central core

Laminar flow in an annulus
2 2
∆𝑝𝑠 𝑟0 𝑟 1 − 𝑘2 𝑟
𝑢= 1− + 𝑙𝑛
4𝜇𝐿 𝑟0 𝑙𝑛 1 𝑘 𝑟0
where 𝑟0 = radius of outer wall of annulus
𝑟
𝑘 = ratio
𝑟0
𝑟𝑖 = radius of inner wall of annulus

For annular flow, the Reynolds number is

𝐷𝑜 − 𝐷𝑖 𝑣𝜌
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
for laminar flow in an
annulus
16
𝑓= ∅𝑎
𝑅𝑒

where ∅𝑎 is the function

of 𝐷𝑖 𝐷𝑜

Figure 5.6 Value of ∅𝑎

Turbulent Flow in Pipes and Channels

 Viscous sublayer – a thin layer immediately

adjacent to the wall
 Buffer layer – transition layer immediately adjacent
to the viscous sublayer in which viscous shear and
shear due to eddy diffusion exist
 Turbulent core – the bulk of the cross-section of the
flowing stream is occupied by entirely turbulent core
Velocity distribution for turbulent flow

 The velocity distribution in turbulent flow in terms of

dimensionless parameters is defined by the ff.
equations:
Universal velocity distribution equations

Viscous sublayer (very thin): 𝑟 ≈ 𝑟𝑤 , with the substitution of −𝑑𝑦 for 𝑑𝑟

Substitution of 𝑢+ , 𝑦 + :

Integrating with lower limits 𝑢+ = 𝑦 +

Laminar sublayer

Buffer layer

Turbulent core
Figure 5.7 Universal velocity distribution; turbulent flow of newtonian fluid in
smooth pipe.
Limitations of universal velocity
distribution laws
 The buffer zone has no independent existence and that
there is no discontinuity between the buffer zone and
the turbulent core.
 There is doubt as to the reality of the existence of a
truly viscous sublayer.
 The equations do not apply well for Reynolds numbers
from the critical to approximately 10,000
 The 𝑢+ − 𝑦 + relationship is not adequate for the
turbulent core near the buffer zone or in the buffer
zone itself.
 The equation for the turbulent core calls for a finite
velocity gradient at the centerline of the pipe.
Flow quantities for turbulent flow in
smooth round pipes
The quantities of interest are
 average velocity in terms of the maximum velocity at

the center of the pipe

 relations linking the flow-resistance parameters 𝜏𝑤

and 𝑓with the average velocity, the maximum velocity,
and the Reynolds number
von Kármán
equation
104 < Re < 106
  kinetic energy correction factor 𝛼

 momentum correction factor 𝛽

• For turbulent flow, the error is usually very small if 𝛼 and 𝛽 are assumed to
be unity.
• For Reynolds number of 104 , the friction factor for a smooth tube is 0.0079,
𝛼 = 1.084, and 𝛽 = 1.031.
• For 𝑅𝑒 = 106 the values are 𝑓 = 0.0029, 𝛼 = 1.032, and 𝛽 = 1.011
 Relations between maximum velocity
and average velocity
The quantities Re and
ratio 𝑣 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 are
useful in relating the
average velocity to
the maximum velocity
in the center of the
tube as a function of
flow conditions.

Figure 5.8 𝑣 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 and Re

Effects of Roughness

Figure 5.9 Types of Roughness

In turbulent flow, a rough pipe leads to a larger
friction factor for a given Reynolds number than a
smooth pipe.
If a rough pipe is smoothed, the friction factor is
reduced.
Further smoothing brings no further reduction in the
friction factor and is said to be hydraulically smooth.
Figure 5.9 shows several idealized kinds of
roughness. The height of a single unit roughness is
denoted by k, roughness parameter.
The friction factor chart

Figure 5.10 Friction factor chart

Reynolds number and friction factor for
non-newtonian fluids
 Reynolds number:

 Friction factor:
Figure 5.11 Friction factor chart, power law fluid
Nonisothermal flow
 When the liquids flow through a smooth tube which
is being cooled or heated, the friction factor is
increased or decreased because of the effect of
temperature on the viscosity near the wall.
1. The Reynolds number is calculated on the
assumption that the fluid temperature equals the mean
bulk temperature.
2. The friction factor corresponding to the mean bulk
temperature is divided by a factor 𝜓