A major problem has been the inconsistent and interchangeable use of both psychological and anatomical definitions of executive and frontal functions. The most important role of the frontal lobes may be for aRective responsiveness, social and personality development, and self-awareness and unconsciousness.
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Art_Executive functions and the frontal lobes a conceptual view Stuss 2000.docx
A major problem has been the inconsistent and interchangeable use of both psychological and anatomical definitions of executive and frontal functions. The most important role of the frontal lobes may be for aRective responsiveness, social and personality development, and self-awareness and unconsciousness.
A major problem has been the inconsistent and interchangeable use of both psychological and anatomical definitions of executive and frontal functions. The most important role of the frontal lobes may be for aRective responsiveness, social and personality development, and self-awareness and unconsciousness.
Psychological Research (2000) 63 289298 Springer-Verlag 2000
ORI GINAL A RTICLE
Donald W. Stuss Mishael P. Alexander Executive functions and the frontal lobes: a conceptual view
Received 31 March 1999 ] Accepted 23 July 1999
Abstrast Several problems in understanding executive functions and their relationships to the frontal lobes are discussed. Data are then presented from several of our studies to support the following statements (1) the examination of patients with focal frontal lobe lesions is a necessary first step in defining the relation of executive functions to the frontal lobes; (2) there is no unitary executive function. Rather, distinct processes related to the frontal lobes can be diRerentiated which converge on a general concept of control functions; (3) a simple control-automatic distinction is inadequate to explain the complexity of control-automatic processes; (4) the distinction between complex and simple tasks cannot explain the diRerences in functions between the frontal lobes and other brain regions; and (5) the most impor- tant role of the frontal lobes may be for aRective responsiveness, social and personality development, and self-awareness and unconsciousness.
Introduction
The understanding of executive functions has been diAcult for multiple reasons. In this review we outline some methodological and conceptual obstructions, present our current position, and provide supporting
D. T. Stuss ( ) M. P. Alexander Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest Centre for Geriatric Care, 3560 Bathurst St., Toronto, Ontario M6A 2E1, Canada e-mail rotman@rotman-baycrest.on.ca
D. T. Stuss M. P. Alexander Departments of Psychology and Medicine (Neurology and Rehabilitation Science), University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada M. P. Alexander Department of Neurology, Harvard University, Beth Israel Hospital, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA evidence for this viewpoint. Ne conclude with sugges- tions for future research directions. A major problem has been the inconsistent and interchangeable use of both psychological and anatom- ical definitions of executive and frontal functions. Nhile study of the eRects of damage to the frontal lobes has been the most common way to study frontal lobe func- tions, many researchers still use the term frontal func- tions as a synonym for executive functions, without objective reference to anatomy. Yet the relationship between executive or supervisory functions to frontal lobe functions is not clear. Even those who research the effects of frontal lobe damage have often not clearly defined the anatomical limits of the pathology. It is understandable why this has occurred historically. The executive functions of human cognition are among the most interesting of processes. Researchers interested in these issues are, however, faced with a dilemma. While executive functions can be studied as pure psychological processes, the constant association between executive and frontal functions suggests some type of relationship. A significant difficulty in studying frontal lobe functions, however, exists there is no clinical condition with specific and easily limited relation to the frontal lobes (with the possible exception of frontal lobe dementia in the early stages). It is time consuming (years!) to obtain a sufficient number of patients with well-defined focal frontal lobe lesions to address the is- sues of specificity of functions to the frontal lobes in general, not even considering distinctions within the frontal lobes. If one superimposes the possibility that different processes required to complete a single task may be related to different areas in the entire brain, as well as to potentially different regions within the frontal lobes, it is easy to understand why understanding the functions of the frontal lobes, and the relation of different tasks to the frontal lobes, has been so difficult. Further problems exist because of experimental methodological issues. Evaluating patients for frontal 290
lobe dysfunction, or using neuropsychological tests to correlate with performance on experimental tasks as a means of extrapolating to the underlying brain mechanism (as in normal aging studies), has been difficult because of our available tests. Many executive tests are multi-factorial, and performance could be im- paired for reasons other than dysfunction in the frontal lobes (Stuss, Shallice, Alexander & Picton, 1995). This is particularly true if the test is more complex, as was considered necessary to elicit frontal lobe dysfunction. Thus, it would be no wonder that patients with posterior lesions who might have visual neglect, or comprehension problems, might fail on a frontal lobe test (Anderson, Damasio, Jones & Tranel, 1991). This multi-factorial nature is also at least partially responsible for the low correlations among frontal lobe tests. Closely allied to this concept is the sensitivity and specificity of such frontal lobe tests. Tests that may be sensitive may not be specific. Tests that are specific may not be sensitive. It is also important to realize that many tests used to assess frontal lobe damage were developed for other reasons. Moreover, the current knowledge of how to dissociate processes within a task, developed in cognitive psy- chology, was usually not available when these tests were developed. Another methodological warning relates to the very meagre evidence on the validity and reliability of the tests of frontal functions. If one considers how difficult it is to find such patients and how difficult it may be to obtain appropriate localizing information (and how this was unavailable in the past), it is no wonder that few studies with precise characterization of the lesion location and the patient have been completed. The experience of the examiner and the structure of the testing situation are also important factors, which may confound the examination of functions of the frontal lobes. It is relatively easy to become the frontal lobes of a patient or research participant (Stuss, 1987). Indeed, such external structure is one mechanism for rehabilitating these deficits. A final consideration relates to the individual differences among patients. Each patient brings a different background to the testing situation, which may influence the performance on any specific test. The quality of the dependent measures themselves may raise an obstacle. Ne (Stuss, 1991c; Stuss, Ste- them, Hugenholtz, Picton, Pivik & Richard, 1989; Stuss, Pogue, Buckle & Bondar, 1994b) reported that individuals suffering from traumatic brain injury were variable in their performance on a particular reaction time task. That is, they could do the task one day, but not another. This was hypothesized to be related to dysfunction in the frontal lobes, in that the ability to complete a task was intact, but the patients were un- able to sustain the top-down effort to complete the task consistently. In an ongoing study (Stuss, Murphy & Binns, 1999), the primary relation of visual performance to the frontal lobes seems to be supported. That is, the noise is the data. Such variability very likely
might confound experimental studies of frontal lobe functions. Perhaps the most significant problem in the study of executive or frontal functions has been conceptual in nature. Terms such as executive functions, dysexecutive control, supervisory system and control functions are not easily operationalized. It therefore has been difficult to devise precise experimental manipulations to study these processes. Moreover, we have been bound by previous distinctions made to try to under- stand these terms. For example, one distinction has been made between complex and routine tasks in an attempt to characterize the differences between frontal and posterior processes. A consistent idea in many theories of frontal lobe functions has been that these frontal processes are activated when control of more automatic processes, located in more posterior brain regions, is required. This control is invoked when the level of complexity of a task requires more than routine processing, when old information must be considered in new ways, or when the information to be processed is novel. A similar distinction has been between control and automatic processes. Yet many routine, overlearned acts can be very complex, and a high degree of control may be required. Moreover, what is complex for one person can be simple for another, and a relatively simple task can be made complex by the interpretation of the subject. Most clinicians and researchers have had the experience of an intelligent control subject totally failing on the Nisconsin Card Sorting Test because they hypothesized much more complex sorting strategies than were required. A reflection of this difficulty in defining the terms is the significant debate over the unity or diversity of function of the frontal lobes. Many theorists have considered the supervisory or executive functions in a unitary manner. Duncan (1995), who argued that the supervisory system was a term representing a unified function of fluid intelligence, or g, most explicitly posited this idea. Others, in contrast, suggest that there are many frontal functions (Baddeley, 1996; Rolls, 1996; Shallice & Burgess, 1991; Stuss & Benson, 1984, 1986; Stuss et al., 1995). It is therefore no wonder that the study of executive functions, let alone the functions of the frontal lobes, has been so difficult, particularly in humans. Here we outline our position on the study of frontal lobe functions, both from methodological and conceptual standpoints, and then provide data that led us to these statements.
Our position
Ne have limited our research to patients with focal lesions of the frontal lobes, and have attempted to characterize the lesion location and extent as well as possible in naturally occurring (with the possible exception of resection for tumors or epilepsy) lesions in
Introduccin
La comprensin de las funciones ejecutivas ha sido dificil por mltiples razones. En esta revisin, se proponen una serie de obstculos metodolgicos y conceptuales, presentamos nuestra posicin actual, y aportar elementos de prueba para este punto de vista. Concluimos con sugerencias para futuras lneas de investigacin. Un problema importante ha sido el uso inconsistente e intercambiables de ambas definiciones psicolgicos y anatmicos de las funciones ejecutivas y frontal. Mientras que el estudio de los efectos de dao en los lbulos frontales ha sido la forma ms comn de estudiar las funciones del lbulo frontal, muchos investigadores siguen utilizando el trmino '' funciones frontales '' como sinnimo de '' funciones ejecutivas '', sin referencia objetiva a anatoma. Sin embargo, la relacin entre ejecutivas 'o' 'supervisin' 'funciones' a '' lbulo frontal '' funciones no est claro. Incluso aquellos que investigan los efectos de dao en el lbulo frontal ha menudo no se define claramente los lmites anatmicos de la patologa.
Es comprensible por qu esto ha ocurrido histricamente. Las funciones ejecutivas de la cognicin humana se encuentran entre los ms interesantes de los procesos. Los investigadores interesados en estos temas son, sin embargo, se enfrentan a un dilema. Mientras que las funciones ejecutivas se pueden estudiar los procesos psicolgicos como puros, la constante de asociacin entre el poder ejecutivo y las funciones frontales sugiere algn tipo de relacin. Una dificultad significativa en el estudio de las funciones del lbulo frontal, sin embargo, existe "no hay ninguna condicin clnica con relacin especfica y fcilmente limitado a los lbulos frontales (con la posible excepcin de demencia del lbulo frontal en las primeras etapas). Se requiere mucho tiempo (aos!) Para obtener un nmero suficiente de pacientes con lesiones del lbulo frontal focales bien definidas para hacer frente a los temas de inte- especificidad de las funciones de los lbulos frontales, en general, ni siquiera teniendo en cuenta distinciones dentro de los lbulos frontales. Si uno superpone la posibilidad de que diferentes procesos requeridos para completar una sola tarea pueden estar relacionados con diferentes reas en todo el cerebro, as como potencialmente diferentes regiones dentro de los lbulos frontales, es fcil entender por qu la comprensin de las funciones de los lbulos frontales , y la relacin de las diferentes tareas a los lbulos frontales, ha sido tan difcil.
Existen ms problemas debido a problemas metodolgicos experimentales. La evaluacin de los pacientes para la disfuncin del lbulo frontal, o el uso de pruebas neuropsicolgicas que se correlaciona con el rendimiento en tareas experimentales como medio de extrapolar al mecanismo cerebral subyacente (como en los estudios normales de envejecimiento), ha sido difcil debido a nuestras pruebas disponibles. Muchos 'pruebas' ejecutivas son multifactoriales, y el rendimiento se podra Si disminuye por razones distintas a la disfuncin en los lbulos frontales (Stuss, Shallice, Alexander y Picton, 1995). Esto es particularmente cierto si la prueba es ms '"complejo"', como se consideraba necesaria para provocar la disfuncin del lbulo frontal. Por lo tanto, no sera de extraar que los pacientes con lesiones posteriores que pudieran tener negligencia visual o problemas de comprensin, pueden fallar en una prueba del lbulo frontal (Anderson, Damasio, Jones & Tranel, 1991). Esta naturaleza multifactorial tambin es al menos parcialmente responsable de las bajas correlaciones entre las pruebas del lbulo frontal. Muy afines a este concepto es la sensibilidad y especificidad de estas pruebas del lbulo frontal. Los exmenes que pueden ser sensibles no pueden ser especficos. Los exmenes que son especficas no pueden ser sensibles. Tambin es importante darse cuenta de que muchas pruebas que se usan para evaluar los daos del lbulo frontal se desarrollaron por otras razones. Por otra parte, el conocimiento actual de cmo disociar los procesos dentro de una tarea, desarrollada en la psicologa cognitiva, por lo general no estaba disponible cuando se desarrollaron estas pruebas.
Otra advertencia metodolgica se refiere a la evidencia muy escasa sobre la validez y fiabilidad de las pruebas de las funciones frontales. Si se tiene en cuenta lo difcil que es encontrar este tipo de pacientes y de lo difcil que puede ser la obtencin de informacin de localizacin adecuada (y cmo fue esta disponible en el pasado), no es de extraar que pocos estudios con una caracterizacin precisa de la localizacin de la lesin y el paciente se ha completado.
La experiencia del examinador y la estructura de la situacin de prueba tambin son factores importantes, que pueden confundir el examen de las funciones de los lbulos frontales. Es relativamente fcil '' convertido en los lbulos frontales '' de un paciente o de investigacin participante (Stuss, 1987). De hecho, tal estructura externa es un mecanismo para la rehabilitacin de estos dficits. Una ltima consideracin se refiere a las diferencias individuales entre los pacientes. Cada paciente lleva un fondo diferente a la situacin de prueba, lo que puede influir en el rendimiento en cualquier prueba especfica.
La calidad de las medidas dependientes s puede plantear un obstculo. Ne (Stuss, 1991c; Stuss, STE- ellos, Hugenholtz, Picton, Pivik & Richard, 1989; Stuss, Pogue, Buckle y Bondar, 1994b) inform que las personas que sufren de lesin cerebral traumtica fueron variables en su rendimiento en un tiempo de reaccin particular tarea. Es decir, que podan hacer la tarea un da, pero no en otro. Esta fue la hiptesis de estar relacionado con la disfuncin en los lbulos frontales, en que la capacidad de completar una tarea fue intacto, pero los pacientes eran incapaces de sostener el esfuerzo de arriba hacia abajo para completar la tarea de manera consistente. En un estudio en curso (Stuss, Murphy & Binns, 1999), la relacin primaria de rendimiento visual a los lbulos frontales parece ser apoyado. Es decir, el ruido es los datos. Tal variabilidad muy probable
Tal vez el problema ms significativo en el estudio de las funciones ejecutivas o frontales ha sido de naturaleza conceptual. Trminos como funciones ejecutivas, '' de control disejecutivo '' '' sistema de supervisin '' y '' control '' funciones no son fciles de operacionalizar. Por lo tanto, ha sido difcil idear manipulaciones experimentales precisas para estudiar estos procesos. Por otra parte, hemos estado obligados por las distinciones anteriores realizados para tratar de entender estos trminos. Por ejemplo, uno se ha hecho distincin entre '' compleja '' y '' rutina '"tareas en un intento de caracterizar las diferencias entre los procesos frontales y posteriores. Una idea consistente en muchas teoras de las funciones del lbulo frontal ha sido que estos procesos frontales se activan cuando el control de los procesos ms automticos, ubicados en las regiones cerebrales ms posteriores, se requiere. Este control se invoca cuando el nivel de complejidad de una tarea requiere ms de los procesos de rutina, cuando la informacin de edad debe ser considerado en nuevas formas, o cuando la informacin a procesar es novela. Una distincin similar ha sido entre el control y los procesos automticos. Sin embargo, muchos, actos overlearned de rutina pueden ser muy complejos, y puede ser necesario un alto grado de control. Adems, lo que es complejo para una persona puede ser simple para otro, y una tarea relativamente simple se puede hacer complejo por la interpretacin del sujeto. La mayora de los mdicos y los investigadores han tenido la experiencia de un control inteligente tema totalmente fallando en la Card Sorting Test Nisconsin porque la hiptesis de estrategias mucho ms complejas de clasificacin que se les exiga.
Un reflejo de esta dificultad en la definicin de los trminos es el importante debate sobre la unidad o la diversidad de funciones de los lbulos frontales. Muchos tericos han considerado las funciones de supervisin o ejecutivo de una manera unitaria. Duncan (1995), quien sostuvo que el sistema de supervisin era un trmino que representa una funcin unificada de inteligencia fluida, o '' g '", postul ms explcitamente esta idea. Otros, en cambio, sugieren que hay muchas funciones frontales (Baddeley, 1996; rollos, 1996; Shallice y Burgess, 1991; Stuss y Benson, 1984, 1986;. Stuss et al, 1995). Por ello no es de extraar que el estudio de las funciones ejecutivas, por no hablar de las funciones de los lbulos frontales, ha sido tan difcil, sobre todo en los seres humanos. Aqu resumimos nuestra posicin en el estudio de las funciones del lbulo frontal, tanto desde puntos de vista metodolgicos y conceptuales, y luego ofrecer los datos que nos han llevado a estas declaraciones.