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NORMAL CELL
CELL
Fundamental unit of living matter divided into;
a) Nucleus
b) Cytoplasm
Organelles = subcellular structures within the nucleus or cytoplasm.
lasma membrane or plasmalemma separates cell from the e!ternal environment.
CELL FUNCTION
a) INTRACELLULAR
"aintain internal milieu
roduce #N$
#eproduce %N$
&ynthesis of transmitters hormones or secretions
"etabolism of e!ogenous and endogenous substances
roduction of chemical energy
Cell movement and motility.
Control of intracellular functions
$ctivation of '
nd
messengers
#egulate gene e!pression
#eceptor changes
(n)yme activation or inhibition
Changes in permeability.
b) EXTRACELLULAR FUNCTIONS
Chemical* electrical or mechanical interaction
+ntracellular communication via neurotransmitters* hormones* secretions.
#elease of Cyto,ines
Control of e!tracellular functions
1. $utocrine - &ubstances acting on the cell itself eg. +nflammation
'. aracrine -&ubstances released acting on the others cells eg. rostaglandins*
leu,otrienes or thrombo!ane.
'
COMPONENTS OF CELL
1. lasma "embrane. Outer membrane containing contents of cell.
'. Cytoplasm . $ll intracellular contents outside the nucleus / include the cystosol
and organelles.
0. Cytosol . +ntracellular fluid consisting of proteins and electrolytes forms 123
4ody weight.
1. Cytos,eleton . &upport structure that maintains cell structure.
5. "itochondria. Cytoplasmic organelles that provide energy via o!idation
phosphorylation generating $6.
7. (ndoplasmic #eticulum. "embranous structures with folds / microtubules.
8a) #ough (#. 9ranular (# with ribosomes attached; important for
protein synthesis
8b) &mooth (# . $ granular (# - site for deto!ification and steroid
synthesis.
:. #ibosomes . rotein structure* that may be free in cytosol or attached to (#.
;. 9olgi $pparatus . Organelle that process protein for secretion from cell.
<. =ysosomes. Organelles that brea,down and eliminate intracellular debris or
e!ogenous substances.
12. ero!isomes . Organelles that catalyse anabolic or catabolic reactions eg.
4rea,down of long chain fatty acid.
11. Centrosomes. Organelle that are responsible for the formation of mitotic spindle
in cell divisions.
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Cancer is not a single disease. 6here are many types of cancers as there are types of tissues in
the body. Cancer develops when cells in a part of the body begin to grow out of control. Normal body
cells grow* divide* and die in an orderly fashion. %uring the early years of a person?s life* normal cells
divide more rapidly until the person becomes an adult. $fter that* cells in most parts of the body
divide only to replace worn-out or dying cells and to repair in@uries.
Cancer cells* however* continue to grow and divide even when there is no need to do so.
+nstead of dying* they outlive the normal cells and continue to form new abnormal cells. 6hey
compete with normal cells for the blood supply and nutrients that normal cells need thus causing
weight loss.
Cancer cells often travel to other parts of the body where they begin to grow and replace
normal tissue. 6his process is called metastasis. +t occurs as the cancer cells get into the bloodstream
or lymph vessels of our body.
6he immune system seems to play a role in the development and spread of cancer. Ahen the
immune system is intact* isolated cancer cells will usually be detected and removed from the body.
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Ahen the immune system is impaired as in people with immunodeficiency disease* people with organ
transplants who are receiving immunosuppressant drugs* or in $+%&* there is usually an increase in
cancer incidence.
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Normal cells transform into cancer cells because of damage to %N$. eople can inherit
damaged %N$* which accounts for inherited cancers. "any times though* a person?s %N$ becomes
damaged by e!posure to something to!ic to the environment such as chemicals* radiation or viruses.
#emember though that most cancers have multiple causes and ris, factors.
Cereditary>Family Cistory
Certain types of cancers run in the family such as breast cancer.
Carcinogens
$ carcinogen is an agent capable of causing cancer. 6his may be a chemical* an
environment agent* radiation and viruses.
(ffects of carcinogenic agents usually depend on the dose or amount of e!posure;
the larger the dose or the longer the e!posure* the greater the ris, of cancer.
"any cancers are associated with lifestyle ris, factors such as smo,ing* dietary
factors and alcohol consumption.
Chemical / (nvironmental $gents
olycyclic hydrocarbons are chemicals found in cigarette smo,e*
industrial agents* or in food such as smo,ed foods. olycyclic hydrocarbons are
also produced from animal fat in the process of broiling meats and are present in
smo,ed meats and fish.
$flato!in is found in peanuts and peanut butter.
Others include ben)opyrene* nitrosamines* and a lot more.
4en)opyrene
roduced when meat and fish are charcoal broiled or smo,ed 8e.g. tinapa
or smo,ed fish). $void eating burned food and eat smo,ed foods in moderation.
$lso produced when food is fried in fat that has been reused repeatedly.
$void reusing coo,ing oil.
Nitrosamines
6hese are powerful carcinogens used as preservatives in foods li,e tocino*
longganisa* bacon and hotdog.
Formation of nitrosamines may be inhibited by the presence of
antio!idants such as Ditamin C in the stomach. =imit eating preserved foods and
eat more vegetables and fruits that are rich in dietary fiber.
#adiation
#adiation can also cause cancer including ultraviolet rays from sunlight*
!-rays* radioactive chemicals and other forms of radiation.
Diruses
$ virus can enter a host cell and cause cancer. 6his is found in cervical
cancer 8human papilloma virus)* liver cancer 8hepatitis 4 virus)* certain
leu,emias* lymphoma and nasopharyngeal cancer 8(pstein-4arr virus).
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#+&E F$C6O#& OF C$NC(#
#is, factors for cancer include a person?s age* se! and family medical history. Others are
lin,ed to cancer-causing factors in the environment. &till others are related to lifestyle factors such as
tobacco and alcohol use* diet and sun e!posure.
Caving a ris, factor for cancer means that a person is more li,ely to develop the disease at
some point in his>her life. Cowever* having one or more ris, factors does not necessarily mean that a
person will get cancer. &ome people with one or more ris, factors never develop the disease* while
other people who do develop cancer have no apparent ris, factors. 6his has a lot to do with a person?s
immune system.
%ifferent ,inds of cancer have different ris, factors. &ome of the ma@or ris, factors associated
with particular types of cancer include the following.
CANCER RISK FACTORS
Lung Cancer
Tobacco use, including cigarettes, cigars, chewing
tobacco and snuff.
Radiation exposure
Second-hand smoke
Oral Cancer
Tobacco use (cigarette, cigar, pipe, smokeless
tobacco)
Excessie alcohol use
!hronic irritation (e.g. ill-fitting dentures)
"itamin # deficienc$
Laryngeal Cancer
Tobacco use (cigarette, cigar, pipe, smokeless
tobacco)
%oor nutrition
#lcohol
&eakened immune s$stem
'ccupational exposure to wood dust, paint fumes
(ender) *-+ times more common in men
#ge) more than ,- $ears
Bladder Cancer
Tobacco use (cigarette, cigar, pipe, smokeless
tobacco)
'ccupational exposure) d$es, solents
!hronic bladder inflammation
Renal Cancer
Tobacco use (cigarette, cigar, pipe, smokeless
tobacco)) increase risk b$ *-.
'besit$
/iet) well-cooked meat
'ccupational exposure) asbestos, organic solents
#ge) +--0- $ears old
Cervcal Cancer
Tobacco use (cigarette, cigar, pipe, smokeless
tobacco)
1uman papillomairus infection
!hlam$dia infection
/iet) low in fruits and egetables
2amil$ histor$ of cerical cancer
E!"#$ageal Cancer
Tobacco use (cigarette, cigar, pipe, smokeless
tobacco)
(ender) 3 times more common in men
#lcohol
/iet) low in fruits and egetables
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Brea!% Cancer
Earl$ menarche4late menopause
#ge-changes in hormone leels throughout life,
such as age at first menstruation, number of
pregnancies, and age at menopause
1igh fat diet
'besit$
%h$sical inactiit$
Some studies hae also shown a connection
between alcohol consumption and an increased risk of
breast cancer
&omen with a mother or sister who hae had
breast cancer are more likel$ to deelop the disease
Pr"!%a%e Cancer
&hile all men are at risk, seeral factors can
increase the chances of deeloping the disease, such
as adancing age, race and diet
Race) more common among #frican-#merican men
than among white men
1igh fat diet
5en with a father or brother who has had prostate
cancer are more likel$ to get prostate cancer
themseles
Lver Cancer
!ertain t$pes of iral hepatitis
!irrhosis of the lier
6ong-term exposure to aflatoxin (carcinogenic
substance produced b$ a fungus that often
contaminates peanuts, wheat, so$beans, corn and
rice)
S&n Cancer
7nprotected exposure to strong sunlight
2air complexion
'ccupational exposure
C"l"nc Cancer
%ersonal4famil$ histor$ of pol$ps
1igh fat diet and4or low fiber diet
1istor$ of ulceratie colitis
#ge) 8+- $ears
U%erne'End"(e%ral Cancer
Estrogen replacement therap$
Earl$ menarche4late menopausal
$mong these factors* tobacco use* unhealthy diet and physical inactivity are more li,ely to
affect personal cancer ris,. &mo,ing alone causes one-third of all cancer deaths. #esearch also shows
that about one-third of all cancer deaths are related to dietary factors and lac, of physical activity in
adulthood.
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$66(#N& OF C(== 9#OA6C
Cyperplasia G increase in the si)e of an organ because of an increase in cell
number
"etaplasia G a reversible process in which one adult cell type in an organ is
replaced by another adult cell type
%ysplasia G alteration in adult cells characteri)ed by changes in their si)e* shape*
and organi)ation
$naplasia G reversed cellular development to a primitive cell type
Neoplasia G abnormal cellular changes and growth of new tissues
&6$9(& +N C$#C+NO9(N(&+&
Carcinogenesis is the process during which normal genes are damaged so that
cells lose normal control mechanisms of growth and proliferate out of control. Ahen the
genes of a single cell are altered by a carcinogenic event* the offspring of the single cell
continue to mutate and divide* producing even more virulent mutant clones.
+nitiation G e!posure of normal cells to carcinogens
romotion G cigarette smo,ing* alcohol abuse or dietary components that act on
the transformed cell
rogression G uncontrollable growth of malignant tumor capable of metastatic
activity
A$#N+N9 &+9N& OF C$NC(#
C G hange in bowel or bladder habits
$ G sore that doesn?t heal
B G nusual bleeding>discharge
6 G hic,ening of lump G breast or elsewhere
+ G ndigestion>dysphagia
O G bvious change in a wart>mole
Ahen you are healthy* your body has over a trillion cells that divide at standard rate
and pace. Ahen you develop cancer your normal cells turn into cancer cells. Cancer cells
have different %N$ than healthy cells. One of the first steps in a healthy cell becoming a
cancer cell is the change of the proto-oncogens to oncogenes. roto-oncogenes are genes
that are coded to maintain normal cell growth. $n oncogene is a gene that has changed to
ma,e the cells grow and divide faster. +n cancer cells the cell grows and divides very
Huic,ly. 6he second step to becoming a cancer cell is the tumor suppressor genes get turned
off. 6umor suppressor genes are a part of a healthy cells %N$ that help stop cancer from
forming in healthy cells. 6umor suppressor genes help slow down cell growth* when these
genes are turned off the cell with grow and divide very Huic,ly. 6he last step to becoming a
Cancer cell is the %N$ repair genes gets turned off. %N$ repair genes help your healthy
cells ,now if something is wrong with its %N$ and how to fi! it. Ahen these genes get
turned off the cell doesn?t ,now if it is sic,* and it can?t fi! any problems with its %N$.
;
N G agging cough>hoarseness
B G ne!plained anemia
& G udden and une!plained weight loss
ersistent headache
C=$&&+F+C$6+ON
9rading G defines the origin of the tumor and degree to which tumor cells retain
the functional and histologic characteristics of tissue origin
9rade I. 9rade cannot be determined
9rade +. Cells differ slightly from normal cells and are well differentiated
8"ild %ysplasia)
9rade ++. Cells are abnormal and are moderately differentiated 8"oderate
%ysplasia)
9rade +++. Cells are very abnormal and are poorly differentiated 8&evere
%ysplasia)
9rade +D. Cells are immature 8$naplasia) and undifferentiated* cell of
origin is difficult to determine.
&taging G determines the si)e of the tumor and e!tent metastasis; determines
e!tent of the disease
&tage 2 G carcinoma in situ; cancer in place
&tage + G tumor limited to the tissue of origin; locali)ed tumor growth
&tage ++ G limited local spread
&tage +++ G e!tensive local and regional spread
&tage +D- metastasis
%+$9NO&6+C 6(&6&
4iopsy G is the definitive means of diagnosing cancer and provides histological
proof of malignancy. +t involves the surgical incision of a small piece of tissue of
microscopic e!amination
6ypes.
Needle. $spiration of Cells
+ncisional. #emoval of a wedge of suspected tissue from a larger
mass
(!cisional. Complete removal of the entire lesion
&taging. "ultiple needle or incisional biopsies in tissues where
metastasis is suspected or li,ely.
Other means of %etection
"ammography
apanicolaou?s 8ap) test
&tools for occult blood
&igmoidoscopy
Colonospcopy
&,in +nspection
E(F $#($& FO# #+"$#F #(D(N6+ON OF C$NC(#&
&mo,ing Cessation G Huit smo,ing for active smo,ers. revent passive smo,ing.
$dvise smo,ers not to smo,e inside living areas and wor,places to prevent
e!posure of others to second-hand smo,e.
<
(ncourage proper nutrition
+ncrease inta,e of dietary fiber by eating more leafy green and yellow
vegetables* fruits and unrefined cereals. 4eta-carotene* vitamins $* C* (
and fiber may be potential anti-cancer substances. (at less fat and fatty
foods.
=imit consumption of smo,ed* charcoal-broiled* salt-cured* and salt-
pic,led foods. $void moldy foods.
%rin, alcohol beverages in moderation.
$void>control obesity through proper nutrition and e!ercise.
6he sooner a cancer is diagnosed and treatment begins* the better the chances of
living longer and en@oying a better Huality life.
)**erence be%+een a cancer cell and a n"r(al cell
Cancer is a disease characterised by uncontrollable cell growth. the causative factors
include genetic factors* e!posure to carcinogens* etc. Carcinogenesis is the development
of cancer.6he gene which cause cancer is ONCO 9(N(.Carcinogens activate the onco
gene hence causing cancer.
Cancer cells are abnormal cells and they have characteristics that can be associated with
their ability to grow uncontrollably.Cancer cells are charectari)ed by undifferentiated and
uncontrolled cell division.Cancer cells are non-speciali)ed* and divide uncontrollably.
Cancer in situ is a tumor located in its place of origin. "alignant tumors establish new
tumor distant from the primary tumors.
Cancer cells characteristics distinguish them from normal cells. 6hey have abnormal
nuclei with many chromosomal irregularities. 6hey form tumors because they do not
e!hibit contact inhibition. 6hey induce angiogenesis and cause nearby blood vessels to
form a capillary networ, that services the tumor.