CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter discussed about background of the study, research questions, and
objective of the study.

A. Background of The Study
The term dyslexia was coined in 1887 to refer to a case of a young boy who had a
severe impairment in learning to read and write in spite of showing typical
intellectual and physical abilities. Research on dyslexia throughout the early 20
th
century focused on the idea that dyslexia stemmed from a visual deficit that involved
reading words backwards or upside-down. However, in the 1970s it was suggested
that dyslexia stemmed from a deficit in processing the phonological form of speech,
which resulted in individuals having difficulty associating word sounds with visual
letters that make up the written word. More recent studies using modern imaging
techniques have shown differences in the way the brain of a dyslexic person
develops and functions. Now, even after a century of research, dyslexia is still one of
the most controversial topics in the field of developmental neurology, psychology and
education. The controversy arises from the incomplete and varying definitions of
dyslexia and from the contradictory theories surrounding its causes, subtypes and
characteristics.
Dyslexia is widely accepted to be a specific learning disability and has
biological traits that differentiate it from other learning disabilities. Dyslexia is the
most common specific learning disability and is estimated to affect from 3 to 20 % of
the population around the world. The Specific Learning Disabilities Federation of
Indonesia which provides specialist tutoring services within Indonesia estimate that
5.2 % of all students have specific learning disabilities, which equates to
approximately 45,000 school age children. However there is no empirical evidence to
confirm this statement. Findings from the 1996 International Adult Literacy survey
(Chapman et al., 2003) have 6.5 % of Indonesian adults identifying themselves as
having a reading disability; based on todays population this equates to around
265,000 adults. However, as the survey only focused on reading problems and not all
possible learning difficulties it is reasonable to assume that at least 10 % of the
population experiences some type of specific learning disability.
Whilst the term dyslexia is used in some countries as a type of specific
learning disability, there is no international agreement on its definition and diagnosis.
The Indonesia government does not officially recognize the use of the term dyslexia
to define literacy difficulties. Currently, the Ministry of Health does not recognize
dyslexia as a medical condition but recognizes that it needs diagnosis and treatment,
and as it is considered a developmental disorder the preferred term is specific learning
disability. The Ministry of Education does not wish to develop an education system
which defines and categorizes students in terms of their learning disabilities, but
prefers a system that makes assessments on their needs for additional support. In this
regard, the Ministry of Education does not specifically recognize the use of the term
dyslexia in the school context because of the issues associated with labeling students,
and instead, individual needs are identified and appropriate interventions across a
range of learning difficulties are implemented.
Provisions have been made in the Special Education 2000 policy for schools
to assist children with moderate learning difficulties and a Special Education Grant
(SEG) is also paid directly to schools so that they might provide instructional
adaptations to improve the educational achievement of those students with learning
difficulties. Remedial reading programmers offered to Indonesia students with
reading difficulties include Reading Recovery (RR), and specialist support is
provided through the Resource Teachers: Literacy (RT:Lits) and Resource Teachers:
Learning and Behavior (RT:LBs). However, there is a group of students who are not
making progress in literacy in spite of good teaching and, where accessed, any
intervention. It is possible that this may result because of learning disabilities that
teachers know little about.


B. Research Questions
As the researcher had explained on the background, the research question of this
study was devised:
1. What are the causes of dyslexia?
2. How to treat dyslexia?

C. Objectives of The Study
This research conducted to:
1. Explain what are the causes of dyslexia, and
2. Find way to treat the problem.





CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter discussed some supportive theories that relate to this study dealing with
language disorder. The content as follows: language disorder, dyslexia, the causes of
dyslexia, dyslexia in language and treatments for dyslexia.

A. Language Disorder
A language disorder is impairment in the ability to understand and/or use words in
context, both verbally and nonverbally. Some characteristics of language disorders
include improper use of words and their meanings, inability to express ideas,
inappropriate grammatical patterns, reduced vocabulary, and inability to follow
directions. One or a combination of these characteristics may occur in children who
are affected by language learning disabilities or developmental language delay.
Children may hear or see a word but not be able to understand its meaning. They may
have trouble getting others to understand what they are trying to communicate.

1. Expressive Language Disorder
Expressive language disorder means a child has difficulty conveying or
expressing information in speech, writing, sign language or gesture. For preschool
children, the impairment is not evident in the written form, since they have not started
formal education.
Some children are late in reaching typical language milestones in the first
three years, but eventually catch up to their peers. These children are commonly
referred to as late-talkers. Children who continue to have difficulty with verbal
expression may be diagnosed with expressive language disorder or language
impairment.

a) Symptoms of expressive language disorder
Children with expressive language disorder have difficulties with the
grammatical aspects of spoken language such as using the correct verb tense (they
might say I go when they mean I went) and combining words to form accurate
phrases and sentences. They typically produce much shorter phrases and sentences
than other children of the same age, and their vocabulary (the number of words they
know and use) is smaller and more basic.
Children with expressive language disorder are usually below the average
level for their age in:
Putting words and sentences together to express thoughts
Recalling the names of words
Using language appropriately in a variety of settings with different people (for
example, at home, in school, with parents and teachers).
Specific examples of expressive language impairment include a seven-year-
old child being unable to join sentences with words like and, but or if, and a
three-year-old child who speaks in two-word sentences.
Symptoms of expressive language disorder differ from one child to the next and
depend on the childs age and the degree of the impairment. Common symptoms
include:
Making grammatical errors, leaving off words (such as helper verbs) and
using poor or incomplete sentence structure (for example, He going work
instead of Hes going to work and I talk instead of I can talk)
Using noticeably fewer words and sentences than children of a similar age
Using shorter, simpler sentence construction than children of a similar age
Having a limited and more basic vocabulary than children of a similar age
Frequently having trouble finding the right word
Using non-specific vocabulary such as this or thing
Using the wrong words in sentences or confusing meaning in sentences
Relying on standard phrases and limited content in speech
Sounding hesitant when attempting to converse
Repeating (or echoing) a speakers words
Being unable to come to the point or talking in circles
Having problems with retelling a story or relaying information in an
organized or cohesive way
Being unable to start or hold a conversation and not observing general rules of
communicating with others
Having difficulty with oral and written work, and school assignments.

b) Cause of expressive language disorder
For many children, the cause of expressive language disorder is not known.
Children who experience difficulties in language development alone are typically
diagnosed with specific language impairment. For other children, expressive language
disorder is associated with known developmental difficulties or impairments (for
example, down syndrome, autism or hearing loss).
Many children with expressive language disorder will have an accompanying
receptive language disorder, meaning that they have difficulty in understanding
language. Expressive language disorder can be a developmental (from birth) or
acquired impairment. An acquired impairment occurs after a period of normal
development. It can be the result of trauma or a medical condition. Research suggests
that in some cases expressive language disorder is a genetic impairment (found
frequently in more than one family member and across generations).

c) Diagnosis of expressive language disorder
If your child is having difficulties with speaking or expressive language, have
his or her language skills assessed by a speech pathologist (speech therapist). Do not
delay an assessment, because your child may miss many months of important
therapy. It is also important to have your childs hearing assessed.
Speech pathologists perform specific assessments to identify the areas of language
that a child finds difficult. These assessments are not stressful for the child, and
parents are usually present during these consultations.

Speech pathologists may also recommend:
An auditory processing test (this is different to a standard hearing test)
A test for learning difficulties (for school-aged children)
An assessment of cognitive function (thinking and intelligence by a registered
psychologist.

d) Treatment for expressive language disorder
Treatment options depend on the severity of the impairment. Treatment may
include:
Group sessions with a speech pathologist
Individual therapy sessions with a speech pathologist
School-based language intervention programs
Assistance from special education teachers
Teachers aide support for children with severe language impairment
Speech pathology sessions combined with home programs that parents can
use with their child.

2. Receptive Language Disorder
Receptive language is the comprehension of spoken language. Receptive
language disorder means the child has difficulties with understanding what is said to
them. The symptoms vary between children but, generally, problems with language
comprehension usually begin before the age of four years.
Children need to understand spoken language before they can use language
effectively. In most cases, the child with a receptive language problem also has an
expressive language disorder, which means they have trouble using spoken language.
It is estimated that between three and five per cent of children have a receptive
or expressive language disorder, or a mixture of both. Another name for receptive
language disorder is language comprehension deficit. Treatment options include
speechlanguage therapy.

a) Symptoms of receptive language disorder
There is no standard set of symptoms that indicates receptive language
disorder, since it varies from one child to the next. However, symptoms may include:
Not seeming to listen when they are spoken to
Appearing to lack interest when storybooks are read to them
Inability to understand complicated sentences
Inability to follow verbal instructions
Parroting words or phrases of things that are said to them (echolalia)
Language skills below the expected level for their age.

b) Cause of receptive language disorder
The cause of receptive language disorder is often unknown, but is thought to
consist of a number of factors working in combination, such as the childs genetic
susceptibility, the childs exposure to language, and their general developmental and
cognitive (thought and understanding) abilities.
Receptive language disorder is often associated with developmental disorders
such as autism or Down syndrome. In other cases, receptive language disorder is
caused by brain injury such as trauma, tumour or disease. For some children,
difficulty with language is the only developmental problem they experience.

c) Understanding spoken language
Understanding spoken language is a complicated process. The child may have
problems with one or more of:
Hearing a hearing loss can be the cause of language problems. A
hearing loss is not a receptive language problem itself, but means that the
child has less exposure to language than hearing children.
Vision understanding language involves visual cues, such as facial
expression and gestures. A child with vision loss wont have these
additional cues, and may experience language problems.
Attention the childs ability to pay attention and concentrate on whats
being said may be impaired.
Speech sounds there may be problems distinguishing between similar
speech sounds.
Verbal memory the brain has to remember all the words in a sentence
in order to make sense of what has been said. The child may have
difficulties with remembering the string of sounds that make up a
sentence.
Word and grammar knowledge the child may not understand the
meaning of words or sentence structure.

B. Dyslexia
Developmental dyslexia is a severe difficulty with the written form of language
independent of intellectual, cultural, and emotional causation. It is characterized by
the individuals reading, writing and spelling attainments being well below the level
expected based on intelligence and chronological age. The difficulty is a cognitive
one, affecting those language skills associated with the written form, particularly
visual-to-verbal coding, short-term memory, order perception and sequencing.
(Thomson & Watkins, 1990, p. 3).
Krasowicz-Kupis at all. (2008, p. 53) define dyslexia is one of several distinct
learning disabilities. It is a specific language-based disorder of constitutional origin
characterized by difficulties in single word decoding, usually reflecting insufficient
phonological processing. These difficulties in single word decoding are often
unexpected in relation to age and other cognitive and academic abilities; they are not
the result of generalized developmental disability or sensory impairment. Dyslexia is
manifested by variable difficulty with different forms of language, often including, in
addition to problems with reading, a conspicuous problem with acquiring proficiency
in writing and spelling.

C. Causes of Dyslexia
Dyslexia involves an interdisciplinary study and consensus of neuroscience, cognitive
science and learning theory, quite naturally inviting their application in education. It
seems to be a very intriguing and controversial phenomenon, widely investigated
from many diverse standpoints. Over the past few decades, a considerable amount of
research has been devoted to identifying its probable causes, with several important
insights from science pathways whose frameworks were not extensively used before
to substantiate the nature of dyslexia.
Admittedly, the outstanding progress in such scientific fields as neuroscience,
brain imaging and genetics has confirmed several intuitively plausible hypotheses
lacking earlier empirical verification and has revealed multiple, previously unknown
facts indicating the complex, polietiological nature of dyslexia (Bogdanowicz &
Adryjanek, 2004).
Dyslexia may be caused by a number of factors operating independently or
interacting with other factors to produce the outcome; moreover, various causes can
be applicable to different children, and, last but not least, there may be several causes
of dyslexic problems in place with relation to a particular child. Hulme and Snowling
(2009: 30) convincingly argue that in light of current knowledge, causality and causes
should be treated in terms of probability rather than certainty Causes are things that
increase the likelihood of an outcome.
All in all, there seems to be general agreement that dyslexia has
neurobiological origins with reference to genetic construction as well as structural
and functional features of the central nervous system (Knight & Hynd, 2008). These
distal causes bring about certain malfunctions on the cognitive level, which, in turn,
serve as more proximal causes of reading failure.
Notwithstanding certain characteristics of difficulties encountered by children
with dyslexia and manifest causes of their reading disability, which are generally
agreed upon (Velutino et al., 2004), several conceptions concerning the underlying
causes of dyslexia are currently at large, indeed generating sizeable chaos in terms of
available, at times inconsistent and often contradicting evidence and its critical
evaluation.
Given the complex nature of dyslexia, any decent attempt to understand its
multiple facets would necessarily involve a description and explanation with regard to
three levels: biological, cognitive and behavioural, with a range of environmental
influences operating at each of them (Frith, 1999, 2008; Morton & Frith, 1995).
Explanation at the biological level pinpoints the underlying brain mechanism, for
example, disorganization in the cerebral cortex in the language areas, abnormal
magnocellular pathways or abnormal cerebellum. The cognitive level provides a
description as regards the theoretical constructs from cognitive psychology such as
reduced working memory, poor phonological processing, incomplete automatisation
or slow central processing. Finally, the behavioral level refers to symptoms such as
poor reading and spelling, difficulty with rhymes, poor motion sensitivity, poor rapid
auditory processing and difficulty maintaining balance. No one level of explanation is
assigned a more important role than the other levels; all of them are extremely useful
in enhancing our understanding of the disorder.
As for the hypothetical causal links between the levels, the indicated direction
is from biological through cognitive1 to behavioral level. In other words, a genetic
difference causes a brain abnormality, which in turn is responsible for a cognitive
deficit, which in turn brings about certain observed patterns of behaviour. As stressed
by Hulme and Snowling (2009), none of the levels can be reduced or replaced with
another level. In addition, they extend the understanding of the direction of the
hypothetical causal links proposed in the abovementioned causal model by
postulating the causal direction backwards from behaviour, through cognition to
biology. It is claimed that alterations at the behavioural level can induce changes at
the cognitive level, which in turn depend on the changes in the underlying brain
mechanisms. It is possible because experience is likely to modify connections
between nerve cells, which can result in long-lasting structural and functional
changes. Even more surprisingly, the genetic level is also likely to be influenced by
changes at the cognitive and behavioral levels; there is evidence that the way genes
are expressed can be altered by experience.
Genes carry information that serves to direct development, but influences
from the environment in which the development takes place interact with genetic
inputs. The course of development, including the development of the brain, is
characterized by change and interaction and is said to result from the interplay of
genetic and environmental inputs. Hulme and Snowling (2009: 11) stress that:
learning (an influence from the environment) operates to modify structures in the
brain that developed under genetic control and in turn may influence subsequent
learning. Dyslexia seems to be under the considerable influence of genetic risk
factors whose activity is connected with altering the development of certain language
systems of the left hemisphere of the brain. However, the impact of the environment,
in which children learn to read, on dyslexia cannot be underestimated.

D. Dyslexia In Language Learning
The native language difficulties of at-risk learners may be overt or subtle; in the latter
case, they may only be apparent in one language code phonological/orthographic,
syntactic or semantic. Four prototypes of poor foreign language learners,
characterized by diverse linguistic profiles, have been described. Weak phonology,
average or strong syntax and strong semantics constitute one prototype; the second
prototype is characterized by strong phonology, average or strong syntax and weak
semantics; the third has weak phonology, syntax and semantics; and the last
prototype entails average to strong phonology, syntax and semantics, but low
motivation and/or high anxiety. The most commonly occurring combination is the
first prototype (with weak phonology) (Ganschow & Sparks, 1995; Sparks, 1995).
As already indicated, Spark and Ganschow (Sparks et al., 1995b) suggest that
foreign language learning problems of students at secondary and post-secondary level
may be due to earlier problems with phonological/orthographic processing of their
native language. It is further hypothesized that even though these students may be
able to compensate for their phonological/orthographic processing problems and
achieve average or above-average grades in most school subjects, when it comes to
learning a new sound-symbol system of a foreign language, the difficulties with
phonological/orthographic processing re-emerge.
Bearing in mind that these difficulties may hamper the process of FL learning
to a lesser or greater extent, one might, quite naturally, consider an extreme case and
ask whether they are capable of making a decent command of a foreign language a
totally unattainable goal. In other words, should we conceptualize the notion of an
absolute inability to learn a foreign language as a plausible explanation of FL learning
difficulties in the cases of LD students, and only those students?
As everyone knows that reading and writing, text based skills are still very
important in Higher Education (whatever the subject) but they are not the only skills
you need.
The short-term memory configuration of the dyslexic brain also has an impact
on other areas which are equally important:
- Remembering - information for exams, names, processes and instructions.
- Oral skills - finding words, mispronunciation, listening, structuring saying
things in the right order
- Doing more than one thing at a time - combining two or more activities, for
example listening and writing
All these activities put your auditory short-term memory to hard work. When
you are concentrating on speaking or writing or listening, your short-term memory is
dealing with the process of using language. When you are speaking or writing you are
remembering words and also putting them in an order so that they make sense, for
example, into a sentence. When you are listening you are interpreting sounds and
matching those sounds with words in your long-term memory. If the tape loop of
your short-term memory is hard at work listening, speaking or writing, then there is
less short-term memory available for the content of what you are communicating or
hearing.
When we are communicating, we are, in fact, multi-tasking we are using
our short-term memory to hold in mind what we want to communicate, while also
remembering how to communicate. When we forget specific information, such as
names or facts, our ability to communicate fluently is interrupted. If we are in
situations which put additional pressure on our short-term memory, for example,
when we are combining two different activities or sitting an exam, this can be a
particular problem.
Visual short-term memory is a factor where information has to be
remembered and communicated in writing. For example, you might not remember the
sequence of the information you want to communicate, such as a series of historical
events. In the same way, when editing what you have written, you may find it hard to
remember and locate which paragraph you want to change and how any changes
might affect the meaning of your writing.

E. Treatment for Dyslexia
As for some alternative types of treatment, let us begin with methods of therapy for
dyslexia type P (perceptual) and L (linguistic) compiled by Bakker.2 This
intervention program is based on the assumption that the normal developmental
process of literacy acquisition, either in a first or a subsequent language, begins with
more substantial involvement of the right hemisphere and then transfers to the left
(Robertson, 2000b; Robertson & Bakker, 2008; Stamboltzis & Pumfrey, 2000).
Reading difficulties manifest themselves if, during the process of learning to read, the
shift of dominance from the right to the left hemisphere takes place either too late (P-
type dyslexia) or too early (L-type dyslexia), bringing about the lack of balance
between the perceptual and linguistic strategies used for reading. P-type and L-type
can be treated by stimulation of the left and right hemispheres, respectively, with the
use of various sensory modalities tactile, auditory and visual. Such an activity should
presumably result in alterations in the use of the reading strategies and, consequently,
in changes in the reading performance. Two remedial techniques have been proposed:
hemisphere-specific stimulation (HSS) and hemisphere-alluding stimulation (HAS).
The HSS technique involves direct unilateral presentation of the reading material to
the right or left visual field, to the right or left ear and/or to the fingers of the right or
left hand in P-type and L-type dyslexics, respectively. The right visual field and the
right hand project onto the left hemisphere; the left visual field and the left hand
project onto the right hemisphere. However, as far as the auditory channel is
concerned, the dissociation in hemispheric projection is not total. Although
contralateral projections dominate, ipsilateral ones also exist. Still, the activity of the
ipsilateral hemisphere may be reduced during listening tasks through the
simultaneous presentation of verbal information to one ear and non-verbal
information to the other ear.
HAS provides for indirect bilateral presentation of the reading material to
stimulate the left or right hemisphere. The stimulus is perceived by both hemispheres,
but HAS engages each of the hemispheres by specifically manipulating the nature of
the reading task. For example, a perceptually difficult text (atypical fonts, pictures),
which necessitates greater involvement of the right hemisphere, should be presented
to L-type dyslexics. It is further recommended that reading materials for P-type
dyslexics, to activate the left hemisphere, be perceptually simple and require the use
of linguistic strategies (e.g. filling the missing words in a text, recognizing and
forming rhymes, forming sentences from the given words). HAS is transferable to the
classroom situation, while, unsurprisingly, HSS is not transferable because
sophisticated equipment is required for carrying out the tasks.
Another suggestion for therapeutic activities can be traced back to the visual
and auditory magnocellular hypothesis. The fact that monocular occlusion (blanking
the vision of one eye) can improve the reading ability of children with visual
binocular instability has been confirmed (Stein, 2001; Stein et al., 2000a). In the
cases of such children, reading with one eyes (the right one), with the other blanked,
reduces their binocular perceptual confusion and allows improvement in their reading
performance. The effects are claimed to be dramatic and progress is far greater than
in other remediation methods for dyslexics (Stein, 2001; Stein et al., 2001).
Yet another therapeutic proposition touches on the sensory training in
detection of rapidly presented acoustic stimuli, which leads to better phonological
processing and therefore to reading improvement (Bower, 2000; Stein, 2001). Highly
accurate processing of temporal change by the auditory system is important for
proper development of the phonological skills (Talcott et al., 2000b; Tallal et al.,
1996). It has been found (Bogdanowicz, 1999; Horgan, 1997; Merzenich et al., 1996;
Stein, 2001) that training children with language learning impairment, using a
computer program in which the sound frequency changes can be slowed down and
amplitude changes can be increased (stretched speech), greatly ameliorated their
performance. In all likelihood, individuals with dyslexia undergoing similar training
would display analogous results (Stein, 2001), namely, greater ability to distinguish
between rapidly occurring acoustic stimuli and their sequence, leading to better
phonological processing, which presupposes the improvement in the reading skill.
Another kind of therapy for children with dyslexia suffering from scotopic
sensitivity syndrome (SSS) was introduced by Irlen. SSS is connected with sensitivity
to light. Students report the perception of a glare from white paper, which makes it
hard to decipher a text, and difficulty seeing the print clearly, let alone an impression
that it moves around the page. SSS is additionally connected with eyestrain, eyes
often water, itch or burn (Jameson, 2000; Jedrzejowska & Jurek, 2003; Ott, 1997). It
has been suggested that coloured overlays or tinted lenses can help. Childrens
responses to colour filters for viewing the text are measured by an apparatus called
the Intuitive Colorimeter and then adequate coloured lenses can be prescribed.
However, the nature of the treatment seems to be controversial and there is no
conclusive evidence that it can improve poor reading performance. Coloured lenses
or filters are likely to reduce the feeling of sore, tired eyes, headaches and,
consequently, enhance the childs motivation to read, but they are not likely to change
a dyslexic reader into a good reader (Ott, 1997).
However, some accommodation of classroom materials may prove beneficial
for children with dyslexia, for example, large, widely spaced print, clear text on an
uncluttered page tend to decrease the visual perceptual impression of the letters and
words moving around the page, blurring or spinning. On the other hand, small,
newspaper-like grey print, fancy or unusual fonts, capitalization of whole words and
phrases can intensify the disturbances (Jameson, 2000; Levinson, 1980).

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

This chapter came up with information related to how this research conducted. It
involved the design of the study, subject of the study, instrument of the study,
technique data collection and technique of data analysis.

A. Design of The Study
The design of this research was a case study, which the writer was deeply close to the
subject in finding out the information about dyslexia particularly reading disorder.

B. Subject of The Study
The subject of this study was Rian camouflage. Rian was a student at SD Negeri 8
Poasia who was difficulty in reading and writing. Based on the definition dyslexia is
a language disorder that difficulty in understanding reading and writing activity.

C. Instruments of The Study
To gain the data, the researcher used interview and field note as the instruments of
this study. Interview was used because the subject was difficulty to understanding a
text and field note was used to support the interview.

D. Technique of Data Collection
In collecting the data, the writer did some activities as follow:
1. Arrange some interview script.
2. Did open-ended interview.
3. Take field note.

E. Technique Data Analysis
In analysis the data, the writer did data reduction, data display and conclusion.
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

A. Findings
Based on the interviewed with the subject and some teachers, the writer found that
Rian was difficulty in reading since in 9 year. At kindergarten Rian showed normally
as other students. It happened when Rian got sick at 8 years old. Firstly, Rian was not
interesting went to school anymore, so his parents carried Rian to Hospital and the
doctor said that Rian was ok. Day by day, Rian showed the different action.
Rians mother explained that when Rian was showed a book he read the book
flip over and sometimes Rian just saw the pictures. Similarly with Ms. N (Rians
teacher) stated the similar words with Rians mother. At the first day Ms. N just
ignored Rian on the classroom, but it happened not only one time. Finally, Ms. N
found some information about Rian on internet and suggested Rians parent to
hospitalize Rian.

B. Discussion
Dyslexia was a problem in language acquisition, which the people who get dyslexia
were difficulty in language input and output. Many researchers believe that
developmental dyslexia is characterized by difficulties in phonological processing,
specifically phonological awareness which is the ability to identify and manipulate
the sound structure of words. In order to listen to and understand speech, an
individual must be able to identify, or be aware of individual sounds, called
phonemes, that make up words. Phonological processing is the ability to recognize
phonemes and subsequently identify their combination into specific words. One myth
surrounding dyslexia is that children flip letters or read backwards. What actually
occurs is that children with phonological processing deficits do not map letters onto
the correct sounds. Proper understanding of phonological processing has been shown
to be a core deficit in children with developmental dyslexia. Individuals with dyslexia
also have difficulty distinguishing rhyming sounds, counting the syllables of words,
and sounding out novel words such as stroat or traim. Phonological awareness
and processing can be improved with targeted practice. Practicing was a good ways to
treat a person with dyslexia.

CHAPTER V
CLOSING

A. Conclusion
1. Dyslexia happens because of some causes, they are can be as :
a) The dyslexic brain is different from ordinary brains. Studies have shown
differences in the anatomy, organization and functioning of the dyslexic
brain as compared to the non-dyslexic brain.
b) Some people suggest that dyslexic people tend to be more 'right brain
thinkers'. The right hemisphere of the brain is associated with lateral,
creative and visual thought processes.
c) Dyslexia is not related to race, social background or intellectual ability but
there is a tendency for dyslexia to run in families and this suggests that the
brain differences which cause dyslexia may be hereditary.
d) These neurological differences have the effect of giving the dyslexic
person a particular way of thinking and learning. This usually means that
the dyslexic person has a pattern of cognitive abilities which shows areas
of strengths and weaknesses.

2. In treating dyslexia, there are two ways can be taken, firstly with hospitalize
and secondly with practicing and giving good approach.

B. Suggestion
There is now something possible to solve, dyslexia also a language disorder that can
be solved. For every reader who find some people with dyslexia problem, give them
good treatment and close them with full affection.

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Appendix 1.

Interview Question

For Rian
1. What is your name?
2. What class are you now?
3. Do you like reading?
4. Do you like writing?
5. Would you read me a passage?
6. Would you write me something?

For Rians Mother
1. Is Rian birth normally?
2. When actually Rian shows the different?
3. Is Rian get sick ?
4. Do you ever hospitalize Rian?
5. What does the doctor say?