AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

ABSTRACT:
Depleting fossil fuel reserves and increasing vehicular emission have
forced the attention of various petroleum industries to find and alternate
fuel that will power the vehicle in future based on the present day internal
design as the deposits of crude oil is expected to last for another ! years
at the minimum utili"ation level #the proposed fuel should suitably
replace the existing fuel and at the same time it should be renewable
$ydrogen is one such fuel that has been proposed for the purpose which
was suitable for spar% ignition engines #hydrogen combines the properties
of higher calorific value &higher velocity of flame propagation &non
toxicity as well as lowest possible emission levels that do not affect the
balance of the water of the hydrosphere#
'ore over the by product of combustion are devoid of carbon dioxide&
carbon monoxide which is the ma(or advantage of vehicles powered by
fuel cell vehicles#
)uel cell vehicles represent one of the emerging technologies of the
innovation age# An efficient& combustion less& virtually pollution free&
free power source capable of being sited down town urban areas or in
remote regions& that runs almost silently& and has few moving parts but
these vehicles are more reality than dreams# )uel cells are one of the
cleanest and most efficient technologies for generating electricity# *n the
+uest of environment friendly energy generation researchers have come
up with comparatively much safer fuels# *t is truly a green technology#
)uel cell is the practical& feasible and mar%etable solution to the energy
crisis# The technology is extremely intersecting to people in all wal%s of
life because it offers a mean of ma%ing power more efficiently and
without pollution#
,orld automa%ers seem to believe that low emissions& high efficiency
fuel cell will eventually deliver the power and the performance that
users expect# Despite difficult technical and mar%et challenges to over
come& the latest crop of fuel cell powered concept car appears to exhibit
many basic feature re+uired for the success of this concept#
)uel cell or -./0S as they are called are vehicles to loo% up for as future
vehicles# The topic on fuel cell vehicles deals with all the issues and signs
related to fuel cell vehicles and their future that is sometimes
+uestioned# $owever the answers to these +uestions have been
successfully dealt with in the following sub1topics:
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Another type of Zero-Emission Vehicle is the fuel cell powered vehicle.
When the fuel cells are fueled with pure hydrogen, they are considered to be
ero emission vehicles. !uel cells have been used on spacecraft for many
years to power electric e"uipment. #hese are fueled with li"uid hydrogen
from the spacecraft$s roc%et fuel tan%s.
,hat *s a )uel Cell5
A fuel cell produces electricity directly from the reaction between hydrogen
&derived from a hydrogen-containing fuel or produced from the electrolysis
of water' and o(ygen from the air. )i%e an internal combustion engine in a
conventional car, it turns fuel into power by causing it to release energy. *n
an internal combustion engine, the fuel burns in tiny e(plosions that push the
pistons up and down. When the fuel burns, it is being o(idied. *n a fuel
cell, the fuel is also o(idied, but the resulting energy ta%es the form of
electricity #
The 6roton .xchange 'embrane 76.' ) fuel cell is the focus of vehicle-
power research. #he following are the ma+or different types fuel cells,
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM -- sometimes also called "polymer
electrolyte membrane") - -onsidered the leading fuel cell type for
passenger car application. operates at relatively low temperatures and
has a high power density#

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Phosphoric Acid - #he most commercially developed fuel cell.
generates electricity at more than 01 percent efficiency.
Molten Carbonate - 2romises high fuel-to-electricity efficiencies and
the ability to utilie coal-based fuels.
Solid Oxide - -an reach 31 percent power-generating efficiencies and
be employed for large, high powered applications such as industrial
generating stations.
)*8::
-Alkaline - 4sed e(tensively by the space program. can achieve 51
percent power-generating efficiencies, but is considered too costly for
transportation applications.
irect Methanol - E(pected efficiencies of 01 percent with low
operating temperatures. able to use hydrogen from methanol without a
reformer. &A reformer is a device that produces hydrogen from
another fuel li%e natural gas, methanol, or gasoline for use in a fuel
cell.'
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Hydrogen &
fuel cell
vehicles,
6ydrogen is the
most abundant
element in the
universe, but it
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currently is not be a practical transportation fuel by itself because of storage
problems. 6ydrogen is normally a gas at room temperature, and storage as a
gas re"uires large containers. 8toring it as a li"uid re"uires super-cold
temperatures. And because hydrogen is the simplest element, it can even
9lea%9 through the strongest container walls.
.
)*8:=
:ne of the most widely suggested sources of electricity for a hybrid electric
vehicle is a fuel cell powered by hydrogen. ;y chemically combining
hydrogen and o(ygen, rather than 9burning a fuel,9 electricity is created.
Water vapor is the by-product.
#he fuel cell power system involves three basic steps. !irst, methanol,
natural gas, gasoline or another fuel containing hydrogen is bro%en down
into its component parts to produce hydrogen. #his hydrogen is then
electrochemically used by the fuel cell.
!uel cells operate somewhat li%e a battery. 6ydrogen and air are fed to the
anode and cathode, respectively, of each cell. #hese cells are stac%ed to ma%e
up the fuel cell stac%. As the hydrogen diffuses through the anode, electrons
are stripped off, creating direct current electricity. #his electricity can be
used directly in a <- electric motor, or it can be converted to alternating
current.



0

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#o carry gaseous hydrogen on a vehicle, it must be compressed.
When compressed &usually to a pressure of about 7111 pounds per s"uare
inch'. 6ydrogen is stored under great pressure, 7311 and =111 28* in the big
tan%s, 5111 28* in the smaller distribution tan%s.
#he other way to provide hydrogen gas to the fuel cell is to store it on the
vehicle in li"uid form. #o ma%e hydrogen li"uid, it is chilled and
compressed. )i"uid hydrogen is very, very cold--more than 0/7./ degrees
!airenheit below ero> #his super-cold li"uid hydrogen is the %ind used in
space roc%ets. #he containers are able to hold pressure, but they are also
insulated to %eep the li"uid hydrogen from warming up. Warming the li"uid,
or lowering the pressure, releases gas &li%e boiling water', and the gas can go
to the fuel cell.
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Another way to get hydrogen to the fuel cell is to use a 9reformer9. A
reformer is a device that removes the hydrogen from hydrocarbon fuels, li%e
methanol or gasoline. . A reformer turns hydrocarbon or alcohol fuels into
hydrogen, which is then fed to the fuel cell. 4nfortunately, reformers are not
perfect. #hey generate heat and produce other gases besides hydrogen. #hey
use various devices to try to clean up the hydrogen, but even so, the
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hydrogen that comes out of them is not pure, and this lowers the efficiency
of the fuel cell
When a fuel other than hydrogen is used, the fuel cell is no longer ero-
emission, but it
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4se of battery unit:1
8mall test batteries made under the technology department are stored in one
unit to form a single module model of ten batteries.#his unit is then used to
power the vehicle through the power train and motor as well as the controller
which are installed accordingly and this method proves useful in special
cases where the fuel cell stac% is not wor% properly due to technical
difficulties.
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#he only real problem is the pressure that$s involved, and that$s not a
problem with proper tan%ing systems and in all these test cases the hydrogen
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tan% did not e(plode, in spite of being under pressure. the tan%s are designed
to blow up, not out.
*f, for e(ample, that tan% bac% there e(ploded ?1@ of the debris would fall
within the fence around it.
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6ydrogen is a very clean fuel, it would ignite easier than gasoline, but the
li%elihood of it igniting is still slim . *f it did ignite, the flame doesn$t put out
much heat. Aasoline fires usually consume.
#

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)uel cell design issues:
At the same time many other variables must be +uggled, including
temperature throughout the cell &which changes and can sometimes destroy a
cell through thermal loading', reactant and product levels at various cells.
Baterials must be chosen to do various tas%s which none fill completely. *n
vehicle usage, many problems are amplified. !or instance, cars must be
re"uired to start in any weather conditions a person can reasonably e(pect to
encounter, about C1@ of the world$s car par% is legally sub+ect to the
re"uirement of being able to start from sub-ero temperatures. !uel cells
have no difficulty operating in the hottest locations, but the coldest do
present a problem..
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3perational 6erformance :
!uel cell vehicles are being developed to meet the performance e(pectations
of today$s consumers. #hese vehicles are e(pected to be e(tremely "uiet and
have very little vibration.
Safety:
#he goal is to develop fuel cell vehicles with levels of safety and comfort
that are comparable to those of conventional vehicles. *f used, high-pressure
hydrogen tan%s will be designed for ma(imum safety to avoid rupture.
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Additionally, manufacturers are perfecting sensors that will immediately
detect impact in the case of collision and additional sensors that will detect
any lea%age from the hydrogen tan%s. *n both cases, the sensors will instantly
shut the valves on the tan%s.
Benefits:
4sing pure hydrogen to power fuel cell vehicles offers the distinct advantage
of ero emissions, but only on the vehicle, not at the hydrogen production
source. 6owever, emissions created at a single point of production are often
easier to control than those produced by a moving vehicle. A fuel cell vehicle
that runs on pure hydrogen produces only water vaporDusing any other fuel
will produce some carbon dio(ide and other emissions, but far less than what
is produced by a conventional vehicle.
!uel cell vehicles are e(pected to achieve overall energy conversion
throughput efficiencies around twice that of today$s typical gasoline internal
combustion engines. #he fuel cell system is being targeted by <:E to
achieve 31@ efficiency by /111. !uel cell vehicles can run on any hydrogen-
rich li"uid or gas, as long as it is suitably processed. Aasoline is one
possibility, but in addition to pure hydrogen, alternative fuels such as
ethanol, methanol, natural gas, and propane can also be used.
,hy fuel cells for vehicles5
#he advantages of fuel cells for transport are both environmental and economic. #he
only emissions from a fuel cell vehicle come from the generation of hydrogen. #hese
emissions are hardly measurable, ma%ing fuel cell vehicles virtually e"uivalent to ero-
emission vehicles. !uel cell cars will have similar range and performance to cars with
internal combustion engines, but the superior energy efficiency of fuel cell engines will
bring a significant reduction in carbon dio(ide, a greenhouse gas, for every mile
travelled. *f fuelled directly by hydrogen, there will be no carbon dio(ide emissions at
all.
6ortable fuel cells,
!uel cells can compete with batteries and generators for portable use, from a
few %ilowatts to power a mobile home down to a few watts to power a laptop
computer. 2rototypes have been publicly shown of this type of technology
and fuel cell powered mobile phones and laptops are being e(hibited at the
World E(po /11= in Eapan.
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Banhattan 8cientifics *nc. has developed a fuel-cell-powered mountain bi%e
that uses hydrogen and air as fuel and emits only water vapor as a waste
product. According to its developers, the 96ydrocycle9 has a top range of 01
to 31 miles &51-111 %m' along a flat surface and can achieve a top speed of
1C mph &71 %mFh'. ;ecause a fuel cell stac% powers its electric motor, the
6ydro cycle is e(tremely "uiet and does not need to be recharged li%e
e(isting electric bicycles. it only needs to be refueled. #his would come as a
welcome advancement for electric-bi%e riders frustrated with waiting hours
to recharge their battery-powered bicycles
.fficiency of )uel Cells:
2ollution reduction is one of the primary goals of the fuel cell. ;y comparing
a fuel-cell-powered car to a gasoline-engine-powered car and a battery-
powered car, you can see how fuel cells might improve the efficiency of cars
today.
8ince all three types of cars have many of the same components &tires,
transmissions, etc.', we$ll ignore that part of the car and compare efficiencies
up to the point where mechanical power is generated. )et$s start with the
fuel-cell car. &All of these efficiencies are appro(imations, but they should be
close enough to ma%e a rough comparison.'
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)uel1Cell16owered .lectric Car:
*f the fuel cell is powered with pure hydrogen, it has the potential to be up to C1-
percent efficient. #hat is, it converts C1 percent of the energy content of the
hydrogen into electrical energy. ;ut, as we learned in the previous section,
hydrogen is difficult to store in a car. When we add a reformer to convert
methanol to hydrogen, the overall efficiency drops to about 71 to 01 percent.
We still need to convert the electrical energy into mechanical wor%. #his is
accomplished by the electric motor and inverter. A reasonable number for the
efficiency of the motorFinverter is about C1 percent. 8o we have 71- to 01-percent
efficiency at converting methanol to electricity, and C1-percent efficiency
converting electricity to mechanical power. #hat gives an overall efficiency of
about /0 to 7/ percent
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FIG:13
A cell phone, for e(ample, needs about =11 watts. #he first use will be in
sensors for the military.
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#he prototype micro fuel cell uses an electrochemical process to directly
convert energy from hydrogen into electricity. #he fuel cell wor%s li%e a
battery, using an anode and cathode, positive and negative electrodes &solid
electrical conductors', with an electrolyte. #he electrolyte can be made of
various materials or solutions. #he hydrogen flows into the anode and the
molecules are split into protons and electrons. #he protons flow through the
electrolyte, while the electrons ta%e a different path, creating an electrical
current. At the other end of the fuel cell, o(ygen is pulled in from the air and
flows into the cathode. #he hydrogen protons and electrons reunite in the
cathode and chemically bond with the o(ygen atoms to form water
molecules. #heoretically, the only waste product produced by a fuel cell is
water. !uel cells that e(tract hydrogen from natural gas or another
hydrocarbon will emit some carbon dio(ide as a byproduct, but in much
smaller amounts than those produced by traditional energy source.
8asoline and Battery 6ower
8asoline16owered Car :
#he efficiency of a gasoline-powered car is surprisingly low. All of the heat
that comes out as e(haust or goes into the radiator is wasted energy. #he
engine also uses a lot of energy turning the various pumps, fans and
generators that %eep it going. 8o the overall efficiency of an automotive gas
engine is about /1 percent. #hat is, only about /1 percent of the thermal-
energy content of the gasoline is converted into mechanical wor%.
Battery16owered .lectric Car :
#his type of car has a fairly high efficiency. #he battery is about ?1-percent
efficient &most batteries generate some heat, or re"uire heating', and the
electric motorFinverter is about C1-percent efficient. #his gives an overall
efficiency of about 5/ percent.
;ut that is not the whole story. #he electricity used to power the car had to
be generated somewhere. *f it was generated at a power plant that used a
combustion process &rather than nuclear, hydroelectric, solar or wind', then
only about 01 percent of the fuel re"uired by the power plant was converted
into electricity. #he process of charging the car re"uires the conversion of
alternating current &A-' power to direct current &<-' power. #his process
has an efficiency of about ?1 percent.
1/
8o, if we loo% at the whole cycle, the efficiency of an electric car is 5/
percent for the car, 01 percent for the power plant and ?1 percent for
charging the car. #hat gives an overall efficiency of /3 percent. #he overall
efficiency varies considerably depending on what sort of power plant is used.
*f the electricity for the car is generated by a hydroelectric plant for instance,
then it is basically free &we didn$t burn any fuel to generate it', and the
efficiency of the electric car is about 3= percent.
Surprised5
Baybe you are surprised by how close these three technologies are. #his
e(ercise points out the importance of considering the whole system, not +ust
the car. We could even go a step further and as% what the efficiency of
producing gasoline, methanol or coal is.
Efficiency is not the only consideration, however. 2eople will not drive a car
+ust because it is the most efficient if it ma%es them change their behavior.
#hey are concerned about many other issues as well. #hey want to %now,
*s the car "uic% and easy to refuelG
-an it travel a good distance before refuelingG
*s it as fast as the other cars on the roadG
6ow much pollution does it produceG
)uel cell cars are a long way off:
6ybrid cars already e(ist as commercial products and are available to cut
pollution now. :n the other hand, fuel-cell cars are e(pected on the same
schedule as HA8A$s manned trip to BarsDand have about the same level of
li%elihood.
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$ydrogen fuel cells cost more, 6ydrogen fuel cells in vehicles are about
twice as efficient as internal-combustion engines. however, hydrogen fuel
cell costs are nearly 111 times as much per unit of power produced.
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$ydrogen fuel cells are dirtier:1 !uel-cell cars emit only water vapor and
heat, but the creation of the hydrogen fuel &via burning coal, for e(ample'
can be responsible for more overall greenhouse gas emissions than
conventional internal combustion engines.
$ydrogen fuel is harder to transport,
Boving large volumes of hydrogen gas re"uires compressing it. 6ydrogen
compression rates mean that 1= truc%s are re"uired to power the same
number of cars that could be served by a single gasoline tan%er. )i"uid
hydrogen would re"uire less &about three truc%s', but would re"uire
substantially more effort and energy to li"uefy.
$ydrogen is much more dangerous,-As dangerous as a lea% of natural gas
is, a hydrogen lea% is worse because hydrogen ignites at a wider range of
concentrations and re"uires less energy to ignite. And hydrogen burns
invisibly. 9*t$s scaryDyou cannot see the flame.I
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,e have succesfully studied the various technicialities and the
experimental procedures carried out by the various automobile
companies and their respective research and development departments
in depth which do provide a ray of hope #the practical implementation
being0s dependancy on oil reserves and their rising costs and their by
stabilise the economy for the common man and hence ma%e the
environment polution free which is the ultimate goal
DSave environment save worldE
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R.).R.2C.S:
1' A.<.Jai, !on-Con"entional Energy so#rces$ Khanna 2ublications,
1??5, :ct.
/' 8.Jao L <r. ;.;. 2arlu%er, !on % Con"entional energy technology,
Khanna 2ublications, 1??5.
7' www.howstuffwor%s.com
0' ;ansel.H.K., B.%aleeman, and B.Biller, Jenewable Energy sources
and conversion #echnology, #ata BcArawhill, Hew <elhi.
=' E)-wa%il B.B., 2ower plant #echnology, BcAraw-hill, Hew yor%..
1=