PROMOTING COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE

AWARENESS THROUGH SELF-STUDY MODULES: AN

INVESTIGATION INTO ADVISOR COMMENTS.
Jo Mynard
(jomynard@gmail.com)
Kanda University of International Studies, Japan
Abstract
earners at t!e aut!or"s university in Japan !ave t!e opportunity to ta#e optional, self$study modules
t!roug! t!e self$access centre. %articipating students are assigned a learning advisor &!o &or#s
closely &it! t!em 'ot! in person and also t!roug! &ritten communication on t!e learner"s module
pac#. (!e purpose of t!e modules is to provide individualised language learning opportunities and to
facilitate t!e development of language learner autonomy. )omments made 'y t!e learning advisors
are intended to promote a deeper level of a&areness of t!e language learning process and trigger
cognitive and metacognitive a&areness. (!e comments are also designed to #eep t!e learners
motivated and on$trac# &it! t!eir self$study &or#. (!is paper descri'es t!e initial stages of an
investigation &!ere'y &ritten comments made to t&enty$four learners 'y seven learning advisors
&ere analysed over a one$semester period. *ver +,,, items &ere analysed according to a coding
frame, &!ic! &as constructed using emergent categories from t!e data. Si- t!emes emerged. %ro'ing,
)ommenting, /ttending, /dvising, )onnecting, and Keeping on trac#. /n a&areness of t!e #inds of
comments t!at learning advisors ma#e &ill inform t!e ne-t stage of t!e project &!ic! &ill investigate
t!e effects t!at t!e comments !ave on actual learning.
1 Itr!"#ct$!
0it! an increased interest in promoting learner autonomy and life$long learning comes t!e
need for a 'roader approac! to language education. If promoting autonomy is to 'e a
successful endeavour, t!en opportunities for supporting t!e development of cognitive and
metacognitive gro&t! also need to 'e availa'le to learners outside t!e classroom. 1y
cognitive a&areness, I am referring to t!e #no&ledge t!at a student !as a'out various &ays of
learning a language. (!ese approac!es may !ave 'een introduced in a language class, learned
from peers or ac2uired from e-perience in anot!er &ay. / learner may !ave an understanding
a'out !o& to learn voca'ulary effectively, for e-ample, or a'out &ays to master various
grammar functions. Metacognitive a&areness is t!e #no&ledge a learner !as a'out language
learning processes, suc! as !o& a particular activity relates to t!e overall learning goal, or
!o& to reflect on progress and implement c!ange to a course of self$directed study.
Metacognitive a&areness incorporates self$a&areness, language a&areness, cognitive
a&areness, social a&areness and cultural a&areness (3llis, +,,,). earners &it! a !ig!er
level of metacognitive a&areness &ill 'e more a'le to identify and address areas of &ea#ness
and plan t!eir learning more successfully. )ognitive and metacognitive a&areness may 'e
promoted in a language class 'ut can also 'e supported outside class t!roug! advising
programmes, self$study modules, or 'y a com'ination of t!ese approac!es.
1.1 Advising in language learning
/dvising in language learning is 4t!e process of !elping students to direct t!eir o&n pat!s
and 'ecome 'etter, more autonomous language learners5 ()arson 6 Mynard, fort!coming).
(!e approac! to advising may vary from institution to institution (Mynard 6 7avarro, +,8,),
'ut most advising in language learning occurs in a face$to$face scenario eit!er individually or
in small groups. (!e s#ills and language t!at are used 'y learning advisors during t!e process
often dra&s on counselling s#ills (Kelly, 899:; Mo<<on$Mc%!erson, +,,8; Mo<<on$
Mc%!erson, fort!coming) and t!e session is guided 'y t!e learner. =ena Kelley (899:) lists
macro and micro s#ills t!at can 'e a useful starting point &!en training ne& learning advisors
or for encouraging e-perienced advisors to reflect on t!eir practice. Macro s#ills include
s#ills suc! as guiding, modelling and evaluating. Micro s#ills include attending, restating, and
interpreting, s#ills &!ic! are common in advising dialogue 'ut less common in classroom
discourse (Mo<<on$Mc%!erson, +,,8).
1.2 Self-study modules
Self$study modules are s!ort courses &!ic! are completed 'y a student &it!out direct
supervision from a teac!er. (!ey may 'e online or paper$'ased, optional or voluntary, and
possi'ly for credit. (!ey may 'e underta#en 'y distance students often in remote locations, or
as an alternative to face$to$face courses at a university (>aldivia 6 Mcoug!lin,
fort!coming). /lt!oug! many self$study modules mig!t !ave a content focus (for e-ample,
0al#er, +,,9) or a re2uired language outcome (see ?ern@nde<$(oro 6 (ruman, +,,9), t!e
focus of t!is paper is on modules &!ic! aim to promote a&areness of t!e language learning
process and are concerned &it! t!e development of learner autonomy. (!is type of module is
facilitated 'y language learning advisors rat!er t!an tutors. earning advisors focus
e-clusively on t!e process and t!e development of autonomy, and on cognitive and
metacognitive gro&t!, rat!er t!an ta#ing a traditional tutor role, &!ic! is mainly concerned
&it! content #no&ledge or language accuracy and fluency.
/lt!oug! t!e &or# in self$study modules is underta#en independently, students still receive
comments from a learning advisor. In fact, &ritten interaction is t!e main form of
communication 'et&een t!e learner and t!e learning advisor (Mynard 6 7avarro, +,8,;
7oguc!i 6 Mc)art!y, +,8,) and is important for maintaining motivation in addition to
supporting t!e learning processes (Aurd 6 ?ern@nde<$(oro, +,,9).
1.3 Written comments
/lt!oug! &ritten comments on module &or# is recognised as a crucial component of t!e
learning process, t!e comments &ritten 'y t!e learning advisors may 'e driven 'y intuition
rat!er t!an 'ased on researc!. It is useful to revie& t!e e-isting literature on more traditional
&ritten feed'ac# and on feed'ac# in distance learning 'efore turning our attention 'ac# to t!e
2uestion of &!at is appropriate &ritten comments on a self$study module.
Biving &ritten feed'ac# to students on assignments is assumed to 'e an important part of
learning (=amsden, +,,C; 0al#er, +,,9), and alt!oug! t!ere are some studies &!ic!
investigate &!at learners perceive to 'e effective feed'ac#, it is still an under$researc!ed area.
/ study t!at is particularly relevant is one conducted 'y 0eaver in +,,:. In t!e 2uantitative
section of 0eaver"s study, s!e found t!at a si<ea'le num'er of students did not ade2uately
understand t!e comments commonly &ritten 'y tutors on course&or#. Some of t!e
perceptions gat!ered in t!e 2ualitative portion of t!e study &ere t!at t!e tutors" comments
&ere often too vague or general to 'e useful, or t!at t!ey did not contain information t!at
could !elp t!e student improve. %articipants also noted t!at tutors tended to focus on t!e
negative &!en giving feed'ac#, yet students felt t!ey needed to also receive positive
comments. /not!er 2ualitative study 'y Doung (+,,,) suggests t!at a student"s interpretation
of feed'ac# is affected 'y t!e student"s level of self$esteem. 4Aig! and medium self$esteem
students tended to see feed'ac# as somet!ing t!ey &ere a'le to act on and ma#e use of;
students &it! lo& self$esteem &ere more li#ely to feel defeated and consider leaving t!e
course5 (Doung, +,,,, p. E8F). Doung concludes 'y suggesting t!at feed'ac# s!ould 'e
tailored to individuals" needs. /not!er criticism on comments provided to learners on a
course of study is t!at t!e feed'ac# t!at students receive comes too late (Aartley 6
)!es&ort!, +,,,; 0eaver, +,,:) as it is given once t!e course of study is completed.
3ffective &ritten feed'ac# is crucial for all learners, 'ut is particularly critical for distance
learners not only to provide guidance to improve t!eir performance, 'ut also to support,
encourage and motivate t!em (0!ite, +,,C; Aurd 6 ?ern@nde<$(oro, +,,9). *ne study
investigating cognitive, metacognitive and affective factors t!at influence success in distance
learning loo#ed at distance learners of Spanis! at t!e *pen University in t!e UK (?ern@nde<$
(oro 6 (ruman, +,,9). (!e researc! included intervie&s &it! t&enty distance learners and
analysed t!e learners" perceptions of t!e &ritten feed'ac# t!ey received from t!eir tutors on
assignments. 0!en referring to t!e results of t!is study, Aurd and ?ern@nde<$(oro (+,,9)
suggest t!at tutors s!ould 'e a&are of t!e follo&ing four interconnected factors &!en giving
&ritten feed'ac# on assignments.
8. Boal relevance.
Boal relevance is concerned &it! &!et!er a learner"s goal matc!es t!e aim of a course. (!is
is closely lin#ed &it! motivation and t!e learner"s perceived ideal future self. (!e most useful
tutor comments are li#ely to 'e ones t!at directly related to t!e learner"s goals.
+. Kno&ledge.
Kno&ledge includes 'ot! cognitive and metacognitive #no&ledge and t!e most useful
comments for learners are ones t!at provide enoug! information to allo& t!em to 'ridge t!e
gap 'et&een &!at t!ey already #no& and &!at t!ey are re2uired to #no&.
C. =oles.
=oles are important 'ecause learners need to 'e clear on &!at e-actly is e-pected of t!em and
&!at t!e tutor"s role is. In addition, a learner"s identity and locus of control &ill effect t!eir
'eliefs a'out success in learning. (!is in turn &ill influence !o& a tutor"s feed'ac# is
interpreted 'y a learner.
E. Self$confidence.
?irstly, rapport &it! t!e tutor is important for fostering self$confidence. In addition,
encouragement is perceived to 'e useful 'y learners in t&o &ays. %raise follo&ed 'y an
e-planation is important so t!at a learner can plan a future strategy. 32ually, praise is
important for social$affective reasons as encouraging comments can reinforce a sense of
ac!ievement and a feeling of support from t!e tutor.
% &ac'(r!#" t! t)* st#"+
(!is study ta#es place in a small university in Japan t!at !as a self$access centre employing a
team of ten learning advisors. (!ere are around CG,, students in t!e university, all majoring
in languages and international studies. In addition to ot!er advising services, t!e self$access
centre offers optional, self$study modules for fres!man and sop!omore students. (!ese
modules provide students &it! opportunities to individualise t!eir learning and supplement
t!e &or# t!at t!ey do in class. (!e modules also aim to provide a frame&or# for learners to
activate deeper cognitive and metacognitive processes and develop autonomous learning
!a'its. /ll of t!e &or# is completed in t!e target language, 3nglis!. /ll of t!e modules are
optional, 'ut most are &ort! a small amount of credit (a ma-imum of ten points), &!ic! is
added onto t!e students" overall 3nglis! course grade.
2.1 Overview of the Modules
(!e first module t!at t!e students are offered is fairly structured and introduces learners to
concepts important for 'ecoming autonomous learners. (!e concepts include needs analysis,
motivation and evaluation among ot!ers. Students complete a series of activities eac! &ee#
and reflect on &!at t!ey !ave learned as t!ey go. (!e activities and reflection tas#s are
designed to promote cognitive and metacognitive a&areness. Students are assigned a
learning advisor &!o &rites comments on t!e student"s &or# eac! &ee#. /t t!e end of t!e
first module, students &rite a learning plan t!at consolidates all t!ey !ave learned t!roug!out
t!e module. (!e learning plan includes language learning goals, interests, learning styles,
resources, study tec!ni2ues, and evaluation of t!e plan (see 7oguc!i and Mc)art!y, +,8, for
a fuller description of t!e first module H it is not t!e focus of t!e present researc! project).
Students &!o successfully complete t!e first module are eligi'le to ta#e a follo&$up module,
&!ic! 'egins &it! a learning plan. Students continue to &or# &it! t!e same learning advisor
to initially revise t!eir eig!t$&ee# learning plan and implement it. ?or eig!t &ee#s, t!e
students study independently &!ile &or#ing to&ards t!e goals t!ey set at t!e start of t!e
module. 3ac! &ee#, t!ey su'mit &ritten reflections on t!eir activities, t!e resources t!ey
used and t!eir progress to t!eir learning advisor. (!e learners also set goals for t!e follo&ing
&ee# 'ased on t!ese ongoing reflections. (!e learning advisors &rite &ee#ly comments to
t!e learners as a response to t!e learners" descriptions, reflections and any copies of &or#
provided. earning advisors also meet &it! t!e learners once or t&ice during t!is process. /t
t!e end of t!e eig!t$&ee# period, learners !ave a final intervie& &it! t!eir learning advisor to
discuss t!eir overall progress on t!e module. /fter t!e intervie&, t!e learners su'mit a t&o
page &ritten report reflecting on t!eir &or#, t!eir completed module pac#, and copies of all
t!eir &or#. (!is &or# is given a grade and t!e learner is given some final feed'ac#.
, Rat$!a-* .!r t)* St#"+
(!e modules !ave 'een offered since +,,E and little researc! !as 'een conducted related to
t!em. /lt!oug! t!ere is evidence t!at learners may develop a greater a&areness of t!e
language learning process 'y &or#ing on self$study modules ()ro&e 6 Kato, +,,G; )ro&e,
+,8,), no researc! !as 'een conducted on t!e #inds of &ritten comments t!at learning
advisors give and !o& t!ese affect t!e independent learning process. (!e aim of t!e present
researc! study is to understand more a'out t!e comple- processes involved in completing a
course of independent study, and in particular, &!et!er t!e advisors" comments promote
cognitive and metacognitive t!oug!t processes.
(!e researc! is in t&o parts. In t!e first part of t!e study, I analysed t!e &ritten comments
made 'y learning advisors on t!e students" &or#, and in t!is paper I &ill provide an overvie&
of t!e main findings. =esearc! for t!e second part of t!e study &ill 'e under&ay from
January +,88 and &ill focus on t!e effect t!e comments !ad on learning. I anticipate t!at t!e
results of t!e complete study &ill provide some guidelines for learning advisors a'out t!e
most effective types of &ritten comments to give to students ta#ing t!e self$study modules.
/ R*s*arc) M*t)!"!-!(+
I adopt an interpretative approac! for t!e researc! as I feel it is important to 'e a'le to
investigate t!e uni2ueness of t!e conte-t (3rnest, 899E) and !ave t!e opportunity to offer my
interpretations, as a participant o'server, of &!at is occurring. /lt!oug! t!ere are some
esta'lis!ed frame&or#s for categori<ing tutorIadvisor comments in &ritten form (See 1ro&n
6 Blover, +,,:; 0ion, +,,G for e-amples), for t!is study I decided to create my o&n
frame&or#. I dra& on a grounded t!eory approac! (Strauss 6 )or'in, 899,; 899G) in order
for important factors to emerge from t!e data. I decided to do t!is 'ecause t!e conte-t is
2uite different from ones 'eing referred to in t!e literature so far, and to use an e-isting
frame&or# &ould !ave restricted me. (!ere are several #ey differences 'et&een t!e conte-t
of my researc! and &!at !as 'een descri'ed in t!e literature. ?irstly, t!e learners in my
conte-t are completing a course of self$study in t!eir target language rat!er t!an t!eir native
language, &!ic! is generally t!e case in distance education. Secondly, t!e focus of t!e self$
study modules is on t!e development of language learning a&areness and processes and not
on content as is mainly t!e case in t!e courses descri'ed in t!e e-isting literature. (!irdly, t!e
self$study modules are not fully self$study as t!e learners meet t!eir learning advisors t&o to
t!ree times during t!e eig!t$&ee# period and t!e advisors are availa'le to meet more often if
need 'e. In addition, ot!er support is availa'le to t!e learners suc! as t!e classes t!ey are
attending at t!e same time. ?inally, t!e learning advisors" practice is informed 'y t!e
literature (limited t!oug! it is) on advising in language learning, &!ic! !as 'een driven 'y
s#ills used in face$to$face advising. (!is is distinct from t!e literature t!at distance education
tutors and ot!er teac!ers generally dra& on.
0 R*s*arc) 1#*st$!s
(!ere are t!ree researc! 2uestions in t!e full study.
(8) 0!at type of &ritten comments do learning advisors give to learnersJ
(+) Ao& do t!e comments affect learners" cognitive and metacognitive developmentJ
(!is paper investigates researc! 2uestion one only. =esearc! 2uestion t&o &ill 'e t!e focus
of t!e second year of t!e study.
2 M*t)!"s
/fter gaining permission from learners and learning advisors, copies &ere made of complete
module pac#s over one semester period. (!ere &ere pac#s completed 'y t&enty$four
learners facilitated 'y seven learning advisors. (!e !and$&ritten advisor comments &ere
transcri'ed and coded using a soft&are programme called AD%3=researc!. In order to create
a coding frame, I coded five complete pac#s initially (EEK items) and found t!at t&enty$seven
categories emerged from t!e data. /lt!oug! I ta#e an interpretative approac!, I &anted to
develop a coding frame t!at could 'e used 'y ot!er researc!ers in future studies, so I
employed a second coder in order to evaluate t!e usa'ility of my instrument. (!e second
coder &as trained and t!en as#ed to use t!e coding frame to analyse t&o of t!e pac#s
independently. %ro'lematic categories &ere identified and t!e coding frame &as refined to
contain t&enty$four items. (!e agreement 'et&een coder 8 (myself) and coder + using t!e
revised coding frame on +,F separately coded items &as calculated to 'e ,.G using Aolsti"s
(89:9) coefficient of relia'ility ().=.). )o!en"s Kappa (#) ()o!en, 89:,), &!ic! measures
inter$coder relia'ility ta#ing c!ance agreement into account, &as calculated to 'e ,.GCCC
indicating !ig! relia'ility. (!e revised coding frame is provided in appendi- i. Biven t!e
!ig! ).=. and #, and also t!e time$consuming nature of t!e data analysis, I &as t!e only
coder for t!e remaining data.
3 R*s#-ts a" D$sc#ss$!
I &as a'le to generate a fre2uency report using AD%3=researc! &!ic! allo&ed me to see
&!ic! categories &ere used t!e most &!en giving &ritten comments to learners on self$study
modules ((a'le 8). (!e percentage figures &ere rounded up or do&n to t!e nearest &!ole
num'er for convenience.
Tab-* 1. Fr*4#*c+ r*5!rt !. a-- c!"*" $t*6s
Cat*(!r+ c!"* N 7 !. t!ta-
ac#no&ledging FK CL
agreeing C, 8L
assigning responsi'ility F ,L
contradicting EK +L
empat!i<ing 8: 8L
encouragement +8E 8,L
giving an e-ample EC +L
giving an opinion + ,L
giving feed'ac# C,+ 8FL
!ypot!etical advice 8: 8L
indirect 2uestion 88 8L
intuiting :9 CL
inviting learner to as# for !elp K ,L
justification C9 +L
module information E: +L
2uestioning FF+ +KL
reminding FC CL
re2uesting E: +L
restating 8,+ FL
s!ort 2uestion G, EL
small tal# FC CL
suggestion 888 FL
telling G9 EL
&ill and future 2uestions FG CL
ot!er + ,L
T!ta- %808
It is !elpful to loo# at all of t!ese categories as a full list in t!is &ay in order to !ave a
detailed vie& of t!e #inds of comments t!at leaning advisors &rote on t!e module pac#s. (!e
ne-t step, in line &it! grounded t!eory tec!ni2ues &as to ma#e connections 'et&een t!e
categories, &!ic! resulted in t!e emergence of si- 'roader t!emes summarised in t!e ta'le
'elo& ((a'le +). /gain, t!e percentage figures for eac! t!eme &ere rounded up or do&n to
t!e nearest &!ole num'er for convenience. (!e t!emes are s!o&n as a grap! in ?ig. 8.
Tab-* %. E6*r(*t t)*6*s
T)*6* 1: Pr!b$(
2uestioning FF+
s!ort 2uestion G,
&ill and future 2uestions FG
indirect 2uestion 88
T!ta- K,8 CEL
T)*6* %: C!66*t$(
giving feed'ac# C,+
justification C9
giving an opinion +
T!ta- CEC 8KL
T)*6* ,: Att*"$(
ac#no&ledging FK
restating 8,+
intuiting :9
contradicting EK
agreeing C,
T!ta- C,F 8FL
T)*6* /: A"9$s$(
suggestion 888
telling G9
re2uesting E:
giving an e-ample EC
!ypot!etical advice 8:
T!ta- C,F 8FL
T)*6* 0: C!*ct$(
encouragement +8E
small tal# FC
empat!ising 8:
inviting learner to as# for !elp K
T!ta- +9, 8EL
T)*6* 2: :**5$( ! trac'
reminding FC
module information E:
assigning responsi'ility F
T!ta- 8,E FL
F$(. 1. E6*r(*t t)*6*s s)!; as 5*rc*ta(*s
7.1 heme 1! "ro#ing
(!e t!eme I !ave named 4pro'ing5 formed t!e largest percentage of comments (CEL). (!e
follo&ing categories &ere included in t!is t!eme. 2uestioning, s!ort 2uestions, &ill and future
2uestions, and indirect 2uestions.
4Muestioning5 &as t!e 'iggest category and constituted +KL of t!e total comments made 'y
learning advisors. (!is category may need refining in future studies as it incorporates
different types of 2uestions, 'ut t!is &ould need input from t!e learning advisors in order to
ascertain t!e e-act intention 'e!ind t!e 2uestions. /s t!e items &ould 'e open to multiple
interpretations, t!ey &ere coded toget!er in t!is study. (o !ig!lig!t !o& pro'lematic it
&ould 'e to interpret t!e e-act intention 'e!ind a 2uestion, !ere are some e-amples of some
of t!e 2uestions ta#en from t!e data at random.
What grammar areas do you want to focus on?
Did you use relative pronouns more effectively in your speaking?
Has your study been effective?
Are there areas you would like to improve most?
How can you study more useful words?
Interpretations of t!e functions of t!ese 2uestions could 'e (among ot!ers) to.
- continue t!e dialogue
- clarify e-actly &!at t!e learner did
- get t!e learner to reflect on t!e effectiveness of t!eir self$study
- get t!e learner to prioritise
- encourage t!e learner to consider alternative strategies
- !elp t!e learner to notice pro'lem areas
34%
17% 15%
15%
14%
5%
- guide t!e learner to loo# 'ac# at t!e steps involved in an activity and unpac# t!em
more deeply
Ao&ever, &!at I &as a'le to infer &as t!at all of t!e 2uestions !ad t!e intention of
encouraging t!e learner to t!in# more deeply a'out t!e learning process. In addition, as t!e
&ritten comments formed an ongoing dialogue 'et&een t!e learner and t!e learning advisor,
2uestioning &as a very natural &ay for t!e learning advisor to attempt to maintain t!e
dialogue &it! t!e learner over t!e eig!t &ee# period.
(!e 2uestions a'ove differed from t!e ones coded as 4s!ort 2uestions5 &!ic! &ere used
&!en t!e learning advisor as#ed for specific (usually 2uantifia'le) details in t!e learner"s plan
or report. S!ort 2uestions constituted a furt!er FL of all comments made 'y learning
advisors. Some e-amples ta#en at random from t!e data are.
How many words?
Whats the title of this programme?
How often?
*t!er types of 2uestions &ere 4indirect 2uestions5 (8L of total comments made) and 4&ill
and future 2uestions5 (CL of total comments made). 3-amples of indirect 2uestions ta#en
randomly from t!e data are.
I wonder why you decided not to practice shadowing as well as listening
I would like to know !" how you are practicing it# and $" when you are using it in a
conversation%
=andom e-amples of 4&ill and future 2uestions5 are.
What resources will you use to do this?
How are you going to evaluate your reading skill?
How will you keep a record of these?
7.2 heme 2! $ommenting
(!e t!eme &!ic! I call 4commenting5 constituted 8KL of t!e total comments and
incorporates t!e categories of 4giving feed'ac#5 (8FL), 4justification5 (+L) and 4giving an
opinion5 (small num'er of instances). earning advisors commented on t!e actual learning
plan, on t!e activities, t!e learning process and on t!e resources t!at t!e learner !ad selected.
Some e-amples of t!e learning advisors giving feed'ac# are as follo&s.
&his goal is very clear%
An auditory style is a great advantage if you want to improve your listening skills%
I think that the way you are studying will benefit your listening as well as your
speaking
%ositive feed'ac# often formed part of a communicative c!un#, &!ic! featured a
com'ination of codes, for e-ample, feed'ac# &as often follo&ed 'y comments t!at &ere
categorised as 42uestioning.5 Some e-amples of t!is com'ination are.
&his plan is very well thought out% 'ou need to decide(
- How you will choose new vocabulary to learn%
- How you will check that you are using the new vocabulary in your speech%
&hats a really good idea% What information would you note down?
)y focusing on pronunciation sounds in sentences you are connecting your small goal
pronunciation" study with your big goal speaking"% *reat+
How else can you make sure your pronunciation study is helping your speaking skill?
%ositive feed'ac# &as also closely accompanied 'y comments categorised as 4re2uests5 and
4telling5 as if to soften t!e 'lo&, for e-ample.
,lease try to be specific with your goals% In the last diary you were specific at the end
- e.cellent+ &ry to be specific throughout / how many# how much time and how many
times
(!is segment &as coded as.
,lease try to be specific with your goals (re2uest)
In the last diary you were specific at the end (feed'ac#)
012.cellent+ (encouragement)
&ry to be specific throughout (re2uesting)
0H2ow many# how much time and how many times (s!ort 2uestions)
/not!er e-tract from a different pac# &as.
Im glad you were able to do some vocabulary study this week# but youre right that
you need to do more than 3ust this% 'ou still need to rewrite the )ig *oal and some
other areas of your learning plan
(!is second e-tract &as coded as.
Im glad you were able to do some vocabulary study this week (giving feed'ac#)
0)2ut youre right that you need to do more than 3ust this (agreeing)
'ou still need to rewrite the )ig *oal and some other areas of your learning plan (telling)
7.3 heme 3! Attending
)ategories included in t!is t!eme included restating, ac#no&ledging, intuiting, contradicting,
and agreeing. (!is t!eme could 'e compared &it! one of t!e most important s#ills in face$to$
face advising; active listening. (!ese categories com'ined formed 8FL of t!e total comments
made 'y learning advisors.
)omments &!ic! &ere coded as 4restating5 constituted FL of overall comments and &ere
instances &!ere t!e learning advisor repeated, rep!rased or summarised &!at t!e learner !ad
&ritten or done, for e-ample.
As you said# you can do the grammar e.ercises but using the correct grammar is more
difficult when you are speaking%
'ou also focused on your small goals and did some reading aloud%
As you point out# this has made it a lot more work to complete%
Instances of 4restating5 &ere sometimes follo&ed 'y 42uestioning5, as in t!e follo&ing
e-amples.
'ou said that youve reviewed some of the vocabulary that youve been studying# do
you think you know it well enough to use in conversation?
'our small goal was vocabulary# so what vocabulary did you learn to help your
listening?
'ou also said you used your dictionary and the subtitles to help with 45riends6%
Which words did you look up? Did you note them down?

(!e code 4ac#no&ledging5 &as used &!en a learning advisor indicated t!at t!ey !ad read
somet!ing t!at t!e learner !ad &ritten. Usually, t!e learning advisor &rote 4*K5 in t!e
margin ne-t to t!e learner"s &or#. (!ese #inds of comments represented CL of t!e total
comments. Sometimes learning advisors put a tic# in t!e margin, 'ut t!ese mar#s !ave not
'een coded.
Items coded as 4intuiting5 constituted CL of t!e total comments. (!ese &ere e-amples
&!ere learning advisors made an assumption 'ased on t!e information t!at t!e learner !ad
s!ared and used, for e-ample.
&his sounds like you did a lot of work%
'ou are using several different resources and they all seem very appropriate%
'ou seem to be learning lots of new words and phrases%
Items coded as 4contradicting5 constituted +L of t!e total comments. (!e category &as used
&!en a learning advisor !ig!lig!ted a discrepancy or contradiction in &!at t!e learner &rote
or &as doing, for e-ample.
&his could work over time but the module only lasts 7 weeks
Actually# in conversation# phrases are probably more useful than individual words%
I thought you wanted to improve your conversational 1nglish%
/greeing &it! somet!ing t!e learner !ad &ritten formed 8L of t!e total comments. Some
e-amples randomly ta#en from t!e data are.
'oure also right that you need to connect your pronunciation study to speaking%
'es# students name"# I completely agree%
Absolutely+ 'ou make a very good point about reviewing%
7.% heme %! Advising
(!is t!eme constituted 8FL of all of t!e comments and included t!e follo&ing categories.
suggesting (FL of total comments), telling (EL of comments), re2uesting (+L of comments),
giving an e-ample (+L of comments), and giving !ypot!etical advice (8L of comments).
(!ese &ere all instances &!ere learning advisors gave actual advice, instructions, suggestions
or e-amples to t!e learner in order to improve t!eir study plan or activities. 3-amples coded
as 4suggesting5 are.
It is probably worth deciding which ones are most important for you to focus on first%
What about books with a 8D?
How about setting yourself a weekly target?
3-amples of 4telling5 &ere a little more forceful and tended to use stronger modal ver's.
3-amples from t!e data are.
you need to narrow your focus%
'ou need to decide how you will choose new vocabulary to learn%
'ou must write more detail%
(!e category of 4re2uesting5 &as similar to 4telling5, 'ut included &ords suc! as 4please5
and 4try to5.
,lease give details to show how you used this to help your big and small goals%
,lease think more about your evaluation%
&ry to be a little more focused+
(!e follo&ing are e-tracts of learning advisors giving e-amples (t!ey tended to follo&
2uestions).
What kind of study activities do you think would help you improve? 9ilences? :ne
word answers?
Where in the 9A;8? ,ractice 8entre? 1;I ;ounge?
?inally some e-amples of &!en learning advisors &rote !ypot!etical advice.
If you can link these# you will do very well%
If you study grammar that fits your speaking needs# it will be effective%
7.& heme &! $onnecting
(!is t!eme represents 8EL of t!e comments and is associated &it! affective factors involved
in self$directed learning. earning advisors seemed to &rite t!e comments &it! t!e intention
of #eeping t!e learner motivated and 8,L of t!e comments &ere coded as 4encouragement5.
/ furt!er CL &ere categorised as 4small tal#5, 8L &as 4empat!i<ing5 and a small num'er of
comments invited t!e learner to as# for e-tra !elp if t!ey needed it.
Some e-amples of comments coded as 4encouragement5 are.
'ou have some very nice ideas
I can see that you have made a lot of effort% Well done%
*ood luck with this weeks study%
Some e-amples of 4small tal#5 are.
I look forward to seeing you this week%
It was interesting to read about your latest activities+
Have a good winter break and an en3oyable new year%
?inally, some e-amples of 4empat!i<ing5 from t!ree different pac#s are.
I know its difficult to find time to write a diary+
I understand that it can be stressful to talk with native speakers%
I know you are struggling to think of listening activities
(!ese comments &ere usually follo&ed &it! some suggestions or some encouragement.
7.' heme '! (ee)ing on trac*
(!e final t!eme incorporates all of t!e comments intended to #eep t!e learner on trac# and on
tas# and constituted FL of overall comments. (!ese included learning advisors giving
module information (+L) and 4reminding5 t!e learners a'out various t!ings (CL). It also
includes t!e category of 4assigning responsi'ility5 even t!oug! t!ere &ere very fe&
comments.
Some e-amples of items categorised as 4module information5 &ere.
0<2ost of it this work" should be in section =
p%s% If you want to keep going with the module" please hand in week > on !?th Dec
and week @ on $!st Dec%
&his may be useful for you to write about in your final report%
Some e-amples of 4reminding5 are as follo&s.
remember also to try and use them in conversation since your )I* *:A; is to
improve your speaking%
dont forget your big goal too%
Aemember that some words are more useful than others+
/ssigning responsi'ility included a small num'er of comments suc! as t!e follo&ing.
'ou may also have your own ideas of how to improve your pronunciation for
listening%
Its up to you to try what you think is useful
but you are the best person to evaluate this%
< L$6$tat$!s
/lt!oug! my coding frame &as a deemed to 'e a relia'le instrument, one of t!e categories,
42uestioning5 &as very large and constituted +KL of total comments; it could !ave 'een
'ro#en do&n into more specific categories. Intervie&ing t!e learning advisors a'out t!eir
intentions 'e!ind t!e 2uestions could !ave 'een one &ay to approac! t!is. (!ere are also
inevita'le differences in t!e style, approac! or language used 'y individual learning advisors,
and t!is &as not represented in my coding. I also did not distinguis! 'et&een t!e section of
t!e module pac# t!at t!e comments came from or &!en t!ey &ere &ritten. ?or e-ample,
some comments &ere &ritten alongside t!e student"s reflections, ot!ers &ere annotations on
t!e learning plan, and comments &ere ta#en from eac! &ee# of t!e eig!t$&ee# course. /ll of
t!ese comments &ere coded toget!er. ?or t!e purposes of t!e present study it &as sufficient
to consider all items toget!er, 'ut t!ere may &ell 'e variation 'et&een different learning
advisors and also &!ere and &!en t!e comments &ere &ritten.
= C!c-#s$!s
)omments from t!e learning advisors on t!e self$study modules fell into one of si- t!emes.
(!e most prevalent comments &ere 2uestions and t!ese &ere &ritten more t!an t&ice as
often as ot!er #inds of comments. (!e reason for t!e !ig! percentage of 2uestions is li#ely to
'e for t&o main reasons. ?irstly, as t!e &ritten interaction 'et&een advisor and learner is
async!ronous, it is t!e learning advisor"s main &ay of maintaining an interactive dialogue
&it! t!e learner. Secondly, t!e learning advisors are dra&ing on t!e literature for (face$to$
face) advising in language learning (e.g. Kelly, 899:; Kato 6 Suga&ara, +,,9), &!ic!
suggests t!at 2uestioning is a &ay to !elp t!e learner t!in# more deeply a'out t!e learning
process. 0!et!er advising in a &ritten form in t!e conte-t of module comments &ill result in
greater dept! of t!oug!t &ill 'e investigated in t!e ne-t stage of t!e researc! study.
*t!er main emergent t!emes &ere commenting, attending, advising and connecting in
roug!ly e2ual proportions. )ommenting, attending and advising are li#ely to 'e e2ually
fre2uent in face$to$face advising, alt!oug! e-pressed in different &ays. 0it!in t!e t!eme of
connecting, 8,L of t!e comments &ere coded as 4encouragement5 &!ic! &ould appear to
support t!e suggestion made 'y Aurd and ?ern@nde<$(oro (+,,9) t!at t!is is crucial not only
in order to promote cognitive and metacognitive a&areness 'ut also to support affective
factors suc! as maintaining motivation and giving t!e learners a sense of ac!ievement.
?inally, a smaller percentage of comments &ere related to #eeping a learner on trac#, &!ic!
is li#ely to 'e a necessary category for any self$study module.
3sta'lis!ing t!at comments fall into si- t!emes is a useful starting point for t!e ne-t stage of
t!e study. 1y continuing &it! t!is investigation, I !ope to discover &!et!er or not t!ese s#ills
!ave a place in &ritten advising, and &!et!er suc! comments are effective at promoting
cognitive and metacognitive a&areness.
R*.*r*c*s
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A55*"$> $- C!"$( Fra6*
Cat*(!r+ c!"* D*scr$5t$! a" *>a65-*s
ac#no&ledging /dvisor is noting or responding to somet!ing 'riefly i.e. *K
agreeing /dvisor e-presses agreement, e.g. I agree I Dou are rig!t etc.
assigning
responsi'ility
=eminding t!e learner t!at t!ey are responsi'le for t!eir &or# RDou s!ould decideR,
RDou are t!e 'est person to do t!isR
contradicting
/dvisor states t!at somet!ing &ritten is not correct or contradicts earlier comment e.g.
R(!is is not SR I RDou cantT do SR
empat!ising
S!o&ing understanding of !o& a learner is feeling. e.g. ITm sorry t!at.... I 0!at a s!ame
t!at... I I understand... I I #no&....
encouragement
/ comment intended to motivate t!e learner i.e. (!atTs great I OonTt give up I 0ell doneU
I Bood luc# &it!.... I ITm glad you enjoyed it I t!an# you for...
giving an e-ample /dvisor lists e-ample activities, materials, places or strategies
giving an opinion /dvisor &rites t!eir o&n opinion RI t!in# t!at..... R RI li#e SR
giving feed'ac#
/dvisor gives feed'ac# on somet!ing t!e learner !as done or &ritten. (!is is a good
e-ample of S I Bood I Ooing S is good I S is clear I S is unclear I S is *K I Dou are
rig!t to do t!is I
!ypot!etical advice /dvisor speculates !o& somet!ing mig!t go, e.g. 4If you do S, t!en D5
indirect 2uestion /dvisor as#s indirect or polite 2uestion, e.g. ITm interested to #no&... , I &onder if....
intuiting
/dvisor is intuiting 'ased on availa'le evidence, e.g. I sense t!at... I It seems li#e.... I It
sounds li#e...
inviting learner to
as# for !elp e.g. R)ome and see me if you li#eR
justification
/dvisor e-plains &!y somet!ing is useful etc. e.g. R(!is &ill !elp you....R I RItTs good to
do t!is 'ecause...R
module information )omments related to t!e module, e.g. Ma#e an appointment I Aand in your report.... I
2uestioning /ny general 2uestions &!ic! !elp t!e learner to t!in# more deeply a'out t!e process
reminding /ny reminders, e.g. %lease remem'er to I OonTt forget to...
re2uesting /dvisor as#s t!e learner to do somet!ing e.g. %lease can you...... I %lease do S I try to...
restating
/dvisor summarises, parap!rases or repeats &!at t!e learner !as said or done using
different &ords, e.g. So you t!in# t!at... I Dou did S, t!en D I Dou told me t!at....
s!ort 2uestion
Muestion usually re2uiring a num'er, title or lengt! of time, e.g. Ao& muc! I Ao& many
I Ao& long I 0!atTs t!e titleJ
small tal#
Muestions or comments unrelated to t!e module for t!e purpose of connecting
personally &it! t!e student, e.g. Aave a nice &ee#end I I loo# for&ard to your ne-t diary
entry I Sounds niceU I InterestingU
suggestion
/dvisor gives some ideas t!at t!e learner may not !ave t!oug!t of. (!in# a'out doing....
I 0!at a'out...J I Dou may &ant to... I Aave a loo# at I S is pro'a'ly not a good use of
your time
telling
Strongly suggesting t!at a learner does somet!ing, e.g. Dou must.... I Dou need.... I ItTs
important to... I Ma#e sure t!at...
&ill and future
2uestions
Muestions t!at as# t!e learner a'out somet!ing t!ey are going to do in t!e future e.g.
Ao& &ill you c!ange your planJ I 0!ic! 'oo# &ill you useJ