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Basic Thermodynamics
Prof. S.K. Som
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Lecture - 18
Properties of Pure Substances -Ideal Gases
Good morning. We are discussing about the properties of pure substances for last few classes,
phase diagram.
Today, we will be closing that topic by discussing one aspect of this which is known as Clausius-
Clapeyron equation. We have recognized that saturation states are specified by the couple of
pressures and temperatures, both for transformation from liquid to vapor and from Solid to
liquid. What is the relationship between these two so that one knows the pressure can
automatically know the temperature, based on which the pressures and temperatures are
determined and tabulated. For an example, in steam table for water, we know that when
saturation pressure is fixed temperature. For example, if it is one atmospheric pressure then the
saturation temperature is 100 degree Celsius. Similarly, if the pressure is ten atmospheric then
what is the saturation temperature?
What is that relationship based on which the values are tabulated was given by two scientists
Clausius and Clapeyron. So, this we will discuss today.
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(Refer Slide Time: 02:17)

Let us again recall the pv diagram. This is the p and v as usual. We are bothered only on the
liquid vapor, it does not matter. We can consider this for solid, liquid also. Similar thing will
apply and this is the Ts diagram; I am drawing it like this. So this is liquid, liquid plus vapor, this
is the triple point line Solid, vapor, Solid.
If we denote the pressure, for example, at the given pressure, this is the constant pressure line.
So, this is the pressure. The saturation temperature for this pressure is the isotherm which passes
through this, coincides with this pressure line in the vapour dome; this is the isotherm. If this be
the pressure the corresponding temperature is this isotherm. Similarly, here also, if these be the
isotherm, let these be the isotherm T. What is the pressure? Corresponding pressure is this one,
this is p; that means, p and T, here represents the saturation pressure and temperature. Now, what
are the relationship between this p and T? That means if we increase the pressure, the
temperature will increase. (Refer Slide Time: 03:05 to 03:46)
Let us recognize one thing that in this type of phase change, the specific volume changes as this
change of phase takes place the specific entropy changes. Similarly, the specific enthalpy
changes which is found in hs diagram. But now, if was define the Gibbs function, specific Gibbs
function, according to his definition g is equal to h minus Ts. If we differentiate dg then we get
dg is equal to dh minus Tds minus sdT.
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Dh minus Tds is vdp minus sdT . This relationship we also used earlier, just specific this
function. That is why it is v specific volume, s specific entropy. During this phase change, since
pressure and temperature remains constant which means dp and dT is 0. Therefore, dg is 0.
Another thermodynamic property that is the Gibbs function, or the specific Gibbs function that
remains constant along with pressure and temperature during a phase change; change of phase
from one state of matter to other state of matter. This is one very important conclusion. If this is
so then we can tell that this if we denote it as Gibbs function of the liquid, and if we denote it as
Gibbs function of the vapor, since we are using g, we are not using f and g; otherwise, it will be
confused.
For all properties, we have seen even in this steam table, the subscript f is used for the liquid and
subscript g is used for the tri-saturated vapor. But here we are using g itself as the specific Gibbs
function. I am using superscript l for the liquid and that for the vapor. So, from this relationship
we can take that at a particular pressure and the corresponding temperature, this g of l of liquid
state is equal to g of v that is vapor state.
Consider a small infinite small change in temperature. To find the relation, we have to do like
that an infinite small change in temperature or pressures. Here, the pressure first; that means, if
this is P all the time this change of pen. So, this is p and this is p plus dp. Similarly, the isotherm
which passes through this that means if the saturation temperature also suffers a small change
that means T plus dT. Similarly, the isobar which passes through this coincides with this constant
pressure thing; this isobar is p plus dp. That means, we change the pressure from p plus dp. What
is the corresponding change in the temperature?
Let this be T plus dT. Let us consider that the Gibbs function in the liquid phase, as a change
from g l to g l plus dg l

and the vapor phase Gibbs function changes from this to g v

plus dg v.
Again, they are equal, because at this point, this g and this g (Refer Slide Time: 07:34) that
means Gibbs function for the saturated liquid and dry saturated vapor are equal; that means these
two are equal. Therefore, dg l which simply means that change in the Gibbs function for the
liquid state will be same as that for the vapor state so that they again become equal if the states
are saturation states.
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So how to write then, okay you keep this please Sorry you keep this okay okay okay. I will write
okay.
Therefore, we get dg l is dg v. If we write this expression, dg l is vdp l or dp. dp is the same
minus v l minus s l dT is equal to. We can write for this following this equation v of v dp minus s
v

dT. This dp, dT is not 0. This dp, dT indicates a change in pressure and temperature like this.
There is a change in pressure and temperature for which there is a change in the liquid phase
Gibbs function which must follow this general thermodynamic relation. That means dg is equal
to v dp minus sdT. Whenever there is a change in pressure and temperature, there will be a
change in Gibbs function. Therefore, dg is this and dg v is this.( Refer Slide Time: 09:04)
From which we get, dp by dT will be equal to s v minus s l divided by v v minus v l. This s v
minus s l is the change in the entropy, specific entropy for change of phase which can be written
as latent heat divided by the saturation temperature into v v

minus v l. Sometimes, the latent heat
may be written in terms of the enthalpy change hfg. Sometimes, it is neither by L nor by hfg.
This is one of the very important property relations.
Sorry not property relations, I am extremely Sorry. This is one of the very important relations not
property relations. I am Sorry. dp by dT that is the change in pressure with respect to temperature
is L by T into v v minus v l.
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(Refer Slide Time: 10:22)

Again, I write this expression. Therefore, we get is that dp by dT is equal to L or hfg divided by
T. That is the change in this specific entropy. This equation is known as Clausius-Clapeyron
equation. Therefore, this equation gives the relationship between the saturation pressure and the
saturation temperature. From this differential equation, we can integrate, but integration is not
very easy. This is because of the fact. This v v is a function of temperature usually; v l is very
small with respect to v v. Sometimes, we can neglect this, because the specific volume of the
liquid is very small compared to that of the dry saturated vapor.
So, hfg is also a function of temperature. So, until and unless we know the functional
relationship of hfg v v with temperature or pressure, we cannot integrate it. Therefore, this
equation can be integrated, provided we know this variation. Usually, these variations are given
in terms of empirical equations so that one can integrate this equation and express an explicit
functional relationship of p with respect to temperature. This is the relationship of the saturation
pressure corresponding to the saturation temperature. This pressure is sometimes known as vapor
pressure; vapor pressure versus temperature relation. Sometimes, we tell colloquially that what
are the vapor pressure temperature relations? What is the relationship between the saturation
pressures to its corresponding saturation temperatures at which a phase change takes place?
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In case of liquid vapor transitions, v v is always higher than v l, hfg is a positive quantity, T is a
positive quantity, dp by dT is positive. Pressure changes with the temperature.
In case of Solid, liquid transitions that means melting or freezing this equation can be written as
hfs that means sf. I can write latent heat for melting usually this nomenclature is used. In that
case, v v will be v l that is the final phase minus this is the initial phase that means v s. Now, this
will be positive provided on melting, this specific volume increases. So, for the substances where
melting increases the specific volume; that means, the system expands on melting. dp by dT is
positive; means an increase in pressure will increase the saturation temperature.
For substances where v l is less than v s; that means, this system contracts on melting. In that
case, dp by dT is negative. An increase in pressure will reduce the saturation temperature. What
happens in case of water?
In this case, dp by dT is negative and when v l is greater than v s, dp by dT is positive. So, this is
the case for water. In case of Solid, liquid just I give this example, but we are not much bothered
on this aspect. We are only concerned with the boiling, where the vapor is transformed into
liquid. This is so small. Sometimes, it can be written as hfg by Tv v. For all liquids, v v is much
much higher than the v l.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:18)

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Now, I come to the very simple old and known things, ideal gases.
This will be mostly the recapitulation of the things which you had read at your school levels with
addition of few materials but brushing of your concept.
For any compressible system, a functional relationship between pressure, volume and
temperature are the three fundamental properties of a system. All these three are directly
measurable and sensible also. We can sense pressure and temperature. A functional relationship
between these three properties is known as equation of state.
An ideal gas if we ask what is the definition of an ideal gas?
It can be defined in various ways, but all the definitions are same. One is a corollary of the
other. We can start from the equation of state point of view. An ideal gas is a gas which obeys
this relationship as the equation of state at all pressure, volume and temperatures. At any state
points, the relationship will be pV is equal to m RT, where m is the mass of the gas and R is a
constant known as characteristic gas constant whose value is constant for a particular gas, but
varies from gas to gas.
This relationship is very simple relationship and has to be valid at all state points. It has been
found in practice that all the gases in reality do not exactly obey this equation; this functional
relationship between pv and T. Gases only obey with a fair accuracy. This relationship, when its
pressure is extremely low, p tends to 0, very low or temperature is extremely high. I will not
write infinity. This will be odd, because at very high temperature, the gases are ionized and are
converted into another state known as plasma state which is not a neutral state, ionized state. So,
at very high temperature, if the gases are highly superheated or rarefied, for example, we
consider air is at a tremendous superheated condition or a rarefied condition. I expressed this
thing earlier, while discussing the phase diagram what is the superheated or rarefied state.
Air in a superheated state, is a high degree of superheat, because if we consider air at the
atmospheric pressure then if we think its temperature, for example, today, just now, I have been
told that temperature is 23 degree Celsius. But what is the temperature at which air is condensed
or liquid air boils up at one atmospheric pressure. Though liquid air is not a pure component, it
consists of nitrogen and oxygen, but their boiling points are very close.
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We can take a rough idea that it is some minus170 degree Celsius or so. Approximately, how
much degree of superheat it is? It is at a highly superheated condition corresponding to its
existing pressure. At the same time, if we consider the 23 degree Celsius as the existing
temperature at which the air can be liquefied. Yes, it can be liquefied.
If we compress the air and to do that we have to compress the air up to 50 or 100 atmospheric
pressure or even more so that air is at a rarefied state. Therefore, at a very superheated or rarefied
state, a gas obeys that means when the pressure is very low and temperature is very high obey
the equation of state. This is experiments, but theoreticians on the other hand have derived this
equation from kinetic theory of matters, provided we are allowed to assume certain postulate.
They have to make certain assumptions. What are those assumptions?
Number one assumption is that, I am not writing all these things it is boring. Molecules are point
masses that they do not have any volume. The volume of the molecules is neglected in
comparison to the volume of the geometrical system; that is number one.
Number two is that no cohesive force. Cohesive force is the force of attraction or repulsion
between the molecules of the same kind. In fluid mechanics, we have learnt that there are two
types of forces. Intermolecular forces, there exists, one is the force of cohesion which is the
intermolecular forces; forces of attraction and repulsion in between the molecules of the same
kind. For a given system which comprises a large number of molecules, there are internal forces,
attraction and repulsion forces of the molecules which largely depend upon the molecular
density. The free path of the molecule, the distance between the two molecules are in main free
path. How do did we define statistical average of the distance between two successive collisions?
Therefore, these intermolecular forces are known as cohesive force.
Another force is the adhesion force for that adhesion which is the intermolecular forces between
the molecules of the two different kinds between two different systems. So, the molecular
cohesive forces or molecular attractive or repulsive forces are 0, because of which molecules are
capable of moving in a straight line rectilinear motions. So, if we assume these things then from
the kinetic theory of matter, one can derive this relationship pV is equal to m RT.
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The kinetic energy of the molecule is a function of temperature which gives the concept of
temperature from statical thermodynamics which was given by Maxwell and Boltzmann. This is
beyond the scope of this classical thermodynamics which we are dealing with now.
If we know this information that is sufficient that an ideal gas from kinetic theory of matter had
these assumptions, that the molecules do not have any volume and the internal forces between
the molecules; that is, cohesive forces in molecules are absent. Then molecule moves perfectly in
a straight line; the rectilinear motion. One can reduce this, but we are not much bothered of these
assumptions in the kinetic theory. We are only bothered in classical thermodynamics with this
equation pV is equal to m RT.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:21)

Now, Avogadro gave a hypothesis after this. Now, pV is equal to m RT. We know after the
Avogadro hypothesis was discovered, there is another way of expressing the mass of a substance.
This is the m whose unit is kg in SI unit, but another way of expressing the amount of a
substance as a fraction of its molecular weight. If I define n as a fraction of the molecular weight
of the system; that means, not in terms of its actual mass in kg, but in terms of fraction.
For example, if there is 32 kg of oxygen. So, its n will be one, because the molecular weight of
oxygen is 32. Similarly, 2 grams of hydrogen is one; that means, in that fraction 2 grams of
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hydrogen and 32 grams of oxygen are expressed in the same number, because these are the
multiples of the molecular weight. If we express the mass in a different unit, what is that unit?
J ust scale it by the molecular weight 1 divided by M; multiply it by one by M. This unit is known
as mole, number of mole. This is mass in kg, and if we do that and substitute these in the
equation of state, we get n.
I am Sorry. Here we use R bar that we will be get. no Sorry no no no no no I am Sorry R all
right. The R bar I will use in universal gas constant. If we substitute M is equal to n then M into
R, I take in a bracket. So, this will be the modified equation of state when equation of state is
expressed in terms of the number of moles of the substance. In equation of state, I do not want to
use the mass, but I will use the mass in terms of the moles; that means, divided by molecular
weight. So, M into R into nT. Now, Avogadro told that all gases at same pressure and
temperatures with same number of moles have the same volume. If we have different gases
whose number of moles is same that means their masses are proportional to their respective
molecular weight. If they are at same pressure and temperature, they have equal volume which is
not true for mass.
If we have got different gasses at different mass at same pressure and temperature, the volume
will not be same. Density cannot be same, but if the number of moles is same for all gases at
same pressure and temperature. They have the same volume. This is because of the same identity
of the molecules; that means, molecules are alike.
This is the hypothesis which was given by Avogadro and because of this MR is same for all
gases. Now MR, I write as R bar which is known as universal gas constant. Therefore, we see
that if we replace M in terms of n, we can write pv is equal to n R bar T. R bar is nothing but
molecular weight into R and which is a universal gas constant for all gases. These values, since it
is universally constant for all gases should be remembered. This value is, we do not go more than
two places of decimal, it will be enough to remember kilo J oule per kg mole Kelvin.
If I expect Something to be remembered, I should not go to an accuracy of four places of decimal
which have been found out or theoretically or experimentally, it will be sufficient, because its
unit will be J oule because this p into v is J oule in terms of kilo J oule per kg mole. R bar T, how
do you find out kg mole that is kg by the molecular weight. This is the universal gas constant. If
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we write again, the two equations in terms of the specific volume, one is RT another is pv bar. I
will use always these two equations. One is pv is equal to RT, small v is the specific volume,
volume per unit mass. This is volume per unit mole, just one minute I will listen to all question.
It is volume per unit mole and R bar is the universal gas constant. So, the two equations are
same; they are not independent equation. They are expressed in different form, where v is the
specific volume. Here, v bar is the molar volume.
Okay please question
Excuse me sir
yes
(Refer Slide Time: 26:05) kg mole Kelvin. Do not use mole Kelvin wrong, that wrong you from
now onwards you write kilo J oule per kg mole Kelvin. Usually some books write kg mole.
Because kg mole has got a meaning that kg by molecular weight is the kg mole, gram by
molecular weight gram mole. Do not use those nomenclatures given in some books like mole and
kilo mole per kg mole, per gram mole. No kilo mole, it is kg mole, because mole has something
to do with kg. So, mole molecular weight is dimensionless, So, kg by molecular weight is kg
mole.
We can write kilo mole but I prefer it is kg mole or gram mole. This is my perception. I will
better go with this.
One thing to be again remembered that for all real gases, limit of p into v bar as p tends to 0, or v
bar tends to infinity, rarefied state becomes equal to R bar by T only as a limit, whereas an ideal
gas will obey this, not as a limiting condition at all condition.
Next are two important corollaries of ideal gases. This is the definition of ideal gas starts with the
equation of state.
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(Refer Slide Time: 27:52)

Now, two corollaries are that the specific enthalpy h or total enthalpy we can take. I will deal
with specific values only and specific internal energy are functions of temperature. Here I tell
you one thing. You will appreciate it afterwards just as an information, afterwards you will
appreciate.
When the reaction part is not coming into picture, it is always better with the specific values
rather than the molar values. But the molar properties come into picture when reactions are
occurring; that means, when thermodynamics of the reactive systems come into picture. Because
we will see, the significance of dealing with mole in case of reaction and the significance of
dealing with mass, the specific property when reaction is not there. That is why, now, I will deal
with the specific value. So, h and u are functions of temperature only. But probably you know by
this time we have already derived it in course of our other studies but again I will do that.
How to prove that h and u are functions of temperature only? Let us write this expression that dh.
If we recollect the very important thermodynamic property of relations which are most probably
the most important and fundamental property relation is T ds plus v dp.
Now, what is Tds from the first Tds equation, second Tds equation? If we write from second Tds
equation, we know that Tds, I am writing in terms of the specific entropy. Therefore, it will be cp
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dT minus T into del v this is the specific value v, c
p
because s is specific at constant pressure dp.
This is the second Tds equation. This is one of the very important relations Tds.
If we replace this, while finding out the J oule Kelvin coefficient; that is, the similar way, dh is
equal to cp dT plus v minus T into del v divided by del T at constant p into dp. This c
p
can be
written as del h divided by del T at constant pressure that means h is a function of T and p that
means as if dh is equal to, if I write h is a function of T and p, I can write del h divided by del T
at constant pressure into dT plus del h divided by del p at constant temperature into dp. This we
have already recognized.
This is nothing, but del h divided by del p at constant temperature. Now, what is this value for
ideal gas? If we take the ideal gas equation, pv is equal to RT. If we use this to find this, this will
be 0, because T del v divided by del T at constant p will be v.
If we differentiate del v divided by del T at constant pressure it is R by p. del v divided by del T
at constant pressure will be R by p. RT by p means v, v minus v. Therefore, this becomes 0
which proves that del h divided by del p at constant temperature is equal to 0. Therefore, h
becomes a function of temperature only. That means if I write dh is cp dT, from this equation,
we can write dh is cp dT which means this h is a function of temperature only. h cannot become
a function of any other quantity, because h can be expressed as p and T, but it is not a function.
But how do we explicitly prove that h is not a function of volume that we can do? There are
several ways.
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(Refer Slide Time: 32:08)

One of the ways I am telling it is unnecessary that pv is equal to RT. So, if we keep the
temperature fixed then volume will vary provided there is a variation in pressure. Therefore, at
constant temperature, enthalpy cannot change with volume, if it does not change with pressure.
Therefore, enthalpy does not change with volume, if it does not change with pressure at constant
temperature, because this is the equation of state.
Therefore, we see enthalpy is a function of temperature only. The definition dh is equal to c
p
dT
which means dh divided by dT is equal to c
p.
Earlier, in first law, we recognized that definition of
c
p
is del h divided by del T especially, at constant pressure at p. This is valid for all substances.
But since h is not the function of pressure, this can be simply written dh divided by dT. c
p
is dh
divided by dT. Similarly, we can show that u is also of function of temperature.
How to do it?
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(Refer Slide Time: 33:23)

In this case, we have to write du. We will start with du. What is this equation? Another
fundamental and most important and popular expression is du minus pdv. Tds is du plus p dv.
This is a probability relationship. Is it first law of thermodynamics?
yes sir
How many of you are telling yes.
du is equal to Tds minus p dv is the first law of thermodynamics
no no no no no
it is not the no it is not the first law of thermodynamics but can it be first law of thermodynamics
For a reversible process, with only displacement work, but this is the probability relationship. It
may or may not be the first law of thermodynamics. It is first law of thermodynamics under a
special situation. When the process is reversible and had only displacement work, as the work
displacement mode of work as the work transfer du is equal to T ds minus p dv, because in the
viva portion these questions will be asked. Nobody will ask you to deduce the Clausius-
Clapeyron equations okay In a similar way, if we recall the first T ds equation. It is c
v
dT plus T
into del p divided by del T at constant v into dv.
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We write it here, du is equal to c
v
dT plus T into del p divided by del T at constant v minus p into
dv. c
v
is equal to del u divided by del T at constant ; that means, du is expressed as functions of T
and p and this is nothing but del u divided by del v at constant T. What is this quantity?
If we evaluate this quantity for an ideal gas, where pv is equal to RT. This becomes 0; that
means, u is a function of temperature only. These are very simple thing. Therefore, one of the
important corollaries of the ideal gas is u and always du is equal to c
v
dT. h and u are functions of
temperatures.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:49)

Therefore, we come across this thing that for ideal gases, we can write du is equal to c
v
dT and
dh is equal to cp dT. If we make this is total internal energy then we make the heat capacity c
v
,
that both side multiply with much similar is the case. dH capital H that is the total enthalpy is the
heat capacity c
p
into dT.
If we integrate this, we will get u is equal to integration of c
v
dT plus some arbitrary constant.
Similarly, h is cp dT plus some arbitrary constant. These constants are neither functions of
pressure nor function of volume, just simply a constant, numerical constant.
To express this u and h as a function of temperature, we have to integrate this equation. If we
know this c
p
and c
v
explicitly as functions of temperature. For an ideal gas, we also assume c
p

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and c
v
are constants. They do not become the functions of temperature or any other properties.
Sometimes, this is known as calorically ideal or calorically perfect gas. For ideal gas, when we
tell, we always assume that it is a calorically ideal gas until and unless it is told. These are not
very rigid things. Sometimes, we express that this is an ideal gas, but with a variation of c
p
, c
v

with temperature.
Sometimes, when we realize this assumption make this c
p
, c
v
varying with temperature, we tell
the gas is semi ideal. So, several terminologies are there which has to be exclusively mentioned.
If nothing is mentioned exclusively, if it is ideal gas given that means we will assume c
p
, c
v
are
constants. But when c
p
and c
v
are constants, we tell that calorically perfect gas. Sometimes,
perfect gas is a synonymous term for ideal gas.
If we consider a gas to be calorically perfect or ideal then c
p
, c
v
are constants. We consider for an
ideal gas, another assumptions like pv is equal to RT as the equation of state that c
p,
c
v
are
constant. Then it becomes simply u is equal to c
v
T plus c
1
is equal to c
p
T plus c
2.
So, as long as
the difference is considered, del u is equal to c
v
into delta T. That means I can integrate this. If c
v

is constant, then I do not care with this constant of integration. That means u
2
minus u
1
is equal to
c
v
T
2
minus T
1
. This thing we have already used with the problems of first law h
2
minus h
1
is
equal to c
p
into

T
2
minus T
1
.
If I want to ascribe the specific internal energy, specific enthalpy at a particular state point, I
have to know this c
1
, c
2.
These c
1
, c
2
are made by a convention for all ideal gases at T is equal to
0; both u is equal to 0, h is equal to 0 so that one can write u is equal to c
v
T and h is equal to c
p
T.
So, these equations are valid.
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(Refer Slide Time: 39:14)

Already we have proved another result that if pv is equal to RT is the equation of state, v is the
specific volume. Then the value of cp minus cv is R. This already we have proved from
thermodynamic relation; c
p
and c
v.
From two tedious equations, we found out the expression of
cp minus cv in terms of the derivative of other thermodynamic properties and utilize this
relationship as the equation of state for ideal gas. We have shown that cp minus cv is equal to R.
This is one of the important relations for an ideal gas.
Another important relationship for ideal gas which is often used in heat transfers studies. That
beta, which I defined earlier, is the volume expansibility or volume expansion coefficient. When
we read heat transfer then beta for an ideal gas is 1 by T then, you will not be able to tell them
your heat transfer teacher may ask that how you have read thermodynamics.
It may not be very much related to thermodynamic studies in free convection studies on heat
transfer. We always encounter with this parameter v; volume expansibility is 1 by T for ideal
gases. Do not consider that this definition is 1 by T for an ideal gas. I will now prove by simple
two line proof. Beta definition is 1 by v del v divided by del T at constant pressure.
We use pv is equal to RT and get these things 1 by T pv is equal to RT. Find out del V divided
by del T from here at constant pressure and get these things. We will get simply 1 by T volume
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expansibility. We see the dimension is temperature, and it exactly becomes 1 by the absolute
temperature in case of an ideal gas.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:11)

Another very important relations for pv for a particular process in an isentropic process. We
know that displacement work W is integral of p dv per unit mass. But can we integrate this? To
integrate this, we have to know p as a function of volume. Therefore, we have to know the path
along which the process has executed this work transfer. That path is specified by the functional
relationship of pv that depends upon path to path. So, if we know this relationship, we can
integrate this. One of the paths is isentropic process.
Let us consider that isentropic process. s is equal to constant. Basically, isentropic process is a
reversible adiabatic process. Now, we write very two important equations; T ds is du minus pdv
and T ds is dh minus vdp. For ideal gas, this equation is valid for all processes property
relationship.
(Refer Slide Time: 42:31)
yes
( Refer Slide Time :42:33)
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First one is Tds is du plus second one negative. These two equations are property relations valid
for all. Now, if I write this as T ds is equal to c
v
dT plus pdv. Is it valid for all systems?
(Refer Slide Time: 43:01)
It is valid for ideal gas.
A form of this equation only for ideal gases and this is also cp dT minus vdp. It is valid for ideal
gases. Now, I will write these two property relations for ideal gases and consider an isentropic
process that means the left hand side is 0. Then if we divide one by other that means if we take
this side that means pdv is equal to c
v
dT and vdp minus and vdp is cp dT. We divide it then we
get dp by p plus cp by cv into dv. I know the result. So without seeing that I am writing you can
also write it it will come like this.
If this is represented as gamma and integrates it; that is, ln p plus ln v gamma, gamma lnv means
lnv to the power gamma and in that case, constant is also logarithm of some constant ln c. So,
that pv gamma is constant. This is a very important relationship for an isentropic process. In
school probably, you have done this.
(Refer Slide Time: 44:24)

21
pv gamma is constant is valid for an isentropic process executed by an ideal gas, where gamma is
constant and equals to cp by cv. Gamma is always greater than one, because c
p
is always greater
than c
v
that has been already proved.
Now if I equate this is one important thing, we can think it trivial it is not very important but one
you do it. It is better that remember this formula otherwise there will be no problem in deriving
this.
If we have to evaluate this integral from a point one to state point two, and if we have got a
relationship of this Sometimes for all other processes, so all other reversible processes, it is
possible to express the relationship as this pv n is equal to constant, where n has got any value.
When n is equal to gamma the process is isentropic. When n is equal to 1, the process is
isothermal. pv isothermal for an ideal gas, all for ideal gas and n is equal to 0 isobaric.
For any value of n which may not be equal to1, gamma, 0? It represents the reversible process
which may not be isentropic, may not be constant pressure, may not be constant temperature, but
it is a reversible process. When a reversible path of the process is prescribed by a functional
relationship of pv in the form of a power law that p v to the power n is constant. Then one can
integrate this. Let this is equal to constant c. Then one can relate it constant, dv divided by v n.
So, if we do this, then we get v c 1 minus n from one to two. So, two v
2
one minus n and c is p
2

v
2
n. So, this becomes p
2
v
2
minus p
1
v
1
by 1 minus n, because v
2
one minus n minus v
1
this
bracket. After putting the limit, this will be like that.
When it will be multiplied with c which is p
2
v
2
n, here that is p
2
v
2,
when we will multiply with
that we will use p
1
v
1.
So, this is a very important expression. If n is equal to gamma, this will be
one minus gamma. So, depending upon the value of the index and the corresponding values of pv
is that initial and final state, the sign of W will be determined so that we can find out whether the
work is coming out or work is going into the system. Next is pdv for a polytrophic process. Then
we come to the entropy change of an ideal gas.
22
(Refer Slide Time: 47:44)

How to calculate the entropy change of an ideal gas? The entropy change of an ideal gas is very
simple. Again we start from the same equation that T ds is equal to c
v
dt plus pdv, T ds is equal
to cp dT minus vdp.
Now, for the two points, pressure, volume, and temperature, all these things may not be given.
We may know pressure temperature, we may know volume temperature or we know everything.
So, we can use any pair. So, if we use the temperature and volume, we use this ds is equal to c
v
dT by T. pv is equal to RT. So, p by T is equal to R dv by v. Therefore, s
2
minus s
1
is c
v
ln T
2
by

T
1
plus R ln v
2
by

v
1
. Any question all right it is very simple school level.
Similarly, we integrate the second one. We get c
p
ln T
2
by

T
1
minus R ln p
2
by

p
1.
So, the change
in entropy between these two states given by T and v and p and T we can use, and p and v we
can make from these two equations. We can find out the relationship between p and v. This way
we can find out the expression for entropy change of an ideal gas. Therefore, we have to
remember for ideal gas all those corollaries while solving problems.
After this I will start the real gas, what is a real gas? The few real gases and how we can express
the equation of state for a real gas.
23
But I think today the time is limited the time much time is not there. So, I will start the
expressions for real gas. How it deviates from the ideal gas and how we can express the equation
of state of a real gas compressibility factor and all these things. I will discuss in the next class.
But before that you ask me any questions you do have. Today is extremely simple what I have
taught. But regarding just a minute till five minutes we can spare if you feel So that we can
discuss anything about the change of phase diagram and all. Any questions? No question.