Professional Documents
Culture Documents
();
B (t) - set of buyers in PN at time t;
(t) - net benefit for any member of B(t) for participating in PN;
xx
(t) - net benefit for any member of S(t) for participating in PN;
() and
();
() and
();
() - change on benefit of the whole set of existing buyers due to adding k to B(t);
() - change on benefit of the whole set of existing suppliers due to adding k to B(t);
() - change on benefit of the whole set of existing buyers due to adding k to S(t);
() - change on benefit of the whole set of existing suppliers due to adding k to S(t);
- accepting k;
- rejecting k.
The benefit of derived from being a member of at time is assumed
proportional to
() [
() ],
adopting a homogeneous assumption about the potential benefit of interacting
with any member of SN, and where is a positive parameter.
75
Thus, each existing member of SN has an additional benefit equal to if joins
, and so the benefit of SN due to
is:
() [
() ].
Participation cost is assumed equal to
{ [
() ]
}; { [
() ]
} 0;0
0;0 0;0
The usual notation is adopted:
Left payoff for
Right payoff for ().
Obviously, [
() ]
,
so the manager should accept (for most social networks
is negligible since
there is no membership fee and all interactions are web-based).
(1)
76
2.3.1.3. A MODEL OF E-PROCUREMENT NETWORKS
Members of an e-procurement network are classified into two groups: Buyers,
B(), and Suppliers, (). The advantage offered to buyers by belonging to PN
stems from obtaining better buying opportunities from suppliers. The additional
value of such opportunities is due to increasing competition between sellers since
they are all invited to tender for each specific procurement request according to
their capacity to cope with the type of the contract and the additional advantages
offered by suppliers.
Therefore, the total benefit for buyers is proportional to the advantages offered
by each seller (on average, expressed by a positive parameter,
) and to its
number,
()
()
,
if a homogeneous set of buyers is assumed.
Participation of in implies supporting multiple types of cost (time, effort,
membership fee, opportunity cost, etc.); their sum can be expressed by
individual participation cost
.
Thus, the net benefit for any member of B() is:
()
()
()
.
If is a potential new member of B(), its net benefit due to joining the network
is:
()
()
()
77
Similarly, the advantage for sellers belonging to stems from obtaining better
selling opportunities offered by (). Thus, the net benefit for any member of
() is given by:
()
()
()
where
()
()
()
Adding to B() reduces the benefit of the entire set of existing buyers
(), but
increases benefit of existing sellers
():
()
() {
()
()
()
()
}
()
()
()
() {
()
()
()
()
}
so,
()
()
()
()
()
Adding to () reduces the benefit to existing sellers but increases benefits to
existing buyers:
()
()
()
()
with
78
()
()
()
()
()
where
() is the increase of benefit for B() due to having a new seller, , and
()
()
} {
()
()
}
0;0
0;0 0;0
b) ()
()
()
} {
()
()
}
0;0
0;0 0;0
Therefore, this is a cooperative game if and only if:
a) ()
()
()
(2)
(3)
79
()
()
or
()
()
and
b) ()
()
()
()
()
or
()
()
This means that if the number of buyers (or sellers) grows, then
()
()
(
()
()
) reduces to zero.
Cooperation and growth implies that:
a) for B()
()
()
where
80
b) for S()
()
()
with
For a given:
a)
()
assuming that
is satisfied.
b)
()
() grows until the upper bound
assuming that
is satisfied.
Therefore, the dynamics of viral growth sustainable growing network size and
increasing net benefit - is not possible for e-procurement networks.
2.3.2. THREE THEOREMS ON THE DYNAMICS OF NETWORKS
The proposed models support the deduction of three theorems on the dynamics
of networks (social and e-procurement networks), which are presented
subsequently.
2.3.2.1. A THEOREM ON THE DYNAMICS OF SOCIAL NETWORKS
According to (1) and providing that
()
is positive for
, it can
be concluded that:
(4)
(5)
81
Theorem 1:
The growth rate per time unit of the number of members of a social network is
positive and grows proportionally to
() for
()
] ()
()
,
confirming that () grows proportionally to
().
If [
()]
for
because
() will always be increasing and so with the net benefit of any member.
This is the viral growth (not specifically related to exponential growth but to
sustainable growing network size and increasing net benefit) known well in most
social networks. The manager keeps
() (
()
()
or (
()
()
) for some
, then:
82
a) For a given
()
with
b) For a given
()
with
.
Proof:
The proof is given by results (2), (3), (4) and (5). If Ns (or Nb) is increased
progressively, one can increase Nb (or Ns) but with a decreasing
(or
).
2.3.2.3. A THEOREM ON THE EQUILIBRIUM STATE OF A E-PROCUREMENT
NETWORK
As explained previously, for any with () and (), the net benefit for a new
potential buyer is:
()
()
,
and the buyer does not join the network if
()
()
. Thus, break-even
is achieved with:
()
()
.
If (6) holds, no buyers will leave because
()
()
()
()
.
Thus, equilibrium (no new members and no loss of members) is achieved for
()
and
()
satisfying:
(6)
83
or
Thus, the solution of (8) is:
(7)
(8)
84
2.3.3. NETWORKS DYNAMICS SIMULATION
To obtain deeper insights into social and e-procurement networks behaviour,
several computer simulations were developed that consider the models
presented in this study.
2.3.3.1. SOCIAL NETWORKS DYNAMICS SIMULATION
Social networks dynamics have been simulated considering the model proposed,
and given that:
a) Hypotheses:
users enter the network to maximize their benefit, providing that
[
() ]
;
there is an unlimited number of potential new members;
b) Initial conditions:
CSN = 100 (arbitrary value);
=200 (arbitrary value but higher than CSN; otherwise users would not
want to enter the network);
N=1 (initial number of social network members);
c) Management rules:
network members do not accept new members if [
() ]
;
the simulation runs until N=30 is reached.
As shown in Fig. 39, social networks exhibit viral growth and benefits for users
increase proportionally to the size of the network.
85
Fig. 39 Social Network simulation results
2.3.3.2. E-PROCUREMENT NETWORKS DYNAMICS SIMULATION
Concerning e-procurement networks dynamics four different computer
simulations have been developed, which are presented subsequently.
Simulation 1 Open Strategy
Continuous increase of both Nb(t) and Ns(t) can be achieved if both groups
continuously attract new members. This is the case of the open strategy defined
by the following hypotheses, conditions and management rules:
a) Hypotheses:
users enter the network according to expected net benefit, which is
()
()
()
()
()
()
, if is a supplier;
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Number of members Net benefit for network members
Time
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Number of
members
Net benefit for each
member
10
86
decision on type of member that joins the network is based on type of
user that has the highest expected value, which should be positive;
if expected value for both types of user is equal, the new member
entering the network will be a supplier;
there is an unlimited number of suppliers and buyers.
b) Initial conditions:
Cb= Cs= 100 (arbitrary value);
b= s=150 (arbitrary value but higher than CSN; otherwise users would
not want to enter the network);
b=s= 1,5;
Nb0=Ns0= 10 (initial number of buyers and suppliers).
c) Management rules:
neither network members nor network managers can deny entry to
new members;
simulation runs until Nb=70 is reached.
Simulation result shows that under this strategy, e-procurement networks grow
indefinitely. Though, the net benefit for network members degrades
progressively (Fig. 40), which did not happen in the case of social network
simulation (Fig. 39).
It is important to note the relevance of initial conditions, which influence e-
procurement network behaviour over time. Looking at Fig. 40, the benefit for the
type of user who is the first to join the network (in this case, a supplier) is never
higher than for the other type. This happens because the size of the group of the
type of user who joins the network first is never lower than the size of the other
group.
87
Fig. 40 E-procurement network simulation results Open strategy
Simulation 2 Bounded Strategy
This strategy is similar to the previous one but no more buyers are accepted as
new members beyond a maximum. As an example, the following management
rules were adopted:
neither network members nor network managers can deny entry of new
members until Nb=70;
after reaching Nb=70, the network does not accept more buyers but still
accepts new suppliers.
The result of this simulation confirms theorem 2; for a given number of buyers
(Nb=70) the number of suppliers has an upper bound equal to
).
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 50 100 150 200
Number of buyers Number of suppliers
Net benefit for each buyer in the network Net benefit for each supplier in the network
Time
140
120
100
60
Number of
buyers/suppliers
Net benefit for
each buyer/supplier
40
20
80
89
Results demonstrate that under the new management rules, suppliers were
motivated to join the network only up to a new upper bound,
()
() (or with
(or
() (or
()) by increasing
() (or
(or
) and
92
sellers (
and
) and expressed by
.
Afterwards, five computer simulations were developed to gain in-depth
knowledge of network dynamics and management: one focusing on social
network dynamics and four on e-procurement networks dynamics (considering
different management rules). The former confirms that social networks
experience viral growth. The subsequent emphasize the role of initial conditions
on e-procurement network behaviours and demonstrate the importance of
proactive e-procurement network management, which should monitor network
configurations continuously and strive to attract new users.
The study on network dynamics reveals that service providers face considerable
challenges to guarantee e-procurement network growth since they must conduct
significant marketing to attract new buyers and suppliers to the network and
maintain an equilibrium between their numbers. In simulation 2, it is clear that
if a type of user (buyer or supplier) stops joining the network, the other type will
experience participation benefit decrease and the e-procurement network will
soon stop growing. Thus, it is important to attract new members continuously
from both types of users. This simulation 2 helps explaining Portuguese
construction e-marketplaces behaviour, presented in sub-section 2.1.3. Buyer-
focused e-marketplaces favour buyers and attract more suppliers than buyers,
which reduces the benefit of e-procurement networks for suppliers and degrades
suppliers expected benefit gradually.
Reducing participation costs or providing extra value-added services allows
service providers stimulating networks growth, mainly by increasing expected
benefit. However, although pricing policy is a relevant market regulation
mechanism to take into account (Galbreth et al., 2003), service providers usually
have limited margins to reduce prices that constrain the application of price-
based strategies. Thus, providing value-added services may be considered a
pertinent option; it depends on creativity, innovativeness and available capital.
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2.4. A VISION FOR E-PROCUREMENT IN CONSTRUCTION
Throughout the present chapter, particular emphasis has been given to electronic
paradigm in the Portuguese context, focusing on public e-procurement and e-
marketplaces in construction. E-procurement challenges have been discussed,
the role of e-marketplaces in construction has been analysed and the influence of
electronic systems on supply chains has been investigated. All over the research
several interesting findings emerged, promoting the development of a new
perspective on e-procurement for construction. It was interesting to note that, if
electronic systems raise several opportunities for the industry and generate
positive impacts, e-procurement systems must receive special attention to be
successful and exhibit positive growth rates.
The case of e-marketplaces in construction has shown that suppliers tend to be
unsatisfied with a strong price-based competition environment created;
therefore, many users abandon the platform or gradually degrade the quality of
their tenders. To combat this problem, buyers create smaller groups to
incentivize them and obtain valuable proposals under higher quality standards.
This behaviour tends to be harmful to all parties. If users abandon e-
marketplaces, electronic market potential is reduced; if buyers use e-
marketplaces for creating smaller groups of sellers, then the electronic platform
is not used to exploit its advantages and may be transformed into a set of several
internal networks rather than a large network of potential buyers and suppliers.
Behind potential risk for collusion and less competitive environment created,
this situation may also be disadvantageous for service providers who want to
capitalize the potential of open and large e-procurement networks.
Against this background, multicriteria evaluation and SCM appear as key
instruments to guarantee the generation and maintenance of open, competitive
and motivated networks. Appropriate use of these instruments in procurement
procedures promotes dissemination of integrated performance-based
approaches to competitive networks, which create virtual, stable groups of
qualified suppliers (who should invest in non-contractibles to deliver good
performances) in an open market, rather than limited groups of suppliers. This
situation is favourable for all parties involved: buyers have instruments to
94
increase their value and promote win-win relationships, suppliers are valued
according to their performance and reputation and service providers potentiate
large e-procurement networks.
Considering the existence of an open e-procurement network in which both
buyers and sellers benefit for being part of it, the behaviour of these agents were
modelled and analysed. The results show that e-procurement networks dont
tend to grow as a viral network; network growth depends heavily on proactive
management, adequate pricing policy and considerable effort of service
providers to attract new users. The analysis permits conclusions and raises new
viewpoints on e-procurement.
Consequently, three major challenges for e-procurement platforms are
identified:
e-procurement platforms should provide advanced instruments to support
multicriteria evaluation and SCM, giving particular emphasis to past
performance use and management to promote the generation of competitive,
qualified and win-win e-procurement networks;
since e-procurement networks do not grow as viral networks, service
providers must monitor networks and continuously attract new users
(buyers and suppliers), while guarantying that existing members do not
abandon the network;
service providers should manage e-procurement platforms (price policy,
value-added services, marketing strategies, etc.), considering e-procurement
network dynamics.
Undoubtedly, the most relevant of these challenges (perhaps because it depends
on several externalities) is to attract new members to e-procurement platforms
and create large and successful e-procurement networks. This is especially
difficult because in reality, many users still have old-fashioned ideas about e-
procurement, based on pure price-based competitive electronic markets that
were not able to grow and disseminate in the past. Therefore, they show
considerable resistance to entry.
95
It would be convenient to refresh existing solutions and deliver new approaches
to e-procurement platforms. For example, social networking phenomenon,
generating disruptive perspectives on ICT, should be taken into account to
enhance e-procurement. As it has been shown earlier, e-procurement networks
do not have a viral growth so synergies with social networks should help them
growing. Social networks sites are an appropriate example of success; they
connect users while providing attractive web-based services, generating a
cooperative game with positive acceleration. Even if managed correctly, e-
procurement networks do not show this behaviour. However, instead of being
supported exclusively by e-procurement platforms, e-procurement networks
could be a part of an e-business platform, which could exhibit stable, cooperative
behaviour similar to social networks.
Supporting an open, collaborative, relationship-based free space, an e-business
platform could expand more easily than an e-procurement platform, and act as a
vehicle for e-procurement network growth. In this context, e-procurement
services should appear as value-added services of an e-business platform,
specifically designed to attract new users and growth. This approach would
generate a significant Internet marketing potential that would help with facing
the major challenge of e-procurement platforms: to attract new users. As it is
widely recognized, electronic technologies generate a powerful e-marketing
environment and provide the perfect conditions for relationship marketing
(Lancastre and Lages, 2006).
This e-business approach should integrate several social networking tools to
stimulate e-business networks growth, though it should be considered that B2B
environments are extremely competitive and users commonly play the role of
supplier and buyer simultaneously. For example, a company may not be
interested in sharing, rating or recommending their suppliers online (as it occurs
in B2C e-commerce platforms) since these suppliers may be part of their
competitive advantage that vanishes if information is shared. Similarly, suppliers
may not be interested to see their competitive advantages exposed in social
networking environments. Consequently, social networking approaches should
focus collaborative processes, win-win relationships and supply chain integration
instead of competition-based situations.
96
Creating a collaborative and relationship-based environment may contribute
positively to e-procurement success. As stated by Grilo (1998) an atmosphere of
co-operation between firms, where they may have mutual expectation of long-
term commercial interaction, is very important to the emergence and
sophistication of these systems. The frequency and volume of information and
financial exchanges and social contacts also largely influence the adoption of e-
procurement instruments, providing the adequate environment for a growing
growth rate.
Considering the perspectives raised, it should be pertinent to develop an
innovative e-business platform that should:
provide e-procurement as a value-added service, but without obligating
potential e-business platform users to use the service. More important
is stimulating generation of large networks of users to increase network
expected value and marketing potential;
provide various communication, sharing and collaboration tools,
preferably for free, to attract users;
promote supply chain dematerialization, incentivizing inter-
organizational and project-based collaboration;
stimulate user interaction and relationship-based initiatives to promote
collaboration and trust development;
provide social networking tools integrated in collaborative
environments rather than in competition-based situations.
Chapter 3
Social e-Business and
BIM-based Environments
99
3. SOCIAL E-BUSINESS AND BIM-BASED ENVIRONMENTS
In this chapter, a new approach to e-procurement emerges and a new vision for
e-business is proposed. To test the innovative solution, a pilot case study is
conducted and its results are discussed in detail.
The work presented in this chapter has produced a scientific paper accepted by
Automation in Construction (Costa and Tavares, 2011b). A second paper
discussing Social e-business as a new vision for e-procurement is also under
development (Costa and Tavares, 2011c).
3.1. SOCIAL E-BUSINESS: AN INNOVATIVE APPROACH TO
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
In the previous chapter, e-procurement platforms were discussed in detail, giving
particular emphasis to the construction industry. It was possible to verify that e-
procurement has positive impacts on markets but raises several challenges. To
face these challenges, an innovative approach to e-procurement was suggested
that should be based on an e-business platform providing e-procurement as a
value-added service. This e-business platform should be inspired on social
networking phenomenon to grow significantly and generate a large network of
users, which potentiates strategic Internet marketing approaches and allows
disseminating value-added services, particularly e-procurement services. As
discussed in chapter 2, e-procurement networks do not expand as a viral
network. To grow, a continuous marketing approach focused on attracting new
potential members is necessary.
Considering the vision proposed for e-procurement, a new approach to e-
business in construction is drawn in this chapter. Following the strategic
directions proposed in the previous chapter in mind, it focuses on the
importance of collaboration and relationships in construction, and covers a wide
range of electronic services, including not only the dematerialization of internal
business processes but also the cooperative and collaborative processes between
companies. A set of collaborative tools and SCM instruments is considered to
100
improve e-procurement network potential and stimulate supply chains
dematerialization.
3.1.1. SOCIAL NETWORKS IN E-BUSINESS
Castells (2004) argues that it is because of ICT that network society is
transcending the limits of networks as forms of social organization and
interaction. The impersonal and atomistic relationship among individual actors
competing in an impersonal marketplace is inadequate in a world where firms
are embedded in networks of social, professional and exchange relationships.
These networks are strategic, creating a more competitive economic environment
where a firms network assumes enhanced importance (Gulati, 1998, Gulati et
al., 2000, Monge and Contractor, 2001).
In this networked economy and Internet-enabled society, business focuses on
alliances and partnerships; virtual communities emerge as important social and
professional structures enabled and empowered by an increasing amount of
Internet technologies such as bulletin boards, list servers, newsgroups, chat,
workspaces, and document repositories (Camarinha-Matos et al., 2008). These
online professional networks share a body of knowledge of their professions,
invent new relationships and induce new ways of sharing and creating
knowledge; they empower supply chain (SC) integration, collaboration and
technological development. Progressively, advanced collaborative tools,
electronic processes, and social network phenomena are transforming society
and markets, and generating new work paradigms (McAfee, 2006, McAfee,
2009, Agarwal et al., 2008).
The social network phenomenon plays a significant role in recent
transformations. Although it is recognized as a disruptive transformation among
the non-professional Web, there is a broader impact influencing professional use
of the Internet. Wellman (1996) previews this change and discusses the evolution
of computer-supported social networks regarding the influence of social
networks on collaborative work. Social Capital (Bourdier, 1986, Coleman, 1988)
is the notion behind this social networking vision, defined as an investment in
101
social relations with expected returns (some of the most common expected
returns have to do with knowledge integration, team performance and trust
development (Inkpen and Tsang, 2005, Robert et al., 2008). Online social
networks (OMurchu et al., 200, Boyd and Ellison, 2007, Gneiser et al., 2009)
exploit social capital fully, demonstrating that relevant gains can be achieved. As
a result, social networking sites arose in multiple sectors and contexts (Kamel
Boulos and Wheeler, 2007, Goble and Roure, 2007, Eysenbach, 2008, Osimo,
2008) (Fig. 44).
Fig. 44 Social Network Sites use
According to Lin (Lin, 2001), social networks allow actors to interact through
relational ties and produce profits (capital) primarily because they:
facilitate the flow of information, reducing transaction cost;
simplify the generation of social ties, which influence decision agents
who make critical decisions involving the actor;
enhance an individuals social credentials to the organization to which
he/she belongs since its social ties are useful to the organization;
reinforce identity and recognition.
Government
Business
Education
Society Medicine
Social Network
Sites
Manage institutional information
Share knowledge
Share experiences
Link users with common interests
(doctors or patients)
Discuss ideas
Share knowledge
Get students and teachers closer
Create online learning
communities
Get citizens opinion
Inform citizens
Discuss priority areas
Connect professionals and
companies
Share information and knowledge
Promote collaborative work
Link citizens
Generate online communities
Support citizens initiatives
Share information
102
In the case of e-business, the online social network environment induces relevant
changes in electronic platform behaviour and transforms e-business into a
broader concept aware of collaborative work and social capital. In the past, e-
business focused on dematerialization processes, particularly internal business
processes, enterprise communication and electronic commerce; now e-business
integrates collaboration tools, links professionals, promotes knowledge sharing,
generates online communities and supports evaluation tools to improve supply
chain coordination (McDonald, 2003, OMurchu et al., 200). E-business is
gradually becoming a broad transaction network linking all organizations and
respective internal networks where trust development contributes positively to
improving supply chain performance.
Social networks play a significant role in trust development. They not only make
it possible to improve coordination between firms and mitigate transaction costs
by making opportunism more costly because of reputational effects (Gulati et al.,
2000), they provide several trust development-oriented mechanisms (OMurchu
et al., 2004) that improve relationships within the supply chain and help achieve
more efficient results, as firms will more likely to share knowledge and accept
risk (Dyer and Singh, 1998, Child, 2001).
Looking at common social network sites such as Facebook and LinkedIn
(Wikipedia, 2011), several of these mechanisms are identified easily. For
example, it is possible to add users to a network, search in friends networks,
comment on profiles and posts, rate posts, recommend network elements, share
information and create subgroups. Several communication channels are
available (private and public) and a dynamic wall page is updated continuously
with network news. In summary, information sharing, network management
tools and several communication options contribute to improving trust and
exploiting collective intelligence.
Some of these social mechanisms should inspire e-business platforms. For
example, e-business platforms should allow users to create and manage their
own collaborative networks, comment and evaluate working experiences and
partners, create and manage relationships and promote dynamic KPIs to support
strategic SCM, enhance relationships management and monitor project
performance. As an interoperable information support mechanism that is
103
changing construction industry, BIM should appear as a part of this innovative
vision for e-business, stimulating collaboration, integration and information
share. An electronic platform integrating BIM technology offers the opportunity
for a broad range of value-added services oriented specifically to collaborative
processes and able to improve information management, process automation
and SC integration.
To systematize this vision of e-business, a new designation is proposed to define
this collaborative approach: Social e-business. This concept emerges to enhance
collaboration and trust relationships in e-business, integrating and adapting
common social network collaborative tools and emphasizing the role of e-
procurement and SCM in e-business. Social e-business is an answer to challenges
identified in chapter 2 and should:
attract users more efficiently than e-procurement platforms, integrating
supply chains and creating a significant Internet marketing potential;
support e-procurement as a value-added service;
provide multicriteria evaluation instruments and SCM tools focused
especially on past performance information management, inevitable to
enhance e-procurement networks potential;
promote collaboration and potentiate trust development;
improve standardization and information management.
Among major strategic challenges that Social e-business faces (Fig. 45), the most
relevant are to attract users and integrate supply chains, since multicriteria
methods and past performance management systems are relatively simple to
implement. Special attention should be given to collaboration and social
networking when developing a Social e-business platform, which should provide:
several communication channels and social networking tools (email,
forums, comments, blogs, online communities, recommendation
systems, etc.);
distinct tools for information sharing, providing various permission
levels;
104
a BIM server to improve collaboration and enhance information
management;
an application store to support advanced models from different users
and companies;
various value-added services such as e-procurement, collaborative e-
catalogues and multicriteria evaluation instruments;
a SCM system including KPI management instruments to monitor
project performance and network relationships, giving special attention
to past performance information;
a project-based collaborative network architecture able to promote
supply chain integration and users interaction.
Fig. 45 Social e-business strategy
As Walker and Hampson (2003a) argue, efficient communication and
collaboration infrastructures are crucial to potentiate the development of trust
relationships, which should be strengthened by cooperative interaction for
improvement, problem solving, dispute resolution, coordination, achieving
shared goals and understanding others goals. Social e-business assumes this
vision and invests in a collaborative and relational environment, envisioning the
development of large online networks supported by social and trust links and
105
generating significant marketing capable of disseminating e-procurement and
other value-added services.
3.1.2. COLLABORATIVE NETWORKS IN ACTION: THE SATELLITE
NETWORK MODEL
In 1985, Porter studied the competitive advantage of organizational networks
and argued that communication infrastructure and social links are essential for
networks working collectively to upgrade, improve and add value (Porter, 1985).
Years later, Camarinha-Matos et al. based on extensive research (Camarinha-
Matos and Afsarmanesh, 2004, Camarinha-Matos and Afsarmanesh, 2005b,
Camarinha-Matos et al., 2005, Camarinha-Matos and Afsarmanesh, 2008,
Camarinha-Matos et al., 2008) added that rapid progress on computer networks
and pervasive computing contributed to the establishment of a networked society
where new forms of collaboration are explored. These collaborative networks are
becoming increasingly important for any organization that strives to achieve a
differentiated competitive advantage; collaboration is a key issue to addressing
market demands and turbulence.
Camarinha-Matos et al. emphasize that recently, various manifestations of
collaborative networks variants emerged such as virtual enterprise, virtual
organization, dynamic virtual organization, extended enterprise, virtual
organization breeding environment, and professional virtual community among
others; all showing a common pattern (Camarinha-Matos and Afsarmanesh,
2005a). They:
are networks of autonomous entities;
are driven by common goal/intentions;
operate on agreed principles and interoperable structure.
According to Camarinha-Matos and Afsarmanesh (2005b), a collaborative
network can be defined as follows:
a collaborative network is constituted by a variety of entities (e.g.,
organizations and people) that are largely autonomous, geographically
106
distributed, and heterogeneous in terms of their: operating environment,
culture, social capital, and goals. Nevertheless these entities collaborate to
better achieve common or compatible goals, and whose interactions are
supported by computer network. Unlike other networks, in collaborative
networks collaboration is an intentional property that derives from the
shared belief that together the network members can achieve goals that
would not be possible or would have a higher cost if attempted by them
individually.
Most collaborative network variants imply some organization over the activities
of their constituents, identifying roles for participants and some governance
rules. However, spontaneous forms of collaboration in networks can also be
foreseen, for example, when organizations collaborate voluntarily, aiming to
improve results but with no plan or previous network structure. In any case,
collaborative networks are already recognized in the society as an important
instrument for organizational survival in a period of turbulent socio-economic
changes. For instance, concerning innovation, Tidd and Bessant (2009)
emphasize that collaborative networks:
increase collective efficiency, providing a way for getting access to
resources through a shared exchange process;
stimulate collective learning, promoting exchange of experiences and
knowledge and supporting shared experimentation and innovation;
promote collective risk taking that permits higher risk in shared
experiences and R&D developments;
promoting sharing of various perspectives and construction of
relationships across knowledge frontiers.
In construction, collaborative networks emerge as a modern working paradigm
(Tuomela, 2004). Progressively, the role of the focal firm (building owner) is
altered by creation of a more open network interaction where specialized and
integrated actors increase end-user interaction, flexibility and iterative facilities
design.
Considering the idiosyncrasies of the industry, these networks should be project-
based, oriented toward trust improvement and SC integration, extremely flexible
and open to the network of actors around the network of projects. As Linderoth
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(2010) suggests, each time a project ends and a new one begins, new networks of
actors are generated; the challenge is to transfer experiences, knowledge and the
benefits achieved in previous projects to new projects and collaborative
networks.
Generating dynamic and flexible collaborative networks in an electronic
environment represents a major challenge to which special attention must be
given. To achieve this, it is crucial to have an electronic platform capable of
integrating the entire SC participating in a specific project, providing a flexible
and dynamic environment. Moreover, in order to retain and transfer valuable
information throughout the projects (including information concerning
relationships management), it is essential to implement strategic KPIs and other
information management instruments (Fig. 46).
A Social e-business platform should provide this project-based collaborative
network behaviour and implement a functional model capable of promoting the
development of dynamic social networks to exploit collaboration, integrate
knowledge within the projects and strengthen relationships over time, while
respecting information confidentiality. This complex behaviour is difficult to
implement, though it is fundamental for enhancing social capital potential in e-
business.
Fig. 46 Collaborative networks
Common e-business platforms are based typically on single networks, and are
managed by an administrator who controls site permissions; this is usually the
owner of the project (Fig. 47). However, several parties are not able to use the
Collaboration
Networks
Partnerships
SC actors
Project A
Project B
KPIs; Knowledge
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platform without restriction. For example, if the owner is the only user allowed
to manage the project network, then the general contractors subcontractors will
not be a part of the collaborative network. Social e-business must avoid such
situations and promote integrated online networks covering entire supply chains,
offering all actors the possibility to interact through the electronic platform. In
this way, information flows without structural limitations, new opportunities
arise and it is possible to provide better e-business services.
Fig. 47 Common Web-based Collaborative Network
Baran (1964) suggests there are three possible architectures: centralized,
decentralized and distributed (Fig. 48). Monge and Contractor (2001) argue that
centralized networks are recommended for routine tasks while decentralized
networks are for creative tasks or collaborative problem solving activities;
construction usually fits in the latter. A decentralized network allows dynamic
and heterogeneous connections and contributes to development of new ideas and
knowledge creation. Members are active actors in the network configuration,
considering their locations on the network effectively change making and
learning opportunities. A distributed network probably does not exist in any real
business case, but represents a structure with high connectivity that could act as
innovative, knowledge-generation networks. Network management trends in
construction management indicate that client centrality is the primary variable
for network governance in the industry (Tuomela, 2004), though self-
governance, virtuality and specialization also play significant roles.
Building owner
Consultants
Architect Engineers
Supervisor
Contractor
Candidates and bidders
Main Project Network
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Fig. 48 Types of networks (Baran, 1964)
To avoid rigid client centrality, promote flexible behaviour, stimulate
collaborative and creative interactions and enhance online integration of the
supply chain, it is important to create decentralized network structures in which
players create their own networks and manage them without restriction, using
existing collaborative tools and services. At the same time, it is important to
avoid the generation of several fragmented networks concerning the same
project, which would make information and project management complex and
inefficient. So, an innovative collaborative network model is proposed that is
project-based and capable of integrating all interested parties without generating
fragmented information. Shown in Fig. 49, this is the Satellite network model.
Fig. 49 Satellite Network Model
Building owner
Consultants
Architect Engineers
Supervisor
Contractor
Consultants
Consultants
Satellite
Network
Satellite
Network
Suppliers
Trade contractors
Satellite
Network
Satellite
Network
Candidates or bidders
Consultants
Satellite
Network
Satellite
Network
Main Project Network
Subconsultants
Satellite
Network
Satellite
Network
Consultants
Suppliers
Satellite
Network
Estimators
Satellite
Network
Estimators
Satellite
Network
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In the Satellite network model, all connected actors can create their own satellite
networks to work privately and independently of the main project
administrators collaboration network. These networks have administrative
permissions and manage confidentiality simply; users invite whom they want
and manage viewing and editing permissions over time. Using this model, it is
possible to simulate a network of networks within a specific project and support
the large numbers of actors involved, existing phases, knowledge backgrounds
and work networks that make construction projects a complex system composed
of multiple SCs (OBrien et al., 2002). This model mimics the dynamic and
interactive industrys behaviour and gives the platform the capability to organize
existing information in a project-based structure. Each satellite network has its
own permission configuration and reduced information fragmentation and
duplication since users do not need to create independent collaboration networks
and share files between different networks (if they have the required
permissions).
To promote integration and enhance supply chain synergies, satellite networks
should reach all supply chain actors. Commonly, most of the existing ICT
available raise significant barriers to entry for players from lower tiers of the
supply chain hierarchy. This has to do not only with the pricing model and the
specificity of the solutions available, but with reduced incentives players might
have to use these technologies. In many cases, large organizations implement
ICT and then try to convince the supply chain to use the technology; however,
they usually have limited influence on lower tiers of the supply chain hierarchy,
making the task extremely difficult. The Social e-business and satellite networks
approach may be a way to combat this problem. If barriers to entry are negligible
(considering that the basic services are free), the satellite network model creates
a domino effect that helps disseminate the electronic platform throughout the
supply chain since each level of the hierarchy is pushed to enter by the one
immediately above it.
In the construction industry, the integration of the supply chain has an
additional difficulty that has to do with the fact that many users are outdoors.
Construction projects usually involve multiple locations, an obstacle to
implementing electronic systems. So, Social e-business should be designed for
use outdoors; it is important to design electronic systems to be accessed using
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tablet PCs with Wi-Fi or 3G/4G connections, providing useful value-added
services (Fig. 50).
Fig. 50 Satellite networks going on-site
3.1.3. MULTIPLE ACTORS IN SOCIAL E-BUSINESS
Social e-business must consider the complex nature of the construction industry
to be successful. It is widely recognised that the industry is a problematic sector,
which presents multiple objectives, locations, products, and actors. Social e-
business must offer answers to these challenges and support supply chains
throughout project lifecycle. To face multiple objectives, locations and products,
it is crucial to increase responsiveness, strengthen collaboration, improve
communication efficiency, encourage multicriteria evaluation, promote
standardization, encourage BIM use, stimulate supply chain dematerialization
and enhance performance monitoring. Concerning multiple actors, it is essential
to adapt electronic systems to the specificity of each type of actor (most relevant
types of actor are identified in Table 6). This is a major challenge, related directly
to the collaborative and integrative nature of Social e-business.
Satellite Networks
Construction management
Meetings management
Facilities management
- 3D visualization
- Conflict management
- Meetings management
- 4D simulation
- Cost control
- Performance management register
- 3D visualization and annotation
- e-Procurement and order management
- Maintenance planning and control
e-Procurement on-site
Contract management
-Request for information
- Request for proposal
- Order management
- Contract performance management
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Table 6 Construction industry actors and Social e-business
Type of user Description
Owner (public or
private)
The owner represents an individual or legal entity, public or private,
who decides to launch a construction project and gets the necessary
funds for execution. The interest fulfils the needs identified initially,
showing maximum quality and performance possible without
exceeding the planned deadline and cost.
Promoters
Promoters are responsible for presenting the project to the
customer, promoting marketing and dissemination actions.
Although not participating directly in project execution, they must
have a deep knowledge on the product, which enables them to
inform potential customers.
Design
Coordinator
A design coordinator ensures that the outcome of the project design
meets initial purposes and all activities are performed in a
coordinated manner within planned cost and duration. Commonly,
the architect assumes this role. The large number of stakeholders in
the project design phase makes coordination a complex process,
requiring rigorous coordination and integration of various actors
and designs.
Designers
These professionals participate in project design and take part in
the execution phase, giving technical assistance. Architects,
specialty engineers (structures, MEP, acoustic, etc.) are part of this
group of professionals, chosen by the owner or builder in cases of
design-build contracts.
Specialists and
Consultants
These professionals offer support to project planning, design,
management or execution. Their participation is usually limited.
Financial and technical advisers, topographers and health and
safety consultants are among this type of actor.
Constructor
The constructor is chosen by the owner to execute what has been
designed. The constructor may also be responsible for design
(design-build contracts) or for design plus operation and
maintenance (concessions contracts); other variations exist, though
are uncommon. In Portugal, the most usual situation is for the
constructor to be responsible for only the construction phase. In
this case, the constructor has the main objective of performing work
in accordance with the construction design, fulfilling contract
conditions in terms of deadlines, costs, specifications and
performance.
Suppliers, Service
Providers and
Manufacturers
For suppliers, service providers and manufacturers, the main
objective is to provide their products and services to owners,
designers and constructors, and carry out contracts with the best
possible performance. It is desirable for these entities to collaborate
with designers in preliminary phases, ensuring that construction
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procedures and design solutions are the most appropriate for each
case.
Project
Coordinator
The owner contracts the project coordinator to monitor work and
check for compliance with the contract, including project design.
This professional collaborates with various stakeholders to solve
problems that arise.
Licensing
authorities
Licensing authorities are responsible for construction company and
project licensing. There are a variety of entities corresponding to
this profile such as governmental agencies and local bodies.
It is important to note that although there are non-specific features important to
all actors on which Social e-business should rely, there are specific features that
should be provided exclusively to each type of actor in the industry. Non-specific
features include:
improving communication and promoting collaborative work;
stimulating trust development and social capital strengthening;
optimizing information flow and mapping information exchanged
among various actors throughout project lifecycles;
maximizing BIM use;
managing all information, documentation and contracts efficiently;
improving system interoperability;
increasing information and processes standardization;
enhancing information management.
Concerning the main types of construction industry actors, it is worth
emphasizing some of the most relevant specific features of Social e-business
(Table 7 and Table 8).
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Table 7 - Most relevant specific features of Social e-business per type of actor
Owner (public or private): Promoters Design Coordinator
simplifying procurement and pre-procurement, and
enhancing contract management, by providing e-
procurement services and SCM instruments;
improving collaborative work, providing BIM-based
environment and other collaborative tools;
storing, viewing and manipulating BIM models, allowing
access to information contained in the model;
diminishing search costs, providing easy access to list of
suppliers (and respective information) and standardized e-
catalogues (including green information and BIM objects);
improving decision-making and evaluation by providing
multicriteria evaluation tools;
enhancing project monitoring and performance
management (as past performance management), mainly
by providing KPI management system;
simplifying access to past projects history, including
respective performance indicators;
monitoring rigorously the evolution of the project,
considering updated information.
simplifying access to project
information and project progress
monitoring;
facilitating and optimizing product
promotion and information sharing
with potential customers;
improving Internet marketing
potential;
sharing online 3D models and
multimedia elements (pictures and
videos);
improving communication with
potential customers and getting
their feedback.
streamlining coordination,
communication and collaboration
among different actors on design
phase;
increasing coordinated response to
arising challenges;
improving design management and
optimizing planning;
maximizing BIM use and simplifying
conflicts, checking between designs
(architecture, MEP, structures, etc.);
potentiating KPI use during the
design phase.
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Table 8 - Most relevant specific features of Social e-business per type of actor (continuation)
Designers Specialists and Consultants Constructor
simplifying tendering processes by providing
several e-procurement services;
potentiating BIM use, and models share,
storing, viewing and manipulating, allowing
access to information contained in the model;
incentivizing design quality and performance;
potentiating the access to e-catalogues and
information on products, equipment and
solutions;
increasing design coordination with other
designers;
getting designers, manufacturers and
suppliers closer;
improving management capabilities,
particularly through the use of KPIs;
simplifying access to past information;
sharing company information and project
portfolios;
improving Internet marketing potential.
increasing coordination with other
stakeholders;
facilitating the access to project
information;
potentiating the use of BIM;
maximizing access to potential
clients.
simplifying procurement and pre-procurement,
and enhancing contract management by providing
e-procurement services and SCM instruments;
potentiating BIM use and model sharing, storing,
viewing and manipulating, allowing access to
information contained in the model;
facilitating access to a vast online network of
suppliers and sub-contractors, with whom it is
possible to communicate simply;
improving coordination with other stakeholders,
particularly suppliers and sub-contractors;
providing access to product e-catalogues
containing up-to-date information and, whenever
possible, respective BIM models;
improving decision-making and evaluation by
providing multicriteria evaluation tools;
enhancing project monitoring and performance
management, mainly by providing KPI
management system;
maximizing use of performance indicators and
benchmarking instruments.
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Table 9 - Most relevant specific features of social e-business per type of actor (continuation)
Suppliers, Service Providers and Manufacturers Project Coordinator Licensing authorities
simplifying procurement and enhancing contract
management by providing e-procurement services
and SCM instruments;
increasing collaboration between different suppliers,
manufacturers or service providers, maximizing
generation of synergies;
simplifying the upload of products and service
information to online e-catalogues (including
respective BIM models);
improving communication with potential customers
and maximizing access to feedback;
simplifying access to public information during
projects to potentiate direct marketing approaches;
maximizing use of KPIs and benchmarking
instruments;
improving Internet marketing potential.
simplifying access to project and contracts
information;
improving active communication between
various stakeholders to maximize
coordination and management;
simplifying BIM models viewing and
manipulating, allowing easy access to
information contained in the model;
enhancing project monitoring and
performance management provided by KPI
management systems;
increasing transparency and control over
project execution.
simplifying access to project
information;
simplifying BIM models viewing and
manipulating, improving code-
checking automation capabilities;
improving active communication
between various stakeholders.
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3.2. BIM-BASED INTERFACE TO IMPROVE SOCIAL E-BUSINESS
In the context of Social e-business, BIM emerges as the most adequate tool to
enhance information management and process automation in collaborative
environment. As described in chapter 1, BIM is an innovative digital technology
based on information-rich 3D models that plays a relevant role in construction
projects and, in a few years, will become the most important support of
information for construction. So, Social e-business must consider this new
technology and integrate it as part of its set of value-added services. Thus, in the
following sub-sections two solutions integrating BIM will be proposed.
Despite that several commercial BIM software are available, current solutions
are very limited in terms of inter-organizational BIM collaboration because they
are usually oriented to a specific type of user and not based on interoperable
architectures such as Service Oriented Architectures (SOA), and IFC formats.
Thus, development of an advanced system capable of integrating BIM users and
providing a collaborative and interoperable space to link existing BIM software is
opportune. Social e-business may be the adequate platform for this
implementation not only because collaborative work improves, but also because
BIM increases SC integration.
To guarantee maximum interoperability, all BIM operations must be processed
using the IFC format(Chen et al., 2005). The Industry Foundation Classes (IFC)
data model is a neutral and open specification that allows transferring not only
geometry, but also the entire set of information associated with BIM models,
facilitating interoperability. This format arose in 1994, as a result of a process of
consensus-building in the construction industry in which various entities and
companies - many of them competitors - worked together toward a universal
format development. It is registered with the International Standardization
Organization ISO16739 and its continuous development, maintenance,
implementation, and dissemination are the responsibility of buildingSMART
International (http://www.buildingsmart.com).
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Due to its open and interoperable nature it is the most adequate format for
collaborative environments such as provided by Social e-business platforms,
though it raises several challenges, as explained later in sub-section 3.4.1.
3.2.1. INTERACTIVE BIM TO ENHANCE INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Construction projects deal with huge amounts of information, usually
fragmented throughout the supply chain and, typically, have an iterative and
complex nature, which make information management one of the major
challenges in construction.
The growing dissemination of e-mails within the organizations, difficult to track
and organize, is one of the emerging issues in construction information
management. This was confirmed in a meeting with the responsible of Mota-
Engil innovation department, who evidenced the dimension of the problem. Any
organizations member may have several email accounts containing relevant
project information. There are numerous communication channels available for
any user based on independent instruments, which makes information tracking,
collection and management difficult. Although ICT allows easier and faster
communication, it also disperses information repositories and lacks standardized
and structured communication channels.
To reduce this problem, a solution is proposed to map project information using
a Social e-business platform, integrating a BIM server and viewer. Alone, BIM
increases project information management capabilities, particularly concerning
information related directly to the model elements, though there is a significant
part of project information that it is not included in the model such as messages
exchanged between different actors or external documents dispersed throughout
the network that are difficult to share and manage. The proposed solution
connects this external information with the BIM model, creating a global
information mapping system that uses a BIM model as a management
instrument interface. It is worthwhile pointing out that the proposed solution
maintains linked information outside the model (information is saved in an
external database) to avoid overloading the BIM model; it is the globally unique
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identifier (GUID) of each BIM element that assumes the role of connector
between existing depositories: the BIM and SQL servers (Fig. 51).
Fig. 51 - Linking external information to BIM
The method to create the connections between messages and/or files and the
BIM model is presented in Fig. 52. Fig. 53 shows the method to search external
information using the BIM viewer integrated in the collaborative online
platform; by selecting a determined BIM element, it is possible to access all the
information related to it, not only information within the model but also external
information connected to the model previously (messages, files, external links,
etc.). This interactive BIM vision to map information may be applied to the
entire lifecycle of projects, particularly to relevant stages as contract
management, performance evaluation or facilities management.
Fig. 52 - Method to link external Information to BIM
Fig. 53 Method to search for BIM-based external information
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This BIM information mapping system and the Satellite network model require a
fragmented approach to BIM models management as proposed by Autodesk
(2010). A single BIM model would cause the process to become too complex and
heavy, and would also make permissions management too cumbersome; it would
require rigorous information and processing standard. Thus, it is recommended
to use several specialized BIM models stored separately on the BIM server (Fig.
54). Development of an integrated model may be considered, but only for
coordination purposes, and it should be used with adequate software to create
the integrated model. Concerning permission management instruments, it is
worth noting that they should be present in the system, envisioning a more
flexible use of BIM models. For example, if a determined user wanted to share
part of his model with another user, he could do so by selecting information and
objects to share.
Fig. 54 Defragmented BIM management approach
BIM server (IFC)
Architecture
BIM models
infrastructures
BIM models
structures
BIM models
construction
BIM models
as-built
BIM models
architecture
Software BIM
architecture
Software BIM
infrastructures
Software BIM
structures
Software BIM
construction
Software BIM
as-built
Facilities manager Constructor
Structural engineer Civil engineer Architect
Software BIM
Coordination
Coordinator
BIM models
MEP
Software BIM
MEP
Specialist
BIM objects
BIM models
3D Visualization
Software BIM
modelling
Manufacturers
Software BIM
viewer
Promoters
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3.2.2. BIM-BASED E-PROCUREMENT
In this sub-section, another innovative solution involving BIM is proposed,
envisioning the upgrade of existing e-procurement solutions. As already argued,
the construction industry is much dependent on procurement; thus, any
efficiency gain or performance improvement in procurement has a very positive
impact on construction efficiency.
A BIM-based e-procurement solution not only potentiates more advanced and
intelligent approaches to procurement systems, also promotes progressive
generation of large electronic and interoperable networks interacting
dynamically. The rich information-based environment created not only
strengthens the automation of many operational tasks (particularly related to
document automation), but also enhances information and knowledge
management. This supports more accurate decisions and strategic approaches to
the procurement cycle. Within the e-procurement perspective, several major
dimensions exist as potential advantages of using BIM throughout the
procurement cycle, which are presented in Fig. 55.
Fig. 55 BIM in e-procurement
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The proposed solution allows any user to initiate an e-tendering process using a
BIM model. For instance, if a contractor wants to purchase windows for a
building, he can select those windows in the BIM model of the building and
launch the tendering process using Social e-business platform; all the necessary
information should be obtained directly from the model in an automatic way
(contract documentation, list of materials and quantities, etc.).
It is important to note that use of BIM for procurement purposes obliges having
a very detailed model, including all necessary information to launch the
tendering process. Each BIM element must include several relevant information
sets such as work results related to that element or product identification (or
types of product). The association of this information to BIM elements can be
made using a support tool implementing the method presented in Fig. 56; after
selecting a specific BIM element, it recommends a list of organized information
related to relevant types of information (work results, products or other) for the
user to select the most adequate to the selected element. The links must be
created manually, using taxonomies available; though, information must be
automatically included in the BIM model. To automate this operation Social e-
business platform should be connected to a BIM server, which should allow
creating a new property set in the IFC file in which it includes the information
previously associated to BIM elements. Afterwards, it is possible to initiate the e-
procurement process in a simple way (Fig. 57).
Fig. 56 Method to include in the BIM model additional information (such as work
results)
Fig. 57 Method to initiate procurement process using BIM model
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Tenderers may also submit tenders using the BIM model. In this sense they must
attach specific information about the products, the costs and the resources to the
model. The process is similar to the one presented previously (Fig. 58). In this
sense the solution proposed in 3.2.1 can also be used.
Fig. 58 Method to make a proposal using the BIM model
3.2.3. THE ROLE OF TAXONOMIES IN COLLABORATIVE ENVIRONMENTS
The solutions presented are dependent on the dissemination of standardized
taxonomies, that is standardized collections of terms organized into hierarchical
structures. It is inevitable to use information classifications for BIM elements,
work results, products, resources, etc. because these classifications should be
common to different actors to guarantee that the same codification will be used
for a specific piece of information. For example, when including a specific
codification regarding a product in a BIM model (e.g., Omniclass 23-15 13 19 17),
any user should be capable of identifying composite wall panels as the product.
In collaborative and technologically advanced environments such as promoted
by Social e-business, a set of integrated taxonomies to support projects lifecycle
is crucial. In Portugal, there is an important initiative which aims to classify
information respecting work results, materials specifications, costs, resources,
and safety rules (FEUP, 2011), though there are relevant types of construction
projects information that are not taken into account, particularly relevant when
working with BIM. In order to overcome this, international standards can be
adapted easily to the Portuguese context, such as Uniclass and Omniclass, from
the U.K. and U.S., respectively. The Uniclass (Unified Classification for the
Construction Industry) was designed within the parameters of ISO 12006-2 and
ISO/PAS 12006-3, and published in 1997 in the U.K. by the Construction Project
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Information Committee (CPIC). The Uniclass contains 15 tables, each related to
particular taxonomies. The Omniclass was first published in 2006, and has been
much influenced by Uniclass; according to Table 10, it is possible to verify that
there are many similarities between both.
Table 10 Comparison between Uniclass and Omniclass
UNICLASS OMNICLASS
Table A - Form of information Table 36 Information
Table B - Subject disciplines Table 32 Services
Table 33 Disciplines
Table C - Management Table 31 Phases
Table 34 Organizational roles
Table D - Facilities Table 11 Construction entities by
function
Table E - Construction entities Table 12 Construction entities by form
Table F - Spaces Table 13 Spaces by function
Table 14 Spaces by form
Table G - Elements for buildings Table 21 Elements
Table H - Elements for civil engineering
works
Table J - Work sections for buildings Table 22 Work results
Table K - Work sections for civil engineering
jobs
Table L - Construction products Table 23 Products
Table M - Construction aids Table 35 - Tools
Table N - Properties and characteristics Table 49 - Properties
Table P - Materials Table 41 - Materials
Table Q - Universal decimal classification
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The Omniclass Construction Classification System (known as Omniclass or
OCCS) includes 15 tables and integrates extant systems such as Masterformat
(for work results), Uniformat (for elements) and EPIC Electronic Product
Information Cooperation (for products) (Table 10 shows all the Omniclass tables
and respective first-level classes). According to the Construction Specifications
Institute (CSI, 2006), Omniclass was designed to classify and organize
information used by the construction industry throughout project lifecycles,
encompassing all types of construction. Omniclass has become an important
requirement within the growing area of product search and comparison,
supporting the demand for highly articulated product information in BIM
format. It categorizes and normalizes elements, products, work results,
properties, etc.
The application of Omniclass to BIM is a major challenge. It organizes
information in models, reports, and object libraries. By combining tables, one
can develop BIM-based project execution guides with standardized information,
reducing the mapping activities and common ad-hoc nature of information
management (Davis, 2010). Existing BIM software such as Revit already
considers Omniclass codification a parameter of BIM elements. With respect to
BIM, the most important Omniclass tables are:
Table 21 Elements
This table breaks a facility into elements and assemblies that perform a
predominating function such as substructures, shells and interiors
without defining the technical solutions to provide these functions. It is
important to note this classification is used most often during early
project phases for identifying a projects physical, operational, or
aesthetic characteristic without regard to a material or technical solution
of the function. For each element, there may be several technical
solutions capable of accomplishing the elemental function, and more
than one may be selected for a project;
Table 22 Work results
This table organizes all information related to work results. Commonly,
the particular skill or trade, construction resources used, part of the
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construction entity constructed or results from temporary work and other
preparatory or completion work (ISO 12006-2) identifies work results.
Table 23 Products
Products are the basic building blocks of construction. A product may be
a single manufactured item, a manufactured assembly consisting of many
parts or a manufactured operational stand-alone system; depending on
the application of a specific product, multiple work results can occur;
Table 36 Information
Organizes the existing types of information needed by many participants
in a project such as owner requirements, site and facilities data; it was
expanded recently to support the growing understanding of BIM data;
Table 49 Properties
Properties are characteristics of construction entities, useful for defining
requirements for proposed or potential construction objects, to describe
the characteristics of products and to compare the characteristics of any
two similar objects.
These tables can be integrated and should be implemented in Social e-business
to support information management and BIM-based e-procurement. The latter
case requires special attention since to be effective, the system must connect BIM
components (identified by standard codifications) with activities and products to
procure; this is a significant challenge.
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3.3. PLAGE PLATFORM PROTOTYPE
3.3.1. BACKGROUND
Public e-procurement in Portugal was made mandatory in November 2009.
Since then, it has been demonstrated that significant improvements are
achievable by using e-procurement platforms, and a considerable reduction in
operational efforts is possible (Tavares et al., 2009, Tavares et al., 2011). The
mandatory use of this type of electronic platforms in public sector is pushing the
generation of a large online network of business and governmental actors that is
helping to break down some of the barriers to Internet use in business (Engsbo,
2003) and is maximizing electronic services potential.
Stimulated by this dematerialized environment, several e-procurement platforms
have emerged in the Portuguese market providing public e-procurement
solutions. Each of the service providers strives for innovation and service
excellence according to its specific history, potential, mission and strategy. Some
were created as e-marketplaces for important sectors (e.g. construction); others
were based on ICT consultancy, and still others were a spin-off of the largest
Portuguese industrial services group. They adopted aggressive competitive
models, understood the high value of cooperation and became an excellent
example of the new management paradigm of co-opetition (Brandenburguer and
Nalebuff, 1996), used to create interoperability.
Inevitably, this competitive environment has been stimulating development of
more advanced e-procurement solutions, which integrate not only the entire e-
procurement cycle, but also project lifecycles, and provide support for innovative
procurement and working models. It was within this context that new
perspectives on e-procurement have been proposed and Social e-business
emerged. Furthermore, it was this dynamic environment that pushed the
development of an innovative platform prototype inspired by Social e-business
vision. This prototype named PLAGE platform and respective application to a
pilot case is presented in the following sub-sections.
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Originally in the PLAGE platform prototype, the PLAGE R&D project began 2
February 2009 and ended 4 February 2011, led by three private companies:
Vortal S.A., Microfil S.A. and Primavera BSS S.A, in partnership with two
research centers, CESUR from Instituto Superior Tcnico Technical University
of Lisbon, and UNIDEMI from Faculty of Science and Technology New
University of Lisbon. QREN National Strategic Reference Framework co-
funded the project using national and European Commission resources, further
co-funded by the three companies above.
The author of this thesis was a member of the PLAGE team and was actively
involved in the research and results presented herein; he played a major role on
project preparation, processes mapping, functional architecture development,
use-cases definitions, pilot case development, prototype tests and final report
elaboration and coordination.
3.3.2. METHODOLOGY
PLAGE platform prototype was developed as part of an experimental research
conceived within a controllable environment, which had the objectives of
developing and testing innovative e-procurement solutions, and implementing
the most recent perspectives on e-procurement and e-business. The research
developed in chapter 2 and the Social e-business approach presented earlier in
this chapter played a central role in PLAGE platform development, which
emerged as the proof of concept of the innovative e-business vision proposed.
The methodology supporting PLAGE prototype development was structured in
five major phases (a complete list of PLAGE project activities is presented in
Appendix B):
preliminary study and knowledge acquisition;
prototype specification, design and development;
exploratory phase focused on a pilot case;
explanatory analysis of pilot case results;
prototype improvement.
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This combined approach, oscillating between exploratory and explanatory
analyses, produced an improvement process presented in Fig. 59, which
permitted construction of the prototype considering not only the most recent
knowledge on the subject, but also results achieved in the pilot case.
Fig. 59 Research strategy
The pilot case it focused on a school-remodelling project, provided by Parque
Escolar E.P.E.
8
. Throughout the pilot case, several issues were addressed
regarding collaboration and trust development, integration and
dematerialization of the supply chain, implementation of innovative e-
procurement solutions (multicriteria evaluation tools, e-catalogues, e-
procurement using 3D models, etc.), and improvement of contract and
performance management (mainly based on a KPI system). In the following sub-
sections, the most relevant outcomes achieved during research are presented.
Special emphasis is placed on prototype development, PLAGE platforms major
features and the pilot case.
8
Parque Escolar E.P.E., established by Decree-Law no. 41/2007 on 21 February, is a
corporation governed by public law with administrative and financial independence and
its own assets. Its purpose is the planning, management, development and execution of
the modernisation programme for the public network of secondary and other schools
under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education (source: www.parque-escolar.pt).
130
3.3.3. PROTOTYPE DEVELOPMENT
As emphasized in chapter 1, this thesis reflects work developed throughout action
research. This type of research has a cyclical and participatory nature that
influences research work progress and respective findings. Final results are the
consequence of consecutive interactions between several parties with
interdisciplinary competencies; intermediate activities and results exist, some
less significant to the purpose of the present thesis. Therefore, taking into
account the purpose of this thesis, only the most relevant activities related to the
development of the PLAGE prototype are discussed.
3.3.3.1. BUSINESS PROCESS MODELLING
Research to develop the PLAGE platform had a holistic approach to construction
projects, clearly identifying the interdependence between actors, objects and
properties, and considering a hierarchical perspective about subsystems
integration. In this sense, the first step toward prototype development was to
model traditional workflow for the entire lifecycle of a construction project,
which included the identification of the various players and respective value-
added activities, information flows mapping, determination of major deliverables
and decision points.
Providing a standard visualization mechanism for business processes defined in
an execution-optimized business processing language (OMG, 2009), Business
Process Modelling Notation (BPMN) (Fig. 60) was used to model all traditional
processes inherent to construction lifecycle phases (PLAGE, 2009). Special
attention was paid to actors, major decisions taken and information flows; the
principal deliverables generated in each phase were also identified and
described. Afterwards, BPMN diagrams were analysed in detail and several
modifications were introduced into the workflow to optimize information flows
and enhance collaborative work recurring to existing technologies such as BIM.
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Fig. 60 BMPN map example
132
3.3.3.2. USE CASES AND FRONT-END DEVELOPMENT
The resulting BPMN diagrams supported the development of a functional matrix
in which the functionalities of the platform for each phase and each type of user
were identified that considered information requirements identified previously.
Several ICT, BIM technologies and other available advanced models such as
SIAP (Multicriteria analysis software), were integrated in to the workflow;
various innovative collaboration and social networking technologies were also
included.
Considering the functional matrix and the BPMN diagrams, PLAGE platform use
cases were defined and, in accordance to use cases specifications, front-ends
were constructed. Microsoft SharePoint was used to implement them based on a
form metaphor structure consisting of a series of forms (pages) with which the
user interacts.
Each form contained a number of fields (Fig. 61) that display output from lower
layers, and collect user input. The final appearance of PLAGE front-ends are
shown in Fig. 62, Fig. 63, Fig. 64 and Fig. 65.
Fig. 61 PLAGE front-end structure
133
Fig. 62 - Main Page (after login)
Fig. 63 - Projects page
Fig. 64 - Project Wall
Fig. 65 - General information of the project
3.3.3.3. TECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTION
One of the major challenges inherent to prototype development was to find the
most adequate technological solution for PLAGE platform. Any solution should
permit implementation of collaborative and social networking instruments
without excessive programming, and should provide a fully interoperable
environment capable of communicating with external solutions. Use of a Service-
oriented Architecture (SOA) (Papazoglou and van den Heuvel, 2007) emerged as
an inevitable approach (Grilo and Jardim-Goncalves, 2010), and Microsoft
SharePoint appeared as a pertinent framework to support implementation of
web applications, particularly those associated with content management,
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collaboration and document management. Envisioning the implementation of
BIM-based features in PLAGE platform such as storing and manipulating IFC
models, the EDM model server appeared as the most adequate IFC management
server to be integrated in the final technological solution.
So, after a deeper analysis of several existing solutions and possible scenarios, a
PLAGE platform prototype was built combining three platforms (Grilo and
Jardim-Goncalves, 2011):
Microsoft SharePoint 2007
9
, used as the business collaboration platform
system and front-end;
EDM Model server from Jotne EPM technology
10
, used for BIM
management and IFC model server;
e-procurement platform from Vortal
11
, used for e-tendering, e-awarding
and e-ordering.
Connection between the platforms was assured by Web services, also used to link
PLAGE to other specialized software such as the Primavera Construction Suite
12
and SIAP Multicriteria evaluation web application. To structure the development
of the platform, the service-oriented approach was organized into 4 layers
(PLAGE, 2010) (Fig.26):
presentation layer, providing the application user interface and involving
forms for smart client interaction and ASP.NET technologies for browser-
based interaction;
application services layer, implementing the business functionality of the
application, composed of a number of components implemented using
one or more .NET programming languages;
9
http://sharepoint.microsoft.com/
10
http:// www.jotne.com
11
http:// www.vortal.pt
12
http://www.primaverabss.com
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Business services layer, supporting business services connected with
external services using SOAP;
and data layer, providing access to external systems such as databases.
Fig. 66 - PLAGE platform architecture (PLAGE, 2010)
The technological solutions adopted were conceived based on cloud computing, a
new computing paradigm that refers to both the applications delivered as
services over the Internet and the hardware and systems software in the data
centres that provide the services (Armbrust et al., 2009). The services themselves
have long been referred to as Software as a Service (SaaS), while the data centre
hardware and software represent the cloud. Thus, cloud computing provides
computation, software, data access and storage services that do not require end-
user knowledge of the physical location and configuration of the system that
delivers the services.
3.3.4. MAJOR RESULTS
The PLAGE platform prototype was constructed successfully and interesting
partial results were observed: use cases were implemented as planned, front-
ends prove adaptable and usable, and technological solutions permit pre-defined
136
goals. Moreover, several collaborative and social networking tools were provided,
external solutions were integrated in an effective and completely interoperable
way, and a dynamic and flexible collaborative network based on satellite network
model was implemented. In this sub-section, some of the results observed are
given particular emphasis:
Social e-business environment generated to support collaboration, social
networking and stimulate network growth;
BIM-based interface provided to potentiate collaboration and increase
PLAGE platform capabilities to manage information and automate e-
procurement processes;
E-procurement and SCM instruments provided, such as the multicriteria
evaluation tool and KPI management system, to support decisions,
management and potentiate e-procurement networks dynamics.
Other features are discussed in sub-section 3.3.5, which presents the pilot case
conduced to test the prototype. A complete list of PLAGE features is shown in
Appendix C.
3.3.4.1. SOCIAL E-BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT
Microsoft SharePoint was used to implement the workflow, the collaboration and
social networking tools, and the project-oriented collaborative network structure
integrating multiple network levels as proposed by the Satellite network model,
which are the following (Fig. 67):
level 0, the entering page of the PLAGE platform;
level , the users main page (requires login);
level 2, the project page where each user may have a specific role,
accessed through the users main page;
levels 3 and above, the satellite networks pages that can be created and
accessed through the project pages.
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Fig. 67 - PLAGE Platform Functional Architecture
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 0
User
Create Project My Projects
My Satellite
Networks
Company
Companys
Projects
Companys
Wall
Value-added
services
e-Catalogue e-Procurement
Application
Store
Login
Project Site
PLAGE
Home
Login Register
Newsletter
Subsctiption
General
Information
Gallery Project Wall Documents
Project
Phases
Phases
Collaborative
Network
Collaborative
Network Wall
Messages
Value-added
services
e-Catalogue e-Procurement
Application
Store
Network
management
Satellite
Networks
Contract
management
Satellite
Network Sites
General
My Messages My Contacts
Projects using
PLAGE
Companies
using PLAGE
Risk Analysis
LEVEL 3 TO N
General
Information
Gallery Project Wall Documents
Project
Phases
Phases
Collaborative
Network
Collaborative
Network Wall
Messages
Value-added
services
e-Catalogue e-Procurement
Application
Store
Network
management
Satellite
Networks
Contract
management
Risk Analysis
138
This multi-level collaborative network structure enables any user to create a
work network (satellite network), maintaining the link to the main projects
network and guaranteeing a project-based logic. This inter-organizational, web-
based approach potentiates interaction between users and stimulates generation
of integrated online supply chain networks in which all actors in the supply chain
participate.
The Satellite network model was implemented using SharePoint API, having
developed a procedure to enable the creation of new project pages according to a
predefined template linked to the main projects page and identified as satellite
networks of a specific project. A list of permissions is created automatically,
identifying the user who has initiated the process as the administrator, who will
be able to invite other users and manage all the respective permissions on the
satellite network. All information on a specific project and related to a specific
satellite network is saved on the database under the main project umbrella.
The information shared in each network (main project network or satellite
networks) is accessible only by the members of the respective network by default,
but there is the possibility of sharing files or BIM models with other registered
users or with other networks. In these cases, users sharing information must
have permission to do so (possess the role of administrator or editor; other levels
include reader, limited access and viewer).
All the networks provide several Social e-business instruments that improve
trust between companies and potentiate social capital:
the companys wall (Fig. 68), which stimulates interaction between the
users of a specific company and updates users with the most relevant
news regarding the company;
the projects wall (Fig. 69), which allows users participating in a specific
project to interact and share relevant information;
the collaborative networks wall, which is geared toward interaction
between the members of a specific satellite network;
139
the document and multimedia sharing space (Fig. 70), which allows easy
and simple file sharing in a user-to-public, user-to-user and user-to-
network basis;
the collaborative space to manage meetings and events and share reports
and minutes of meetings (Fig. 71);
the KPI system for project performance and relationship management;
the messaging tool connected to the BIM viewer, which enables the
sending of messages and files linked to specific BIM elements, making it
possible to map information over time using the BIM model;
the multicriteria evaluation tool, which is provided to support group
decisions and proposals and products evaluation, improving SC
coordination and promoting more integrated, rigorous, transparent and
collaborative approaches to procurement and project decisions.
Fig. 68 Companys Wall
Fig. 69 Example of projects Wall
Fig. 70 Document and model
management
Fig. 71 - Meetings management
140
All the collaborative networks supported by the PLAGE platform enable use of
two main levels of information, public and private (Fig. 72). This capability
allows, for example, the sharing of public information on a specific project with
an external user, using the projects wall; private information is shared only with
members of the project and in accordance with permissions.
Fig. 72 Private and Public Project Information
The Social e-business approach to PLAGE platform influences the dynamics of
the platform by not only providing common social networking tools, but also
creating a more collaboration-oriented environment where common tools such
as e-catalogues and the decision support systems are more collaborative,
potentiating social capital and community-based approaches.
For example, the e-catalogue and the application store (presented in Fig. 113 and
Fig. 114, ahead in sub-section 3.4.2) were designed to allow any user to share
products or services with any registered user, and also allow linking of products
even if they are from different companies, creating groups of suppliers with any
affinity. This link may be by recommendation (e.g., a wood flooring supplier
recommending a brand of glue) or by spatial affinity (e.g., several suppliers
linking products to equip a complete hospital room).
Users private
projects
Project A
Organizations
projects
Users private
projects
Users private
projects
All registered
users
User A
User B
User C
Public
Wall
Project B
Public
Wall
Project C
Public
Wall
Project D
Public
Wall
Project E
Public
Wall
Project F
Public
Wall
Organizations
Public Wall
141
3.3.4.2. BIM-BASED INTERFACE
A BIM-based interface (Fig. 73) was created in PLAGE platform according to the
proposed solutions presented in section 3.2. and implemented using IFC Engine
viewer
13
and SharePoint, which connects to EDMserver. This interface supports
three major advanced features:
view and manipulate IFC models, and access to all the information
contained in the models;
attach external information to the model such as the messages exchanged
among actors or external documents;
manage tasks related to each BIM element, from which it is possible to
initiate the e-procurement process using the connection implemented
with Vortal e-procurement platform (Fig. 74).
Fig. 73 - BIM viewer (IFC-based)
13
IFC Engine Viewer is a free IFC 3D viewer provided by TNO (www.tno.nl).
Tasks
142
Fig. 74 E-procurement interface
3.3.4.3. SCM SERVICES
Various tools have been implemented to enhance contract and risk management,
potentiate multicriteria evaluation, and encouraged strategic procurement.
Beyond simple cost management tools (including construction costs controlling,
payments management, and bonus-malus monitoring) and a failure mode,
effects and criticality analysis (FMECA) instrument (Fig. 75), a KPI system to
monitor projects and suppliers performance (Fig. 76) and a multicriteria
evaluation instrument (Fig. 77, Fig. 78 and Fig. 79) were implemented.
It is important to note that, above all, Social e-business represents a new
approach to e-procurement, which aims to stimulate e-procurement networks
growth through a collaborative and social networking approach. It maximizes e-
procurement networks potential achieved primarily by using multiple criteria
and past performance information in tenders and suppliers evaluation,
promoting qualified and trust-based environment; thus, any instrument to
support this purpose is pertinent.
143
Fig. 75 Risk analysis form
Fig. 76 Contract management area
144
The multicriteria evaluation tool was derived from SIAP (Sistema Interactivo
para Avaliao de Propostas - Interactive System for Tender Evaluation) (Fig.
77) (Tavares et al., 2010). This application was developed at CESUR (Center for
Urban and Regional Systems, Instituto Superior Tcnico), and supports
decision-making and multicriteria evaluation interactively and intuitively. Some
major features include:
a list of pre-defined evaluation models;
a criteria tree construction module;
scoring functions construction module;
criteria weights elicitation tool;
interoperable interface for alternatives data input;
alternatives evaluation results dashboard;
sensitivity analysis tools;
a negotiation support instrument.
Fig. 77 SIAP software
145
To implement SIAP in PLAGE platform, a web version of this software was
developed in JAVA and embedded as a JAVA applet in SharePoint (Fig. 78). It
included an interface to manage SIAP files (Fig. 79), which allow PLAGE users to
create new evaluation models and manage existing ones in a project-based
perspective, ensuring that historic decisions and respective evaluation models
are maintained and accessible.
Fig. 78 Online SIAP embedded in PLAGE platform
Fig. 79 SIAP interface to create and manage evaluation models
146
This web-based multicriteria evaluation tool allows users to create and manage
evaluation models, evaluate tenders and suppliers, and ensure that past
decisions and respective evaluation models can be organized and accessed easily.
It is important to emphasize that regular use of a decision support system such
as SIAP promotes gradual evaluation model improvement and emphasizes the
strategic importance of multicriteria approaches (this subject has been discussed
in detail in sub-section 2.2.2). Since SIAP provides a list of pre-defined
evaluation models that can be used and transformed and allows saving and
sharing evaluation models, users have means to improve their multicriteria
evaluation models, which increasingly reflect their perspective on what they
value in contracts and projects. This is especially true in cases of repeated
procurement in which buyers refine their evaluation models based on the results
of previous procedures. Consequently, suppliers improve their performance
according to buyers objectives and move toward closer and trust-based
relationships.
The KPI management system generates interesting synergies with SIAP since it
supports standardized KPIs that can be used as criteria in multicriteria
evaluation models, and allows managing and monitoring them, enhancing the
application of performance-based and integrated approaches to procurement
essential in Social e-business.
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3.4. PILOT CASE STUDY LICEU PASSOS MANUEL
The PLAGE platform prototype was tested using a pilot case study based on a
public sector project focusing on the renovation and expansion of a public
school, the Liceu Passos Manuel School (Fig. 80 and Fig. 81). Parque Escolar
E.P.E, including detailed design, specifications and contract, provided all
necessary documentation. Several interactions were made between Parque
Escolar E.P.E. and the research team to understand the most relevant aspects of
project design and construction. Several other entities also provided useful
insights to enrich research study.
Fig. 80 Physical model of Liceu Passos Manuel School
Fig. 81 Photos of Liceu Passos Manuel School
148
The pilot case considered three main phases:
one phase regarding the simulation of the design process, including the
execution of several BIM models (the designs provided were in 2D),
which were essential to test PLAGE BIM-based interface. The models
were firstly created using Archicad software
14
and then IFC models were
generated from the BIM models originally created in Archicad
proprietary format (PLAGE platform only works with IFC format).
During this transformation IFC interoperability concerns were analysed
in detail to prevent major errors;
a second phase related to enrichment of BIM model with information of
the tasks related to each BIM model component. This activity was
supported by external software, Primavera Construction;
a third phase focusing on the simulation of several use cases, which
considered multiple actors and distinct project situations, designed to
test PLAGE platform prototype major features. Major attention was
paid to the e-procurement process, SCM and all collaborative and social
networking instruments.
In subsequent sub-sections, these phases are discussed in detail.
3.4.1. BIM MODELLING
Throughout the first phase of the pilot case, several BIM models were created
regarding multiple design phases. The design process was delivered in an
integrated way, stimulating maximum collaboration between intervening actors
and guaranteeing that all the information was distributed using the PLAGE
platform. The research team uploaded information about the project, companies,
14
www.graphisoft.com
149
users, and products, and tested various collaborative, social networking and
management instruments, using Social e-business tools actively.
Several BIM models were developed, each related to a specific design phase. In
the Portuguese context, design phases are defined by Ordinance 701-H/2008,
which considers four main phases increasing in design detail. In this pilot, the
modelling process reflected these phases and followed the BIM directives
adopted in other countries, such as the US where American Institute of
Architects (AIA) identifies several levels of detail for models that correspond to
different project phases (Bedrick, 2008). AIA defines five Levels of Detail (LODs)
corresponding to models with increasing detail (presented in Appendix D) and
related to various stages of the building lifecycle. The first three levels apply to
the design phase (LOD100 to LOD300) and the last ones to construction
(LOD400) and building operation (LOD500).
In the pilot, particular attention was given to the design phase. A parallelism
between LODs and the phases proclaimed by Ordinance 701-H/2008 was
analysed and each BIM model, corresponding to LOD100, LOD200 and
LOD300, was developed, including information required by each phase. All
models were developed using Archicad software and, subsequently, were
transformed into IFC format to be uploaded to the PLAGE platform prototype:
LOD100 Program Base (Conceptual design phase)
LOD100 model is the simplest model, composed of zones and volumes and
enabling volumetric and space organization of architectural proposal. The
benefits associated with BIM use start to be potentiated at this stage. For
example, area and volume maps are calculated automatically and used as a basis
for cost calculations and spatial analysis. Downstream users may use it to
perform entire building analyses (volume, building orientation, cost per square
foot, etc.). The LOD100 model of Liceu Passos Manuel School considers 192
areas and volumes representing the spaces of the building (Fig. 82 and Fig. 83).
150
Fig. 82 LOD100 visualization 3D
Fig. 83 Detail of spaces
organization in 2D
LOD200 Estudo Prvio/Anteprojecto (Schematic design/
Design development phases)
In the case of LOD200, it is important to note that this LOD is used in two
phases, the Schematic design and Design development, since these phases differ
mostly on the detail of the information included in the model (geometry is
mostly the same), which can be added to the same model in a progressive way.
LOD200 (Fig. 84) is a model that already includes generalized systems or
assemblies with approximate quantities, size, shape, location and orientation,
that already include relevant non-geometric information (AIA, 2008); it is
composed of all the constructive elements (walls, concrete slabs, beams, etc.) and
elements related to diverse specialties (structure, HVAC, etc.); though, only basic
information is included. In order to respond to Ordinance 701-H/2008
requirements, the model also includes approximate costs related to elements in
the model, enabling estimating of global project costs, and necessary information
to execute the thermal and acoustic simulations to verify building performance
and present respective reports.
151
Fig. 84 - 3D visualization of model LOD200
LOD 300 Projecto de Execuo (Detailed design phase)
LOD300 refers to the most complete model developed during project design.
This model supports construction contract awards and, therefore, must consider
higher details than previous models, notably concerning constructive elements
details (e.g., multiple layers of the walls should be specified), respective
specifications and materials. Mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) systems
should be defined completely. In Fig. 85, Fig. 86, Fig. 87 and Fig. 88, several
perspectives of the LOD300 model of Liceu Passos Manuel School and 2D
designs automatically generated form the model are shown.
Fig. 85 LOD300 model (main building)
152
Fig. 86 LOD300 model (interior and circulations)
Fig. 87 - HVAC system in LOD300
Fig. 88 - Section and plant automatically generated from BIM model
153
3.4.1.1. IFC TESTS
The BIM-based interface provided by PLAGE platform is supported by an IFC
server; thus, the BIM models must be transformed into IFC format to be
operated by the platform. The BIM software used to create the model allows
transforming the model in IFC format; though, in some cases this transformation
raises considerable problems. Actually, during transformation some information
may be lost and several conflicts may emerge.
In order to prevent major problems in IFC transformation operations, simple
tests were carried out during the study to identify major problems raised by IFC
format. These tests were based on creating two simple models in proprietary
format, one developed in Archicad and the other in Revit Architecture
15
, which,
subsequently, were transformed into IFC format. Afterwards, IFC models were
imported by the other software, as shown in Fig. 89 and Fig. 90.
Fig. 89 IFC test 1
Fig. 90 IFC test 2
15
www.autodesk.com
154
Several errors were found during tests. Due to the lack of standardization
between modelling operations and materials libraries, IFC was not capable of
incorporate all the characteristics of the original model, which led to some errors.
One of the BIM elements raising major concerns was the ground element.
Renders were also lost during the operation, as can be verified in Fig. 91 and Fig.
92, which refer to IFC test 1. Throughout IFC test 2, some problems related to
wall element joint details were identified, which means that functional
relationships between elements may also be lost during the operation (Fig. 93
and Fig. 94).
Fig. 91 - BIM model created in
ArchiCAD
Fig. 92 - IFC model imported into Revit
Fig. 93 - Wall created in Revit
Fig. 94 - IFC model imported into
ArchiCAD
In summary, using BIM in an interoperable environment requires understanding
software and IFC format. Modelling should reflect this understanding and
models should be developed taking into consideration interoperability concerns.
155
Furthermore, after importing IFC models into BIM software, a careful analysis
should be conducted to assess eventual errors. Special attention should be given
to ground, materials, tailor-made objects (e.g., windows, doors, etc.) and specific
elements subject to any advanced operation conducted by other BIM software
(e.g., union of walls or solid construction operations).
So, as it is possible to understand from the simple examples presented,
additional effort on IFC format development is necessary to improve BIM
interoperability. However, careful modelling already permits acceptable results.
Despite these interoperability issues IFC is crucial to empowers collaborative
work, facilitate a multi-software approach to projects and drive performance of
construction supply chains to higher levels of interoperability. Therefore, PLAGE
includes IFC format as the basis for all BIM web-based operations.
3.4.1.2. LINKING TASKS TO BIM MODEL
BIM-based e-procurement raises a major challenge. As discussed in sub-section
3.2.2, to initiate procurement procedures automatically from the BIM model, it is
necessary to include the work results or tasks related to each BIM component in
the model. The principal difficulties related to this have to do with the use of
adequate information standards (capable of identifying elements and work
results in a structured way) and the process related to association of work results
to BIM components.
To face this challenge, a connection between the PLAGE IFC server and
Primavera Construction software was created. The former lists all components of
a specific IFC model uploaded to PLAGE platform and sends it to Primavera
Construction; the latter receives the list of elements from IFC server and allows
users to associate work results to each element. After this process, the IFC server
updates the IFC model, including in each BIM element the information of work
results defined previously. The information standards implemented were table
21 and table 22 of Omniclass (see sub-section 3.2.3).
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For success, this process requires careful modelling (e.g., avoiding overlap
between components of the model) to guarantee the model is close to reality.
Each component must be identified with the respective construction elements
codification, which allows the IFC server to generate the list of model elements
automatically.
3.4.2. SIMULATION ENVIRONMENT
To test the prototype, the design and procurement process inherent to Liceu
Passos Manuel School project were simulated and PLAGE platform was used to
support all activities. The BIM modelling process presented in previous sub-
section was fully supported by PLAGE platform and various scenarios were
tested involving social networking, collaboration, information management,
BIM-based operations, KPI management and contract management. The most
relevant stages of the simulation process are presented below.
3.4.2.1. STARTING NEW PROJECT
The first step of the simulation was to create a new project page in PLAGE
platform specifically for the Liceu Passos Manuel School project. In this sense, it
was defined a project leader (usually the owner) who created a new project page
and provided relevant information about the project, particularly regarding
project typology, localization, estimated price, estimated duration, contract
model, type of use and estimated dimensions/capacity. Most of the information
is requested by the platform but extra information or files can also be added.
The requested information must be introduced carefully since it will be used by
the platform to parameterize workflows and improve business intelligence
analysis. After this introductory stage, the projects main page is created
automatically incorporating the information uploaded (Fig. 95 and Fig. 96).
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Fig. 95 Projects main page
Legend:
1 Projects avatar;
2 Left menu column, allowing users access to various PLAGE services;
3 General calendar of the project;
4 Latest Actions; this area provided information on the latest actions of all users participating in the project
(e.g, the latest documents uploaded);
5 Access to personal information;
Fig. 96 Projects general information (1 General information link)
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A multimedia gallery (Fig. 97) is created automatically with photos and videos
that user uploaded during creation of the new project PLAGE page. This gallery
is available during the entire project lifecycle, allowing users to manage and see
pictures and videos uploaded by users.
After creating the PLAGE projects page, a link to the projects page is added
automatically to PLAGE users main page top menus (Fig. 98). This link appears
only for PLAGE users with access to the project.
Fig. 97 - Multimedia gallery (1 "Multimedia Gallery" menu; 2 List of multimedia files available)
Fig. 98 - PLAGE user's main page (1-Link to Liceu Passos Manuel School project)
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After the projects network is constructed, several pre-defined profiles are
available so the project network administrator (usually the one who created the
project page) will be able to invite users according to their specific role, and
create and manage the network in simply using the network management area
(Fig. 99).
The following users were created and considered throughout the simulation:
PeVasconcelos (Owner)
VFerraz (Owner)
ToLima (Project coordinator)
AnFerraz (Consultant)
RiCidras (Consultantt)
FiSilva (Engineer)
Fig. 99 Network management page
Legend:
1 Network management menu;
2 User management;
3 Satellite network management area; this area allows creation and management of satellite networks.
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3.4.2.2. PHASES MANAGEMENT
Phases management page (Fig. 100) plays a central role in project lifecycle
management; it enables users to view the list of compulsory and optional
documents for each phase and other relevant information about project phases
(e.g., document types produced in each phase, phase status, beginning date,
execution percentage and final date) and to manage project phases. From this
page, it is possible to access project phases pages (Fig. 101), which provide a
specific collaborative document and model management space.
Fig. 100 Phases management page (1 Phases management menu; 2 - Phases list)
Fig. 101 Collaborative space for document and model management (for each phase)
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Legend:
1 Phase identification and progress;
2 Document management area (organized by area of expertise); users can upload, download and access
documents and consult information on who uploaded and approved the document;
3 BIM models management area; users can upload, download and access BIM models, and consult
information on who uploaded and approved the document;
3.4.2.3. SATELLITE NETWORKS MANAGEMENT
Satellite networks (which were developed according to 3.1.2) allow users to
create a new network within the main project network (or other satellite
networks); these sub-networks are especially pertinent to users wishing to work
privately with their own sub-group of users, and are important to promote
gradual supply chain dematerialization and integration. Although they are linked
to a specific project, PLAGE platforms satellite networks are autonomous and
work independently from the main project network.
During the simulation, the owner created a satellite network to work with
consultants exclusively during design review (Fig. 102). After being created, the
satellite network was added automatically to the main projects page top menu of
the members of the satellite network (Fig. 103).
Fig. 102 Satellite networks page (1 Project and satellite network identification)
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Fig. 103 - Project's main page (1 Satellite networks available for user within the project)
3.4.2.4. COMMUNICATION AND SOCIAL NETWORKING
During the pilot, several communication channels were tested. Some of them
such as the messages tool (Fig. 104) or the BIM-based messages (presented
ahead in Fig. 110) allow users to send and receive messages. Others such as
meeting and task management tools (Fig. 105 and Fig. 106) allow users to send
and receive alerts on meetings and tasks (including text messages or files).
Finally, communication channels such as project and company walls (Fig. 107
and Fig. 108) allow users to share information and comments with other users
dynamically and actively (from the same project or the same company,
respectively).
Fig. 104 Messages page (1 Messages menu; 2 Inbox and outbox)
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Fig. 105 - Meetings management page (1 Objectives, agenda, attendees and document library)
Fig. 106 Task management page (1 Task Management menu; 2 To do list and task
management)
Fig. 107 Company wall
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Fig. 108 Project wall
3.4.2.5. BIM-BASED INTERFACE
During the pilot, the BIM-based interface provided by PLAGE platform
prototype was tested in various ways, including:
the BIM viewer (Fig. 109) was used to view and manipulate BIM models
created throughout the pilot case, and access inherent information
regarding the tasks attached to the elements of the models while
modelling;
BIM-based interface was used to map messages and external
information using the model (Fig. 110) (this solution was implemented
according to section 3.2.1);
BIM-based interface was used to launch RFQ (requests for quotes) and
RFI (requests for information). By selecting the elements of BIM model,
it was possible to initiate the e-procurement/consulting process (Fig.
111) (this solution was implemented according to section 3.2.2).
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Fig. 109 IFC model viewer (1 IFC Viewer menu; 2 Tasks related to the model)
Fig. 110 BIM-based messages
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Fig. 111 BIM e-procurement (1 BIM procurement menu)
3.4.2.6. CONTRACT MANAGEMENT
On the contract management page, various performance management
procedures were simulated and several KPIs calculated (Fig. 112); illustratively,
this module needs further development to be completely operational (i.e., a
standardized KPI system must be implemented to allow more advanced
monitoring and management and provide additional support to procurement
procedures).
Fig. 112 Contract management page (1 Contract management menu)
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3.4.2.7. E-CATALOGUE AND APPLICATION STORE
Concerning e-catalogue simulation, several products were uploaded by various
users to test the general e-catalogue area and the my products area (Fig. 113).
The latter allows users to access a private page where they can manage their own
products, provide relevant information about them and upload respective BIM
models. On the other hand, the Application store provides uniquely a general
area where several applications are available. During simulation, SIAP and
Multimpact have been virtually bought and tested.
Fig. 113 PLAGE e-catalogue (1 e-catalogue menu; 2 e-catalogue area; 3 Link to my products)
Fig. 114 PLAGE application store (1 Application store menu; 2 Application store area)
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3.5. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
PLAGE Platform prototype demonstrated successful results. Positive feedbacks
from academia and industry were obtained from several seminars and
conferences in which the author participated. Various publications also
originated insightful comments (the most relevant seminars, conferences and
publications are presented in Appendix E). Specific meetings with large
construction players, such as Parque Escolar E.P.E., Mota-Engil and EDP, were
also positive and encouraging.
The parties involved considered the instruments provided by the PLAGE
platform opportune and useful, and reported the importance of stimulating
increasingly collaborative and relational approaches to projects where
communication and transparency are leveraged. The social approach to e-
business showed good acceptance and stimulated increased interaction between
users regarding not only the quantity of information shared, but also sharing
frequency. The satellite networks were viewed as an interesting feature that
permits bringing the entire supply chain online and stimulates development of a
large network of online users. The KPI management tool was highlighted as a
useful tool in managing the network of suppliers and stimulating the delivery of
better performances.
The development of additional KPIs based on BIM was proposed, particularly
regarding the monitoring of costs based on BIM, and the real-time calculation of
time and cost impact due to model changes. During simulation some problems
were identified on the platform, particularly regarding the interoperability of the
IFC models, which lost some information included on the original proprietary
format models. The BIM viewer and the BIM-based message tool have shown to
be extremely useful, though regarding the latter it was pointed out that when a
new model was uploaded, the information remained in the old model, an
undesirable solution; the system should enable a comparison between both
models and consecutive information transposition. Concerning the e-catalogue it
is worth to say that although it worked correctly, allowing users to upload their
own list of products and establish links to other products, the predefined forms
that asked users for specific information about the products uploaded were not
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standardized sufficiently to ensure uploading of relevant and comparable
information about the products.
Despite the positive results demonstrated by PLAGE platform prototype and the
pilot case study developed it is relevant refer that further tests should be
conducted to validate the innovative model proposed; multiple case studies in
real world situations and deeper investigation on Social e-business
implementation should be developed, particularly to analyse in detail the effect
of Social e-business in e-procurement networks growth.
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Chapter 4
Social e-Business: The public
sector case
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4. SOCIAL E-BUSINESS: THE PUBLIC SECTOR CASE
In the previous chapter, an innovative vision for e-procurement is proposed and
a platform prototype, developed according to this vision, is presented.
Subsequently, the prototype was tested in a pilot case used to simulate various
use cases in construction and support the analysis of Social e-business
contribution to improve construction performance. The primary objective of the
pilot case was to validate the innovative working environment provided by the
platform developed independently from the type of sector, private or public. It
offers an answer to the second research sub-question identified in chapter 1 that
asks, how can an e-procurement platform be enhanced to be used as a social
and collaborative space for development of construction projects?.
Considering the idiosyncrasies of the public sector that must respect several
principles and legal frameworks, it is pertinent to discuss more deeply the
application of Social e-business vision to the public domain. It is important to
note that relational perspectives raise controversial debates within the public
sector, particularly concerning potential conflict with public administration
principles. The third research sub-question presented in chapter 1 that
originated the third research cycle of this study, reflects this concern, revealing
the most problematic issues raised by the application of Social e-business to the
public sector.
This research sub-question ask, how can multicriteria evaluation and past
performance be considered in an e-procurement platform for public
procurement? Although these are inevitable instruments to promote successful,
collaborative and relationship-based approaches to e-procurement, some
obstacles to their application may arise in the public domain. For instance,
multicriteria evaluation may induce rank reversal situations, which are
incompatible with public procurement, and past performance may induce
discriminatory decisions.
So, considering the Portuguese context and incorporating clarification of this
debate, it is pertinent to analyse use of multicriteria evaluation instruments and
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past performance criteria in public sector, concretely in public procurement,
both considered in chapter 2 as effective tools to potentiate e-procurement
network growth and improve collaboration and buyer-supplier relationships
(Fig. 115).
Fig. 115 Social e-business and the public sector
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4.1. MULTICRITERIA EVALUATION IN PUBLIC PROCUREMENT
4.1.1. MULTIPLE CRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS
To understand how public procurement deals with multicriteria evaluation, it is
important to dig in-depth into multicriteria criteria decision analysis (MCDA).
These techniques were developed under decision theory to support resolution of
problems concerning the choice of one among several available options. It can be
used for various purposes including best alternative identification, ranking of
various alternatives, definition of a limited list of solutions for deeper analysis or
simply distinguishing acceptable or not acceptable options. As the European
Commission (2010a) evidences, multicriteria techniques can be used to produce
a single conclusion at the end of the assessment or present conclusions according
to participant preferences and priorities.
The field of MCDA involves a wide set of different methods (Gamper and
Turcanu, 2007), which, in a simplified way, can be distinguished by the
techniques used to define preferences of decision-makers, importance given to
each criteria and type of aggregator or optimization model used to combine
results obtained for different considered criteria (Peacock et al., 2009). Despite
the differences between the various multicriteria methods, a similar
methodological approach can be identified, which by itself already represents an
important added value, and is constituted by the following major steps (Belton
and Stewart, 2003):
problem identification;
criteria definition;
weights determination to be applied to each criteria;
alternatives identification;
information aggregation and synthesis ;
evaluation of alternatives;
decision.
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The various multicriteria methods can be classified into three broad categories
(Belton and Stewart, 2003):
Value-measurement models
These methods consider that a numerical score (or value) (S) is assigned to each
alternative, producing a preference order for the alternatives such that a is
preferred to b if S(a)>S(b). To calculate S, several criteria are given weights
that represent partial contribution to the overall score and reflect tradeoff among
different criteria (Keeney and Raiffa, 1976).
The most common approach in this category is the multiattribute value theory
(MAVT) (Lken, 2007), which is an additive value function based on the
weighted sum of partial normalized scores reflecting the alternatives
performance on a specific criterion. MAVT is a simple approach that is in the
origin of the multiattribute utility theory (MAUT), first proposed by Keeney and
Raifa (Keeney and Raiffa, 1976); it is a more advanced value measurement model
that allows incorporating risk preferences and uncertainty into multicriteria
decision support.
According to Belton and Stewart (2003) the analytical hierarchy process (AHP),
developed by Saaty (1980), is also a part of this category of multicriteria models.
Though, despite similarities to value function methods (e.g., both MAUT and
AHP present results as cardinal rankings), proponents of AHP claim it is not a
value function method. It includes additional features for obtaining weights and
scoring rules for each criterion using a set of comparisons made between pairs of
criteria and pairs of alternatives.
Despite gaining practitioner acceptance, mainly due to the helpfulness of
hierarchical representations and the appeal of pair-wise comparisons in
preference elicitation (Salo and Hmlinen, 1997), AHP has been subject to
several criticisms. One of the most relevant criticisms has to do with rank
reversal; adding additional alternatives to the list under evaluation may lead to a
change in old alternatives rank, phenomenon considered by early developers of
multicriteria theory to be avoided in multicriteria analysis (Holder, 1990).
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Goal or reference-level models
Goal programming and its variants provide support to multicriteria decision
problems, helping to determine alternatives closest to a goal. They are especially
suited to problems with very large or infinite numbers of decision alternatives,
used often as a preliminary stage of the decision-making process to produce a
short list of options. This method is attributed to Charnes and Cooper (1961),
developed within the context of linear programming problems. According to
Belton and Stewart (2003), the inherent principles carry through to nonlinear
and non-convex problems.
These methods require that the decision maker (DM) is able to express
judgements in terms of goals for each criterion. If goals are modest or defined
poorly, the goal-programming application may not give the desired result. In
fact, all solutions may satisfy all goals simultaneously and the DM will not know
which solution to choose. The reference point approach (Wierzbicki, 1999)
answers this problem by proposing the term reference level, which has to do with
achievement viewed as good starting points for further exploration.
Outranking models
Outranking models emerged in France (Roy, 1991) and its use is limited to
European countries. It provides comparisons between pairs of alternatives for
each criterion, allowing defining binary relations that rank alternatives according
to relative importance. Thus, alternative A outranks alternative B if there is
enough evidence to conclude that A is at least as good as B when considering all
criteria and respective weights. Several models use this method such as
PROMETHEE or ELECTRE models (Figueira et al., 2005). These methods may
also suffer from rank reversal problems (Wang and Triantaphyllou, 2008).
It is worth noting that methods from different categories can be combined.
According to Belton and Stewart, the AHP model is often combined with other
methods; various examples exist in combinations of AHP and PROMETHEE
(Macharis et al., 2004), TOPSIS (Yang and Chen, 1989, Lin et al., 2008), and GP
(Badri, 1999)
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4.1.2. MULTICRITERIA EVALUATION UNDER THE EUROPEAN
DIRECTIVES AND PORTUGUESE PUBLIC CONTRACTS CODE
It is now important to understand if multicriteria evaluation methods can be
applied to public procurement, naturally preventing rank reversal phenomenon.
As it has been referred, rank reversal is incompatible with public procurement,
as the final ranking should not depend on comparisons between alternatives.
In this sense, concerning evaluation of tenders in public procurement and
focusing on the European Union and Portugal, it is important to note, first of all,
that European Directive 2004/18/EC is clear about the importance of respecting
the principles of transparency, non-discrimination and equal treatment in
contract awarding, stating that:
Contracts should be awarded on the basis of objective criteria which
ensure compliance with the principles of transparency, non-
discrimination and equal treatment and which guarantee that
tenders are assessed in conditions of effective competition.
Focusing on award criteria, Directive 2004/18/EC adds that:
As a result, it is appropriate to allow the application of two award
criteria only: the lowest price and the most economically
advantageous tender.
The award criterion designated the most economically advantageous tender is
particularly pertinent within the present discussion since it allows considering
more evaluation criteria than price. As evident in the following Directive
statement, this award criterion opens the possibility of applying multicriteria
evaluation methods to public procurement procedures:
Where the contracting authorities choose to award a contract to the most
economically advantageous tender, they shall assess the tenders in order
to determine which one offers the best value for money. In order to
do this, they shall determine the economic and quality criteria
which, taken as a whole, must make it possible to determine the most
economically advantageous tender for the contracting authority. The
determination of these criteria depends on the object of the contract
since they must allow the level of performance offered by each tender to
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be assessed in the light of the object of the contract, as defined in the
technical specifications and the value for money of each tender to be
measured.
In Portugal, the PCC, which transposed the European directives
recommendations to the Portuguese context, also considers both award criteria
lowest price and most economically advantageous tender. Regarding the
latter, the contracting authority may consider various criteria. For example,
quality, price, technical merit, aesthetic and functional characteristics,
environmental characteristics, running costs, cost effectiveness, after-sales
service and technical assistance, delivery date and delivery period or period of
completion are all possible to consider, but always respecting the principles of
transparency, non-discrimination and equal treatment.
Concerning the most economically advantageous tender, it must be pointed out
that the PCC is more rigorous than the European Directives in defining the
evaluation methodology; it mandates not only determination of criteria and
respective weights, but also inherent scoring rules. The evaluation model to
support contract awarding should enable tenders to be compared and assessed
objectively; the criteria, respective weights, scoring rules and the mathematical
formula for the calculation of the overall score must be presented in the notice
and specifications, providing competitors with all the information related to their
evaluations.
Considering the full explanation of the evaluation method provided by the PCC,
it is possible to say that the statutory regulation proposes the application of the
MAVT, which is an interesting conclusion. The proposed method is adequate for
public procurement since it is simple to use, enhances transparency, increases
rigour and systematization of the process, does not introduce excessive
complexity to the evaluation process and, above all, it prevents rank reversal.
Within the context of Social e-business, it is possible to say that the vision
proclaimed throughout this thesis regarding the role of multicriteria evaluation
is compatible with European Union and Portuguese procurement legal
frameworks, concretely because the multicriteria evaluation instrument
implemented in PLAGE platform prototype is based on MAVT, which is the
multicriteria method recommended by the legal frameworks in cause.
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4.1.2.1. MULTIATTRIBUTE VALUE THEORY
Considering the role of MAVT within the context of public procurement in
Portugal, it is now pertinent to examine closely how this evaluation method is
applied. First, the application of this method requires identifying criteria and
sub-criteria that support the decision, which should be organized as a tree
structure (Fig. 116); this facilitates an integrated overview of criteria and sub-
criteria, and simplifies the analysis of independence between them.
Fig. 116 Example of criteria tree
Scoring functions should be defined for each criterion or sub-criterion to allow
calculating the partial score for each tender in a normalized way, respecting each
one of the criteria. Fig. 117 presents an example of a scoring function, where P(i)
is the price of a project proposed by tender i and Sj(i) is a scoring function that
converts the price units (alternative j) into a score (partial score). In the case of
the scoring function proposed, p is the minimal credible price
16
(which scores
10) and p is the maximal accepted price (which scores 0).
16
European Directive 2004/18/EC (and by consequence the PCC) introduced the concept
of abnormally low tender (2004/18/EC - Article 55), which suggests that if, for a given
contract, tenders appear to be abnormally low in relation to the goods, works or services,
the contracting authority shall, before it may reject those tenders, request in writing
details of the constituent elements of the tender which it considers relevant. It is an
interesting solution in public procurement to consider scoring rules with minimum price
(equal to abnormally low tender price) from which the score does not increase (Fig. 117);
this helps prevent abnormally low tenders.
Award
criteria
Price Duration
1st phase 2nd phase
Quality
Innovation Sustainability
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Fig. 117 Example of scoring function
In the MAVT, the weighting coefficients relate criteria among themselves and
allow transforming partial scores into an overall score. So, to obtain a global
score, a weighted sum is used represented mathematically as:
() () ( )
where S(i) is the overall score for tender i, w(j) is the weight of criterion j and
s(i,j) is the partial score of the tender i respecting criterion j. Finally, all
alternatives are ranked according to overall scores.
p p
Sj(i)
Price
Score
P(i)
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4.2. PAST PERFORMANCE IN PUBLIC PROCUREMENT
4.2.1. ON THE PATH OF RELATIONSHIP-BASED PROCUREMENT IN
PUBLIC SECTOR
The relevance of using past performance criteria in procurement procedures is
related closely to the growing importance of relationship-based approaches to
construction. Traditional contracts that involve separation of construction and
design are usually based on a strong adversarial environment (Murdoch and
Hughes, 2008) and face supply chains with a fragmented and dispersed
perspective where designers, engineers, constructors, consultants and
manufacturers do not work collaboratively (Walker and Hampson, 2003a),
which influences knowledge transference and degrades overall performance
(Naoum, 2003).
In traditional approaches to contracts, parties enter the project focused on
achieving their own objectives and maximizing their own gains, demonstrating
little or no concern with the impact of their actions on others, which prejudice all
the parties (Thompson and Sanders, 1998). For example, it is common to see
construction companies obtaining profit through the execution of additional
work, more than by the accomplishment of construction projects. This is a
generalized practice that often harms the client and, in case of public works,
society.
Recognizing the need for change, some initiatives are combating the inertia of
the construction industry and challenging traditional approaches. Recently, the
UK published a report on construction industry strategies (Government, 2011)
that emphasizes a new approach to construction and values the role of
relationships in the industry. The recent experience of Office of Government
Commerce (OGC) is also an example of this new paradigm in which relationships
assume strategic importance. As OGC (2009) states, use of partnering in
construction fosters a climate of mutual trust, allowing parties to be more
confident about revealing confidential information and improving the
opportunity to innovate. Similarly, the USA Army Corps of Engineers reports
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that partnering allows it to achieve significant improvements; in both large and
small contracts, cost slippages reduced by 80% to 100%, time overruns were
eliminated, paperwork was reduced by 75%, and significant improvements in site
safety and morale were achieved (Greenhalgh and Squires, 2011). Other benefits
of partnering and other relationship-based approaches to procurement can be
found in Winch (2002) and Walker and Hampson (2003b).
Despite the advantages of relational procurement strategies, effective change
toward broader use of relational approaches to contracts requires a substantial
transformation in the construction industrys culture, profoundly based on
competitive relationships. As Gadde and Dubois (2010) suggest, the adversarial
culture among stakeholders and the lack of strong institutional norms promoting
new procurement systems make difficult any change toward relational
approaches.
To overcome these barriers, a broader and more consistent notion of the benefits
achieved by effective relationship management must be disseminated within the
industry (e.g., recurring demonstration projects), and a strong institutional
determination to encourage change, such as recently demonstrated by the UK
Government (Government, 2011), must be unequivocal. Stakeholders must
understand that benefits that can be achieved with closer and trust-based
relationships can only exist with a win-win mentality and a broad consensus on
basic principles behind these approaches (Greenhalgh and Squires, 2011) that
emphasize the importance of :
existing mutually agreed on objectives and goals;
improving inter-organizational trust;
implementing inter-organizational mechanisms for problem resolution ;
promoting continuous improvement related to benchmarking
processes.
To achieve this win-win mentality, implementation of relationship-based
approaches should rely on informality and social aspects (Bresnen and Marshall,
2000). In fact, several formal mechanisms and procurement choices are
available capable of supporting integrated and relationship-based approaches to
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projects such as design-build procurement procedures; though, this does not
mean that the industry is changing. For instance, the case of Portugal
demonstrates that traditional contracts continue to be preferred.
Social e-business emerges as the adequate relational and social environment
capable of generating interesting synergies among parties and disseminating
relational approaches to construction; it provides several communication
channels, collaboration and social networking tools, various e-procurement
services, SCM instruments and a multicriteria evaluation tool.
In this context, the use of past performance criteria in procurement procedures
assumes extreme relevance, gradually promoting the generation of closer and
trustful buyer-supplier relationships over time. Though, despite its pertinence
under the scope of relationship-based approaches to procurement and Social e-
business, use of past performance is not consensual in the public sector (Albano
et al., 2011). Therefore, a closer analysis to this subject is presented in the
following sub-sections.
4.2.2. THE CASE OF EUROPE AND USA
In the European Union, using past performance as a criterion in contract
awarding is viewed as a potential discriminatory approach that prejudices
suppliers with no past performance information. Though, the United States are
known by having a completely different perspective; past performance is
recommended as a valid and pertinent instrument to improve contract
performance and promote stable buyer-supplier relationships. This distinct
approach to past performance within the public sector reveals the complexity of
this subject and suggests deeper analysis of these two visions.
Looking closely at European Directive 2004/18/EC, especially Article 53, it is
possible to verify that according to this regulation, the criteria on which the
contracting authorities base the award of public contracts shall be linked
exclusively to the subject matter of the public contract, which precludes past
performance. The same Directive considers using a selection phase before
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contract awarding in some procedures, which allows selection of a restricted
group of suppliers invited to submit tenders. However, the list of criteria
proposed for such selection (Article 47 and 48) is limited and does not explicitly
consider performance of past experiences. According to Article 48, no.2 (a), it is
pertinent to consider the following criteria proposed by the Directive for the
selection phase, which demonstrates the generic nature of the criteria and the
absence of performance consideration:
i) a list of the works carried out over the past five years, accompanied by
certificates of satisfactory execution for the most important works. These
certificates shall indicate the value, date and site of the works and shall
specify whether they were carried out according to the rules of the trade
and properly completed. Where appropriate, the competent authority
shall submit these certificates to the contracting authority direct;
(ii) a list of the principal deliveries effected or the main services provided
in the past three years, with the sums, dates and recipients, whether
public or private, involved. Evidence of delivery and services provided
shall be given:
where the recipient was a contracting authority, in the
form of certificates issued or countersigned by the
competent authority;
where the recipient was a private purchaser, by the
purchaser's certification or, failing this, simply by a
declaration by the economic operator;
PCC is very similar to European Directive 2004/18/EC; it considers the same
evaluation phases (selection phase and contract awarding) and includes the same
restrictions on past performance as a criterion. The list of criteria is also very
limited, and past performance is unmentioned throughout the statutory
document. Selection phase may consider suppliers experience, though no
reference is made to their performance. Regarding the contract awarding phase,
which is the decisive one, it is evidenced that it must focus exclusively on subject
matter of the contract; it cannot consider past performance.
In opposition, the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) from the US allows a
contracting authority to evaluate proposals and suppliers past performance.
Thus, respecting source selection and proposal evaluation, it is interesting to
note some of the sub-paragraphs of this statutory regulation (Subpart 15.3):
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The quality of the product or service shall be addressed in every source
selection through consideration of one or more non-cost evaluation
factors such as past performance, compliance with solicitation
requirements, technical excellence, management capability, personnel
qualifications, and prior experience;
Past performance information is one indicator of an offerors ability to
perform the contract successfully. The currency and relevance of the
information, source of the information, context of the data, and general
trends in contractors performance shall be considered;
The evaluation should take into account past performance information
regarding predecessor companies, key personnel who have relevant
experience, or subcontractors that will perform major or critical aspects
of the requirement when such information is relevant to the instant
acquisition;
In the case of an offeror without a record of relevant past performance or
for whom information on past performance is not available, the offeror
may not be evaluated favorably or unfavorably on past performance.
Concerning past performance information, Subpart 42.15 states:
Past performance information is relevant information, for future source
selection purposes, regarding a contractors actions under previously
awarded contracts. It includes, for example, the contractors record of
conforming to contract requirements and to standards of good
workmanship; the contractors record of forecasting and controlling
costs; the contractors adherence to contract schedules, including the
administrative aspects of performance; the contractors history of
reasonable and cooperative behavior and commitment to customer
satisfaction; the contractors record of integrity and business ethics, and
generally, the contractors business-like concern for the interest of the
customer;
Regarding contractor performance information management, it is prudent to
note the perspective of FAR, which emphasizes the importance of continuous
performance monitoring, parties discussions on performance results and
implementation of information systems to support past performance
management.
187
As it is evident, there are contradictory opinions between the EU and the US,
demonstrating that past performance is a complex issue that does not have a
simple solution. The EU has a more defensive approach to the subject,
considering that potential negative consequences of using past performance
criteria do not justify expected benefits.
However, the use of past performance information in public procurement in
Europe is under active discussion. Confirming this, nearly 623 replies to the
European Commission Green Paper on the modernisation of the EU public
procurement policy (Commission, 2011b) originating from organization and
contracting authorities established within the European Union were submitted
to the European Commission defending past performance as a criterion in
contract awarding. As a result of this survey, the European Commission states
that (Commission, 2011a):
A broad majority of respondents from all stakeholder groups consider
that the Directive should explicitly allow contracting authorities
to take into account their previous experience with one or
several bidders. Again, respondents are aware of the risks and
drawbacks of such a suggestion: some critical answers are cautioning
against the danger of favouritism and discrimination while others
are proposing safeguards to ensure a fair and objective assessment, such
as the requirement of a measurable and objective performance
control system (to avoid subjective blacklisting), judicial protection and
possibly a cap for the weighting of the relevant criterion, to keep the
market open for newcomers.
While the principle of non-discrimination is cited to be the major reason to avoid
reputational mechanisms, there are several other arguments to defend their
broader use, some already discussed in this thesis. It is important to note that
there is not consensus on this subject. Though, there has been a growing number
of entities in the European Union proposing a change in the Directive to allow
past performance in procurement procedures, which may signify that the
industry is aware of the need for new procurement systems and working models.
Considering previous discussion, it can be said that Social e-business
implementation in the public sector cannot be exploited fully in the European
Union or Portugal since past performance information cannot be used to
188
promote relationship-based procurement. Though, an alternative approach to
past performance is proposed in the following sub-section, aiming to overcome
the barriers raised by public procurement legislation and potentiate the
relational vision enhanced in previous chapters.
4.2.3. AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO PAST PERFORMANCE
Considering that multiple criteria can be used to evaluate tenders within the
public domain, and these must focus the subject matter of the contract, an
alternative evaluation model is proposed considering future performance reward
as a criterion, instead of past performance (Fig. 118). This criterion is based on
the reward proposed by suppliers tender, which depend on final contract
performance, which is assessed at the end of contract execution and may be
focused on both quantitative and qualitative dimensions of contract.
Fig. 118 Award criteria
This way it is possible to value suppliers that invest the most in non-contractibles
(innovation, processes efficiency, client support, etc.), promote the development
of trustful relationships and, consequently, are more confident in their future
performance, always taking into account the principles of transparency, non-
discrimination and equal treatment. All interested suppliers are able to submit
winning tenders and to achieve maximum final reward, without facing any
discriminatory situations or equal treatment obstacles.
Award criteria
Common criteria:
cost, duration, quality,
etc.
Future performance
reward
189
In the following sub-section, the proposed model is explained in detail and a
simple example is presented.
4.2.3.1. ALTERNATIVE APPROACH EXAMPLE
To explain the alternative approach, a simple example focusing on an evaluation
model for a public works procurement procedure is presented. The evaluation
method considered will be the MAVT, adequate to PCC. The model incorporates
three elementary criteria: cost, duration and future performance reward (Fig.
119).
Fig. 119 Criteria tree
Cost criterion:
Description: cost of the construction works;
Unit: price in 10
3
Euros;
Scoring function:
Fig. 120 Cost scoring function
Award criteria
Cost Duration
Future
performance
reward
190
Duration criterion:
Description: duration of the construction works;
Unit: weeks;
Scoring function:
Fig. 121 Duration scoring function
Future performance reward criterion
Description: reward to be achieved considering maximum contract final
performance (in the present case, maximum reward is 20%);
Unit: percentage of the total cost of contract;
Scoring function:
Fig. 122 Reward percentage scoring function
After identification of criteria and respective scoring functions, criteria weights
must be determined. They should be defined with the support of advanced
elicitation tools and considering uncertainty inherent to each case. In this
191
(1)
example, these have been determined simply. It was considered that the
contracting authority prefers a tender with lower construction cost but
considering a higher reward, than a tender with a higher construction cost but no
reward, although the final cost of both is equal.
Thus, considering wc the cost criterion weight, wt the duration criterion weight,
and wr the reward criterion weight, we have that global score of each tender as:
()
with
and
If we consider that both cases propose the same duration (
), we have:
)
According to the cost criterion scoring function, partial score for price criterion is
given by the expression
) (
).
If we consider that final costs in an optimistic scenario (i.e., maximum reward
proposed will be achieved) are equal then:
192
(
)
so, considering
and
, then:
) (
)
and finally,
.
Combining (1) and (2), we get:
In the present example and considering the previous analysis, if we consider that
tender A will be higher than 120 (10
3
euros), which corresponds to the limit of
abnormally lower tenders, and lower than 200 (10
3
euros), which is the
maximum price possible, then we have that
)
suppliers more confident in future performance and suppliers with
positive past experiences and better buyer-supplier relationships may
be able to propose higher rewards and, consequently, lower tender
prices, which allow them to achieve better final scores; so it is possible
to say that the model encourages buyer-supplier relationships and
incentivizes performance;
197
only rewards are considered in the proposed evaluation model,
penalties are not; suppliers are invited to compete based on expected
positive performance and confidence in achieving it, instead of
competing based on performance they expect to fulfil at the end of the
project and the cost for not achieving it, which happens when penalties
are considered;
when only rewards are considered, contracting authorities assume part
of the risk because if a bad project performance induces significant
losses, they will not be able to penalize suppliers more than the value of
reward. In cases of good performance, suppliers enjoy lower final cost
than in procurement procedures considering penalties (Fig. 123), which
transfer to suppliers all existing risk on future performance and define
penalties independently on the supplier;
although contracting authorities assume part of the risk, this risk
diminishes in repeated procurement since suppliers more confident in
their performance and with good past performance have higher chances
to win contracts, and trust-based buyer-supplier relationships emerge;
the model assumes that over time, performance increases and eventual
losses tend to be smaller than the proposed rewards;
risk assessment gains additional importance in preliminary phases of
projects since suppliers have to determine reward based on existing
risks; since rewards must be calculated by suppliers, risk assessment is
on their side, which makes sense because they know more about project
execution than contracting authorities;
since future performance may depend on buyer-supplier relationships,
suppliers who have a better relationship with a contracting authority
assume lower risk as they already know the client and respective
characteristics;
the model and future performance reward criteria in particular cannot
be considered discriminatory since any supplier may be confident in
198
future performance despite having or not having any past experience,
and may propose a winning tender.
the model proposed encourage trust development and performance
focusing exclusively on the subject matter of the contract. Thus, it is an
appropriate alternative to past performance in the public sector, capable
of potentiating Social e-business implementation.
Fig. 123 Reward and penalties in procurement
199
4.3. PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL E-BUSINESS IN PUBLIC SECTOR
Throughout the present chapter, application of Social e-business to the public
sector has been discussed in depth. Major attention is given to multicriteria
evaluation and past performance use within the context of public procurement
legal frameworks, which raise some barriers to Social e-business full
implementation.
As presented in chapter 3, Social e-business approaches supply chains with a
collaborative and social networking perspective that values trust-based and
closer relationships, and potentiates e-procurement networks development. It
does this not only by promoting growth, but also by incentivizing performance.
Multicriteria evaluation methods and past performance criteria play a major
role, contributing to more integrated and consistent decisions on contract
awards, gradual generation of more qualified groups of suppliers and progressive
improvement of buyer-supplier relationships.
If the European Directive and PCC accept multicriteria evaluation (if rank
reversal is prevented), use of past performance criteria faces significant
obstacles. Regulations suggest that to preserve the principles proclaimed by the
Treaty, such as the principle of equal treatment, principle of non-discrimination,
and the principle of transparency, past performance may not be used as criteria
in contract awarding since it can be discriminatory.
The European Union Directive and PCC consider using a previous selection
phase in some procurement procedures, which allow selecting a restricted group
of suppliers asked to submit tenders based on information related to their past
experience, technical, economic and financial capability. However, there is not
an explicit reference in legal documents to the possibility of using past
performance criteria focused on a specific buyer-supplier relationship. Other
countries hold a different opinion; the US clearly recommends use of past
performance in public procurement, stimulating the implementation of
information systems for past performance information management.
Consequently, an alternative approach to past performance is proposed based on
future performance reward, which should be considered in construction
200
procurement procedures and potentiated in Social e-business environments such
as PLAGE platform.
Chapter 5
Conclusion
203
5. CONCLUSION
Throughout this thesis, a new approach to e-procurement platforms is proposed,
demonstrating that traditional e-procurement has several fragilities and should
be potentiated to improve procurement processes and working and management
systems in construction. This new approach to e-procurement emerged as a new
e-business platform capable of promoting new perspectives on projects lifecycles
and supply chains. Therefore, the proposition stated initially has shown to be
pertinent:
The research sub-questions posed at the beginning of the research have also
shown to be relevant, contributing positively to focus the research on the most
significant phenomena and promote development of an innovative approach to
e-procurement capable of responding to the most recent construction challenges.
To respond to sub-question A, which asks, how can growth dynamics of e-
procurement platforms be potentiated and managed?, e-procurement impacts,
respective challenges and opportunities have been investigated and e-
procurement networks and their behaviour have been studied and simulated.
Strategic approaches to e-procurement were identified and an innovative vision
for e-procurement platforms proposed to potentiate e-procurement platform
growth and management.
This innovative vision supports the answer to sub-question B, which asks, how
can an e-procurement platform be enhanced to be used as a social and
collaborative space for development of construction projects?. To answer this
question, new perspectives proposed on e-procurement were discussed and a
The existing model of e-procurement platform for the construction
industry needs to improve to promote e-procurement network
growth and adapt to new, more collaborative and relationship-based
procurement and working models.
204
new approach to e-business drawn based on social networking, collaboration and
advanced value-added services such as e-procurement, SCM instruments and
BIM.
Sub-question C, which asks, how can multicriteria evaluation and past
performance be considered in an e-procurement platform for public
procurement? focuses the most critical points in terms of the application of
Social e-business to the particular case of public sector, which have to do with
the use of multicriteria evaluation and past performance in public procurement
procedures; it contributed to clarify these issues within the public domain and
the development of an alternative approach to past performance criteria.
Regarding the hypotheses proposed for the research, it is important to note that
all of them have been confirmed, and all assumed a relevant role in guiding the
research toward the most relevant research issues. Concerning the first
hypothesis, which suggests that if managed incorrectly, e-procurement networks
may stop growing, it is important to understand that:
if contract awards are based uniquely on price-based criteria, suppliers
may abandon e-procurement platforms and buyers may create
restricted groups of suppliers, which limit e-procurement networks
growth;
even if adequate evaluation and SCM instruments are used to potentiate
e-procurement networks dynamics, such as multicriteria evaluation
instruments or KPI systems including past performance information,
these networks stop growing if there is a significant disequilibrium
between the number of suppliers and buyers.
The second hypothesis was discussed in parallel; it argues that use of
multicriteria evaluation models and past performance criteria leverage
procurement performance and promote more relational approaches to e-
procurement platforms. Concerning this, it is important to note that:
multicriteria approaches to tenders and suppliers evaluation help
incentivize suppliers investment in non-contractibles and encourage
205
development of closer and more stable buyer-supplier relationships,
especially when past performance is considered as a criterion;
these instruments have strategic influence on e-procurement though its
use is not enough to guarantee e-procurement networks growth.
Considering the third hypothesis, which argues that an e-business platform
providing collaborative work and social networking tools and integrating e-
procurement as a value-added service prompts e-procurement network growth
more than a traditional e-procurement platform, it is possible to infer that:
since e-procurement networks do not grow like a viral network, it is
favourable to promote the generation of online collaborative networks
supported by an open and interoperable collaboration and social
networking space, which will be more effective in attracting new
members and incentivizing them to enter e-procurement networks than
traditional approaches (Fig. 124);
in B2B environments, social networking approaches should focus
collaborative processes, win-win relationships and supply chain
integration instead of competition-based situations. Thus, Social e-
business platforms will be more effective implementing and
potentiating social networking approaches than e-procurement
platforms.
Fig. 124 Social e-business networks
206
Focusing on the last hypothesis, which states that an e-business platform
providing a collaborative space and several value-added services such as e-
procurement, BIM-based instruments, multicriteria evaluation tools and other
SCM instruments improves project performance and emphasizes the role of
relationships in construction, it is important to note that:
a prototype e-business platform based on Social e-business has been
developed and tested in a pilot case, and several interesting results were
found, confirming the hypothesis raised. Though, it is important
emphasize that further tests should be conducted, especially in real-
world situations, to assess Social e-business platforms dissemination.
In sum, throughout this study Social e-business emerged as a new vision for e-
procurement and e-business envisioning to:
promote e-procurement networks growth, mostly by supporting
collaborative networks capable of growing more effectively (providing
social networking and collaboration instruments, and implementing the
Satellite network model), which may help attract new members for e-
procurement networks. These collaborative networks encourage supply
chains to dematerialize and incentivize users to use value-added
services such as e-procurement, returning to the strong Internet
marketing potential generated;
provide a dynamic and collaborative environment, interoperable and
standardized, in which supply chains interact actively and information
management may be potentiated. Over time, as Social e-business
platforms collect cumulative user information and support advanced
knowledge management (for instance recurring to KPIs and historic
information), barriers to exit increase and users abandon rate will tend
to reduce;
emphasize the role of relationships in procurement and working
systems, not only by providing a social networking and collaborative
environment, which potentiates social capital and improves trust
development, but also several instruments to enhance multicriteria,
207
performance-based and integrated approaches to projects, contracts
and relationships;
automate processes and accelerate workflows by providing an
integrated space and a set of adequate instruments necessary to make
projects and relationships work. For instance, in order to guide parties
along partnerships it is crucial to implement a collaborative and
performance-based environment, which should allow players to interact
in a dynamic, transparent, trustful and informed way.
Finally, it is inevitable refer that the true benefits of a networked organization or
a network of collaborative organizations are achieved when players recognize the
managerial and economic benefits of having an interdependent, trust-based,
flexible and win-win vision (Achrol, 1997). So, organizations should see Social e-
business platforms as an effective instrument to enhance relationships and
generate social and economic capital, more than an e-procurement or web-based
collaborative platform.
208
5.1. FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS
The present research has provided a new perspective on e-procurement and e-
business and has given in-depth understanding on e-procurement networks
behaviour. Although interesting results have been found, several further
developments can be identified.
5.1.1. E-PROCUREMENT NETWORKS DYNAMICS
It is relevant to consider that interesting results have been found using the
mathematical model proposed, but there are several other simulations that could
be conducted to get in-depth knowledge on e-procurement networks dynamics.
The proposed model represents a good basis for further developments such as:
analysing existing e-procurement networks to obtain the ratios between
( )
()
where,
population probability of yes
fraction of sampled results with yes
sample size
( ) for or respectively.
The most unfavourable case correspond to because ( ) with
is maximal for as
()
.
222
For the 2010 survey, the confidence interval () for confidence level (90%) is
given by:
()
( ) for or respectively.
223
APPENDIX B
The PLAGE R&D project consisted of 7 major parts:
Phase 1 - Preliminary study
Activity 1.1 Project management;
Activity 1.2 Preliminary design of BIM module;
Activity 1.3 Preliminary design of technological architecture;
Activity 1.4 Preliminary design of collaboration module;
Activity 1.5 Preliminary design of e-procurement module;
Activity 1.6 Preliminary design of decision support system;
Activity 1.7 Preliminary design of project management module;
Activity 1.8 Focus groups for preliminary study assessment;
Activity 1.9 Phase 1 report;
Phase 2 - Technical specifications
Activity 2.1 Project management (transversal activity);
Activity 2.2 Construction lifecycle process mapping;
Activity 2.3 Procurement lifecycle process mapping;
Activity 2.4 Report on construction processes and information flows;
Activity 2.5 Technological architecture definition;
Activity 2.6 Application architecture definition;
Activity 2.7 Interoperability architecture definition;
Activity 2.8 Report on platform architecture;
Phase 3 - Knowledge acquisition and innovative approach development
Activity 3.1 Project management (transversal activity);
Activity 3.2 Detailed design of new processes;
Activity 3.3 Detailed design of technological architecture;
Activity 3.4 Focus group to discuss platform design;
Activity 3.5 Final report;
224
Phase 4 - Development
Activity 4.1 Project management (transversal activity);
Activity 4.2 Preliminary development of platform;
Activity 4.3 Platform preliminary test;
Activity 4.4 Focus group on preliminary results;
Activity 4.5 Report on preliminary results and improvement recommendations;
Activity 4.5 BIM server and technological architecture implementation;
Activity 4.6 BIM module development;
Activity 4.7 Collaboration and social networking module development;
Activity 4.8 Project management module development;
Activity 4.9 E-procurement module development;
Activity 4.10 Decision support systems development;
Phase 5 - Prototype development
Activity 5.1 Project management (transversal activity);
Activity 5.2 Prototype development;
Activity 5.3 Focus group to analyze prototype and discuss simulation scenarios;
Activity 5.4 Simulation scenarios development;
Phase 6 - Simulation tests
Activity 6.1 Project Management (transversal activity);
Activity 6.2 Interoperability analysis;
Activity 6.3 Platform tests;
Activity 6.4 Corrective and improvement actions;
Activity 6.5 Pilot cases planning;
Activity 6.6 Pilot case 1 (Liceu Passos Manuel);
Activity 6.7 Pilot case 2 (Mota-Engil);
Activity 6.8 Report development;
Phase 7 Project results dissemination
Activity 7.1 PLAGE site development and maintenance;
Activity 7.2 National workshop 1
225
Activity 7.3 National workshop 2
Activity 7.4 International workshop 1
Activity 7.5 International workshop 2
Activity 7.6 Publications
226
227
APPENDIX C
PLAGE features
PLAGE platform prototype includes a large list of features:
PLAGE information services (general information)
- List of companies using PLAGE list
o Companies presentation pages
o Companies public information
- List of PLAGE projects
o Projects public information
o Geo-referenced locations (using Google Maps API)
Project-based information services
- List of project members
- List of users project satellite networks
- Private project information
Company-based information services
- List of companys members contacts
- List of companys projects
- Private companys information
User-based informational services
- List of users projects and satellite networks
Communication and collaboration services
- General messages (project-independent)
- Project-based messages
- Projects wall
- Companys wall
- Satellite networks wall
- BIM-based messages (messages linked to a specific BIM model or one of its
objects)
228
Profile management service
- Companys identification
- Companys presentation
- Users identification
- Users experience and projects presentation
Network management service
- Project network management (members, roles, permissions, etc.)
- Satellite network management (members, roles, permissions, etc.)
Contacts management service
- Users list of contacts
- Companys contacts shared list (list shared by company members)
Calendar service
- Users calendar
- Projects calendar
- Alert management system
Task information and management services
- Last actions panel (displays last actions in projects where the user participates)
- Tasks management tool
o Tasks and alerts management
o Task forwarding to other users
o List of users tasks
o List of projects tasks list
Meetings management services
- Meeting scheduling
- Participant management
- Meeting information management
- Meeting historic search
Phases management services
- Phases configuration
o Construction lifecycle parameterization
229
o Documents parameterization (definition of documents needed in each
phase)
- Document management
o Document upload
o Permissions management
- Multimedia gallery
o Images and videos upload and view
- BIM models management
o BIM models list
o BIM model upload
o BIM model download
o BIM viewer
o Attach files to BIM models or objects
E-Procurement and BIM e-procurement services
- Request for quotes
- Private and public e-procurement procedures
- BIM-based e-procurement
o IFC viewer linked to VortalGOV
o IFC server connection with Primavera Construct
Contract and SC management
- KPI Management panel
- Risk analysis tool
Search service
- Keyword search tool
- BIM-based messages search instrument
e-Catalogue
- Users catalogue
- Public e-catalogue
- IFC model upload
Application store
- SIAP
o Multicriteria evaluation
230
o Evaluation models management
- Multimpact
o Cost and time overrun risk
- NormaBIM
o Design standardization
231
APPENDIX D
Table 17 LODs versus model content and use (adapted from Bedrick, 2008)
Models content and
use
LOD100 LOD200 LOD300 LOD400 LOD500
Design & Coordination Non-geometric data or line
work:
- areas
- volumes zones, etc.
Generic elements
shown in three
dimensions:
- maximum size;
- purpose
Specific elements and
confirmed 3D object
geometry:
- dimensions;
- capacities;
- connections
Shop drawing/
fabrication information:
- purchase;
- manufacture;
- install;
- specified
As-built:
- actual information
4D Scheduling Total project construction
duration, including phasing of
major elements
Time-scaled,
ordered appearance
of major activities
Time-scaled, ordered
appearance of detailed
assemblies
Fabrication and assembly
detail including construction
means and methods (cranes,
man-lifts, shoring, etc.)
Cost Estimating Conceptual cost allowance
(cost per square floor area, cost
per hospital bed, cost per
parking stall, etc.)
Assumptions of future content
Estimated cost
based on
measurement of
generic element
(e.g., generic interior
wall)
Estimated cost based on
measurement of specific
assembly (e.g., specific
wall type)
Committed purchase price of
specific assembly at Buyout.
Record costs
Program Compliance Gross departmental areas Specific room
requirements
Equipment, casework,
utility connections
- -
Sustainable Materials LEED strategies Approximate
quantities of
materials by LEED
categories
Precise quantities of
materials with percentages
of recycled/locally
purchased materials
Specific manufacturer
selections
Purchase documentation
Environmental (lighting,
energy use, air movement
analysis/simulation)
Strategy and performance
criteria based on volumes and
areas
Conceptual design
based on geometry
and assumed system
types
Approximate simulation
based on specific building
assemblies and engineered
systems
Precise simulation based on
specific manufacturer and
detailed system components
Commissioning and
recording of measured
performance
Other uses may be identified and developed : Exiting and circulation, code compliance, e-procurement, etc.
233
APPENDIX E
Regarding PLAGE platform, much of the feedback from academia and industry
was obtained from several seminars and conferences in which the author
participated. The most relevant events were:
COSTA, A. A. & TAVARES, L.V. 2008. E-procurement cycle and
PLAGE, PEPPOL meeting, 11 December 2008, Copenhagen.
COSTA, A. A. 2009. Cross-border e-government: The Portuguese
experience, ORG PEPPOL meeting, 11 March 2009, Brussels.
COSTA, A. A. 2010. A viso do projecto PLAGE e a Rede Colaborativa
PLAGE/IST (PLAGE vision and the Collaborative Network
PLAGE/IST), 1st meeting of Collaborative Network PLAGE/IST, 12
January 2010, Lisbon.
COSTA, A. A. 2010. O projecto PLAGE e o caso do Liceu Passos Manuel
(PLAGE R&D project and the case of Liceu Passos Manuel), 2nd
meeting of Collaborative Network PLAGE/IST, 16 March 2010, Lisbon.
COSTA, A. A & FLOR, A. 2010. A Plataforma PLAGE e a Geotecnia
(PLAGE platform and contributes to Geotechnics), 12th National
Congress f Geotechnics, 26 to 29 April 2010, Guimares.
COSTA, A. A. 2010. PLAGE: Uma nova viso para a contratao
electrnica (PLAGE: A new vision for e-procurement), 4th National
Conference on Public e-procurement, 16 December 2010, Lisbon.
COSTA, A. A. 2010. PLAGE e Social e-Business na construo (PLAGE
and Social e-business in construction), 2nd National Conference on
New Hospitals, 26 May 2010, Lisbon.
COSTA, A. A. 2010. PLAGE platform prototype presentation, BIMnet -
Networking Workshop, 17 November 2010, Lisbon.
COSTA, A. A. 2011. Integrated taxonomies and BIM, Gescon 2011
Information Technologies in Construction, 27 October 2011, Oporto.
234
Several publications also allowed disseminating PLAGE vision and results,
contributing to insightful comments. The most relevant publications are:
COSTA, A. A. & TAVARES, L.V. 2011. Social e-business and the Satellite
Network model: Innovative concepts to improve collaboration in
construction. Automation in Construction, in press.
COSTA, A. A. 2010. Projecto PLAGE: Apresentao (PLAGE R&D
project presentation). Technical Digital Magazine eUAU, number 9,
Maio de 2010.
COSTA, A. A. 2010. Rede Colaborativa PLAGE/IST (Collaborative
Network PLAGE-IST). Technical Digital Magazine eUAU, number 10,
Julho 2010.
COSTA, A. A. 2010. A importncia das taxonomias na indstria da
construo (The role of taxonomies in construction industry). Technical
Digital Magazine eUAU, number 11, September 2010.
COSTA, A. A., 2010. BIM na contratao pblica (BIM and public
procurement). Technical Digital Magazine eUAU, number 12,
November 2010.
COSTA, A. A, 2011. Inovao e gesto da informao na construo
(Innovation and information management in construction). Technical
Digital Magazine eUAU, number 13, January 2011
COSTA, A. A. 2011. Interface BIM interactivo para gesto da informao
(BIM-based interface to improve information management). Technical
Digital Magazine eUAU, number 14, March 2011
COSTA, A. A. 2011. E-marketplaces na construo: Quais os desafios?
E-marketplaces for construction: Major challenges. Technical Digital
Magazine eUAU!, number 15, May 2011
COSTA, A. A. 2011. Catlogo de produtos sustentveis Sustainable e-
catalogue. Technical Digital Magazine eUAU!, number 16, July 2011
235
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