A disaster is a natural or man-made (or technological) hazard resulting in an event of substantial
extent causing significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the environment. A disaster can be ostensively defined as any tragic event stemming from events such as earthquakes, floods, catastrophic accidents, fires, or explosions. It is a phenomenon that can cause damage to life and property and destroy the economic, social and cultural life of people. In contemporary academia, disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk. These risks are the product of a combination of both hazard/s and vulnerability. Hazards that strike in areas with low vulnerability will never become disasters, as is the case in uninhabited regions. Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits more than 95 percent of all deaths caused by disasters occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural disasters are 20 times greater (as a percentage of GDP) in developing countries than in industrialized countries. Types- Natural hazards are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused either by rapid or slow onset events which can be geophysical(earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis and volcanic activity), hydrological(avalanches and floods), climatological (extreme temperatures, drought and wildfires), meteorological (cyclones and storms/wave surges) or biological (disease epidemics and insect/animal plagues). Technological or man-made hazards (complex emergencies/conflicts, famine, displaced populations, industrial accidents and transport accidents) are events that are caused by humans and occur in or close to human settlements. This can include environmental degradation, pollution and accidents. Technological or man-made hazards (complex emergencies/conflicts, famine, displaced populations, industrial accidents and transport accidents) There are a range of challenges, such as climate change, unplanned-urbanization, under- development/poverty as well as the threat of pandemics, that will shape humanitarian assistance in the future. These aggravating factors will result in increased frequency, complexity and severity of disasters.
Or
A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth; examples include floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic processes. A natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage, and typically leaves some economic damage in its wake, the severity of which depends on the affected population's resilience, or ability to recover Natural Types of Disasters Agricultural diseases & pests Damaging Winds Drought and water shortage Earthquakes Emergency diseases (pandemic influenza) Extreme heat Floods and flash floods Hail Hurricanes and tropical storms Landslides & debris flow Thunderstorms and lighting Tornadoes Tsunamis Wildfire Winter and ice storms Sinkholes - Hurricanes and tropical storms are among the most powerful natural disasters because of their size and destructive potential. Tornadoes are relatively brief but violent, potentially causing winds in excess of 200 mph. Both earthquakes and tornadoes strike suddenly without warning. Flooding is the most common of natural hazards, and requires an understanding of the natural systems of our environment, including floodplains and the frequency of flooding events. Wildfires are more prevalent in the event of a drought. Disasters impacting food supply can be extremely costly; American officials say that a food contamination scare similar to the one that hit the Belgian poultry industry in the 1990s could jeopardize U.S. agricultural exports in excess of $140 billion. Man-Made and Technological Types of Disasters Hazardous materials Power service disruption &blackout Nuclear power plant and nuclear blast Radiological emergencies Chemical threat and biological weapons Cyber attacks Explosion Civil unrest
Disasters also can be caused by humans. Hazardous materials emergencies include chemical spills and groundwater contamination. Workplace fires are more common and can cause significant property damage and loss of life. Communities are also vulnerable to threats posed by extremist groups who use violence against both people and property. High-risk targets include military and civilian government facilities, international airports, large cities and high-profile landmarks. Cyber-terrorism involves attacks against computers and networks done to intimidate or coerce a government or its people for political or social objective Difference between disaster and hazard- Natural hazards are things that take place in nature that cause harm. The word "natural" is used to note that the disaster is caused by nature. Some examples of natural hazards are: earthquakes, hurricanes, sinkholes, hail storms, wildfires, and the like. It might also be helpful to keep in mind that one natural hazard can lead to another. For example, an earthquake can cause a tsunami. Natural disasters are slightly different. They are the effects of natural hazards on humanity. For example, the tsunami in Indonesia caused a great amount of loss of property and more importantly lives. The earthquake and tsunami in Japan also caused loss of property and lives, as well as nuclear fallout. Earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, wildfires, landslides, droughts, and volcanic eruptions are natural hazards that cause a lot of destruction but they are termed as disasters when they occur in places that are heavily inhabited areas. They are natural phenomenon that take place without regard to humans and do not strike a place taking into account built environment or the population. When any of these hazards takes place in an area that is desolate, it causes no harm to human lives or property and hence is not called a disaster though technically it is the same phenomenon that would have raised an alarm had it taken place in an area that was thickly populated.
Tornados and typhoons occur frequently in many parts of the world but are labeled as disasters only when they take place where there is built environment and human population. It is clear then that a hazard is an event that has the potential to cause widespread destruction and loss of lives and property. But when a hazard strikes an area that has no human population, though it still has destructive properties, it is not termed as a disaster. Apart from this difference, there are factors that are manmade and help in turning a hazard into a disaster. The way and the speed in which deforestation is taking place in many parts of the world has resulted in an increased frequency of floods that lead to widespread destruction. Earthquakes in seismic zones that are prone to them cannot be prevented but high concentration of human population and inadequately built houses that cannot withstand earthquakes lead to disasters at a very high level resulting in loss of valuable lives. Hazards are natural phenomenon, they cannot be prevented. But we can certainly learn to live in harmony with nature by not taking steps that can turn hazards into major disasters. If one takes into account the cost that we finally pay when a disaster strikes that the cost of averting it, we come to a conclusion that it is prudent to be prepared rather than inviting the wrath of nature on a very large scale
or Natural hazards are geographical events which occur naturally UNDER (earthquakes and volcanoes), ON (floods) or ABOVE (climatic conditions such as droughts and tropical cyclones) the surface of the earth. Things such as droughts, floods, tropical cyclones, volcanic eruptions and volcanoes regularly happen on a small scale throughout the world. However, if one of these natural hazards leads to a significant loss of human life and/or damage to property, and/or environmental damage,it is called a NATURAL DISASTER.
Disaster and crisis- Disaster synonyms used by practitioners and experts have included calamity and catastrophe. Similar words are emergency and crises. Disasters are abrupt shocks to the socio-economic and environmental system, involving loss of life and property. The definition that is provided by the UN/ISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction) is one of the most appropriate definitions: A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that causes serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread human, material, economic and/or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own level of resources. Other sources define it as An unforeseen and often sudden event that causes great damage, destruction and human suffering. Though often caused by nature, disasters can have human origins.; The combination of hazards, vulnerability and inability to reduce the potential negative consequences of risk results in disaster. etc.
Crisis is is any event that is, or is expected to lead to, an unstable and dangerous situation affecting an individual, group, community, or whole society. Crises are deemed to be negative changes in the security, economic,political, societal, or environmental affairs, especially when they occur abruptly, with little or no warning. More loosely, it is a term meaning 'a testing time' or an 'emergency event'. Crisis is the situation of a complex system (family, economy, society) when the system functions poorly, an immediate decision is necessary, but the causes of the dysfunction are not known. a) situation of a complex system simple systems do not enter crises. We can speak about a crisis of moral values, an economical or political crisis, but not a motor crisis. b) poor function. The system still functions, but does not break down. c) an immediate decision is necessary to stop the further disintegration of the system. d) the causes are so many, or unknown, that it is impossible to take a rational, informed decision to reverse the situation. Crisis has several defining characteristics. Seeger, Sellnow, and Ulmer [2] say that crises have four defining characteristics that are "specific, unexpected, and non-routine events or series of events that [create] high levels of uncertainty and threat or perceived threat to an organization's high priority goals." Thus the first three characteristics are that the event is 1. unexpected (i.e., a surprise) 2. creates uncertainty 3. is seen as a threat to important goals Venette [3] argues that "crisis is a process of transformation where the old system can no longer be maintained." Therefore the fourth defining quality is the need for change. If change is not needed, the event could more accurately be described as a failure. Apart from natural crises that are inherently unpredictable (volcanic eruptions, tsunami etc.) most of the crises that we face are created by man. Hence the requirements of their being 'unexpected' depends upon man failing to note the onset of crisis conditions. Some of our inability to recognise crises before they become dangerous is due to denial and other psychological responses [4] that provide succour and protection for our emotions. Types of crisis- Poverty-related crisis Unemployment and underemployment Not paying rent may lead to homelessness through foreclosure or eviction. Being unemployed, and the financial difficulties and loss of health insurance benefits that come with it, may cause malnutrition and illness, and are major sources of self-esteem which may lead to depression, which may have a further negative impact on health. Lacking a job often means lacking social contact with fellow employees, a purpose for many hours of the day, lack of self-esteem, and mental stress. Economic crisis
An economic crisis is a sharp transition to a recession. See for example 1994 economic crisis in Mexico, Argentine economic crisis (19992002), South American economic crisis of 2002,Economic crisis of Cameroon. Crisis theory is a central achievement in the conclusions of Karl Marx's critique of Capital. A financial crisis may be a banking crisis or currency crisis. Environmental crisis Crises pertaining to the environment include: Environmental disaster An environmental disaster is a disaster that is due to human activity and should not be confused with natural disasters (see below). In this case, the impact of humans' alteration of theecosystem has led to widespread and/or long-lasting consequences. It can include the deaths of animals (including humans) and plant systems, or severe disruption of human life, possibly requiring migration. Natural disaster A natural disaster is the consequence of a natural hazard (e.g. volcanic eruption, earthquake, landslide) which moves from potential into an active phase, and as a result affects human activities. Human vulnerability, exacerbated by the lack of planning or lack of appropriate emergency management, leads to financial, structural, and human losses. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster, their resilience. [7] This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability". [8] A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas. . Endangered species An endangered species is a population of an organism which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in number, or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters. An endangered species is usually a taxonomic species, but may be another evolutionary significant unit. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has classified 38 percent of the 44,837 species assessed by 2008 as threatened. [9]
International crisis For information about crises in the field of study in international relations, see crisis management and international crisis. In this context, a crisis can be loosely defined as a situation where there is a perception of threat, heightened anxiety, expectation of possible violence and the belief that any actions will have far-reaching consequences (Lebow, 710). Personal crisis A personal crisis can occur when events of an extraordinary nature trigger extreme tension and stress within an individual which require major decisions or actions to resolve. A crisis situation can revolve around a dangerous situation such as extreme weather conditions or a medical emergency or long-term illness. A crisis can also be related to a change in events that comprise the day-to-day life of a person and those in their close circle. Such situations may be loss of a job; extreme financial hardship; alcoholism or addiction and other situations that are life altering and require action that is outside the "normal" daily routine.
Causers of different disasters- The causes of natural disasters are many. Human activities play a role in the frequency and severity of disasters. A natural disaster is a disruption in the balance of the environment. The human factor raises the cost, in both property damage and loss of life. Understanding the causes of natural disaster can provide clues to their prevention.
Floods
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), barring fire, floods are the most common natural disaster affecting Americans. Floods are a factor in 90 percent of natural disasters. Flood events have both natural and man-made causes. Storm events can create flood waters that exceed the capacity of the environment or man-made structures. Levees and dams provide a false sense of security as became evident during the Great Flood of 1993 in the Upper Mississippi River valley. A painful lesson was learned. Wetlands destruction removed a natural means to absorb floodwaters.
Fires
Fires are nature's environmental managers. They create and maintain ecosystems such as prairies and pine forests. In fact, prairies evolved with the presence of fire. The health of the ecosystem is dependent on this disturbance. Fires remove a buildup of litter on the soil surface, allowing nutrients to be released into the environment. It also creates favorable conditions for seed germination. Suppression of fire allows litter to accumulate, setting the stage for catastrophic fires. Plants and trees have adapted to the presence of fire. However, the higher temperatures of crown fires can kill plants entirely. These fires are more difficult to control. Suppression of fires is expensive, upward of $1 billion annually, according to the U.S. Forest Service.
Drought
Drought has had more widespread effects than any other natural disaster. Each year, drought costs the United States more than $6 billion. It's safe to say that droughts have greater impacts in modern times. More people are affected by loss of land and food crops as well as environmental damage. The immediate effects are overshadowed by secondary issues. Compacted, dry soils are vulnerable to topsoil loss and erosion. Dry conditions make fires more common. Evidence suggest global warming may be the cause for an increase in drought frequency and changes in the global climate.
Weather Events
Like drought, an increase in severe weather events has been recorded in the last 100 years by the National Climatic Data Center. While notification systems are in place, vulnerabilities still exist for property damage and crop loss. Development has also complicated the effects of such events. An increase in development leads to a decrease in wetlands and an increase in impervious surfaces such as roads and driveways. This creates a scenario for floods and flash flooding. As with drought, scientists believe a link between global warming and climate changes exists.
Prevention/Solution
Not all natural disasters can be prevented. Each natural disaster has its own factors and complications. Understanding the basic principles of ecology can provide keys to lessening their effects. Nature evolved with natural disasters and disturbance. The best prevention is looking at the strategies found in nature.
impact- 1) Short-medium-term effects directly involving people and goods affected by a disaster The articles included in this group employ the simplest approach: the impact is expressed by the list of damaged elements and neither monetary figures nor other assessment are performed (Ngecu & Ichangi, 1999; Whitworth et al., 2006; Bilgehan & Kilic, 2008). Frequently used impact indicators include numbers of victims and damage to buildings, roads and agriculture. In these studies, damage data are obtained by state agencies or even collected by directly asking people involved in the disaster. Both the number of victims and the percentage of people affected are used to compare the impact of a disaster on various communities (Msilimba, 2010) or that of disasters that have occurred in different time and places. Some of these articles focus on damage to people, analysing the circumstances leading to loss of life and assessing them in relation to vulnerability factors (e.g., age, race, and gender) (Jonkman et al., 2009). 2) Medium- and long-term socio-economic effects In these articles, after individuating the affected population and the pre-disaster situation, the researchers isolated effects on social sectors (the population, housing, health and education), service infrastructure (drinking water and sewage, communications, electricity and power), and production sectors (agriculture, industry and trade) in order to measure the disaster's impact on the macroeconomic indicators during a period of one to two years after the disaster (ECLAC, 1991). Natural disasters are seen as a function of a specific natural process and economic activity (Raschky, 2008). The indicators used to detect the impact on national economies include a) long-term recovery businesses (Webb et al., 2002); b) changes in flow variables such as annual agricultural output (Patwardhan & Sharma, 2005); c) variations in fiscal pressure (Noy & Nualsri, 2011); and d) effects on the labour market (Belasen & Polachek, 2007; Zissimopoulos & Karoly, 2010). 3) The impact of Damaging Hydro-geological Events (DHEs) This paragraph focuses on climate-related damaging phenomena as landslides, floods, urban flooding, and storm surges which occur during periods of bad weather conditions, lasting from one to a few days, and characterised by intense rainfall and sometimes strong winds. These periods can be defined as Damaging Hydro-geological Events (DHEs) (Petrucci & Polemio 2003, 2009), and their impact can be assessed as the sum of the damage caused by all the damaging phenomena triggered through a selected DHE.
unit-2 epidemic- Natural disasters that do not result in population displacement, regardless of type of disaster, are rarely associated with increased risk for epidemics. However, large-scale population displacement, with consequent overcrowding in temporary settlements and disruption of water supply and sanitation, are indeed associated with increased risks for communicable disease transmission. This distinction is well documented . Increased communicable disease incidence after flooding and cyclones has been particularly well described . In addition, after a disaster of any type, epidemics may go undetected because of poor surveillance or because baseline surveillance data for diseases (such as dengue fever or malaria) are unavailable. Although we agree with the authors that media reports are often exaggerated and that the risk for epidemics after certain types of natural disasters (e.g., volcanic eruption) is low, we believe the findings are somewhat misleading. Post disaster communicable disease incidence is related more closely to the characteristics of the displaced population (size, health status, living conditions) than to the precipitating event.
Diarrhoeal epidemics are frequently reported following natural disasters in developing countries. Floods are recurrent in many African countries, such as Mozambique, and usually lead to a significant increase in diarrhoeal disease incidences. Or The term epidemic has been derived from two Greek words, "Epi" means "upon " and "Demos" means "people". Thus, an epidemic of an infectious disease is the occurrence of a number of cases of a disease, known or suspected to be of infectious origin, that is unusually large or unexpected for the given place or time. An epidemic often evolves rapidly. A threatened (potential) epidemic is said to exist when the circumstances are such that epidemic occurrence of a specific disease may reasonably be anticipated. This requires a susceptible human population, the presence of a disease agent, and the presence of a mechanism or mode of large-scale transmission (e.g., contaminated water supply, poor sanitation and vector population) The unusual occurrence in a community or region of disease, specific health related behaviours. Some use the term "outbreak" for a small, usually localized epidemic in the interest of minimizing public alarm, unless the number of cases is indeed very large. This definition covers the usual epidemic diseases such as, measles, chickenpox, and cholera, which are compressed in time, but also the modern "slow" epidemics of non-communicable diseases like diabetic, heart attacks, and depression. Epidemics are Public Health emergencies. When an epidemic extends beyond the confines of a wide area, typically a continent, and becomes a more widespread problem, it is a pandemic. Drought- Drought is an extended period when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply whether surface or underground water. A drought can last for months or years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days. [1] Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region. Although droughts can persist for several years, even a short, intense drought can cause significant damage [2] and harm to the local economy. [3] Prolonged drought has caused cause mass migrations and humanitarian crises. Many plant species, such as cacti, have adaptations such as reduced leaf area and waxy cuticles to enhance their ability to tolerate drought. Some others survive dry periods as buried seeds. Semi- permanent drought produces arid biomes such as deserts and grasslands. [4] Most arid ecosystems have inherently low productivity. Consequences[edit]
A Mongolian gazelle dead due to drought. Periods of droughts can have significant environmental, agricultural, health, economic and social consequences. The effect varies according to vulnerability. For example, subsistence farmers are more likely to migrate during drought because they do not have alternative food sources. Areas with populations that depend on as a major food source are more vulnerable to famine. Drought can also reduce water quality, because lower water flows reduce dilution of pollutants and increase contamination of remaining water sources. Common consequences of drought include: Diminished crop growth or yield productions and carrying capacity for livestock Dust bowls, themselves a sign of erosion, which further erode the landscape Dust storms, when drought hits an area suffering from desertification and erosion Famine due to lack of water for irrigation Habitat damage, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic wildlife Hunger, drought provides too little water to support food crops. Malnutrition, dehydration and related diseases Mass migration, resulting in internal displacement and international refugees Reduced electricity production due to reduced water flow through hydroelectric dams Shortages of water for industrial users Snake migration, which results in snakebites Social unrest War over natural resources, including water and food Wildfires, such as Australian bushfires, are more common during times of drought and even death of people. Types-
1) Meteorological drought is defined usually on the basis of the degree of dryness (in comparison to some normal or average amount) and the duration of the dry period. Definitions of meteorological drought must be considered as region specific since the atmospheric conditions that result in deficiencies of precipitation are highly variable from region to region. 2) Agricultural Drought Agricultural drought links various characteristics of meteorological (or hydrological) drought to agricultural impacts, focusing on precipitation shortages, differences between actual and potential evapo transpiration, soil water deficits, reduced groundwater or reservoir levels, and so forth. Plant water demand depends on prevailing weather conditions, biological characteristics of the specific plant, its stage of growth, and the physical and biological properties of the soil. A good definition of agricultural drought should be able to account for the variable susceptibility of crops during different stages of crop development, from emergence to maturity. Deficient topsoil moisture at planting may hinder germination, leading to low plant populations per hectare and a reduction of final yield. 3) Hydrological Drought Hydrological drought is associated with the effects of periods of precipitation (including snowfall) shortfalls on surface or subsurface water supply (i.e., stream flow, reservoir and lake levels, groundwater). The frequency and severity of hydrological drought is often defined on a watershed or river basin scale. Although all droughts originate with a deficiency of precipitation, hydrologists are more concerned with how this deficiency plays out through the hydrologic system. Hydrological droughts are usually out of phase with or lag the occurrence of meteorological and agricultural droughts. It takes longer for precipitation deficiencies to show up in components of the hydrological system such as soil moisture, stream flow, and groundwater and reservoir levels. As a result, these impacts are out of phase with impacts in other economic sectors. For example, a precipitation deficiency may result in a rapid depletion of soil moisture that is almost immediately discernible to agriculturalists, but the impact of this deficiency on reservoir levels may not affect hydroelectric power production or recreational uses for many months. Also, water in hydrologic storage systems (e.g., reservoirs, rivers) is often used for multiple and competing purposes . 4) Socioeconomic Drought Socioeconomic definitions of drought associate the supply and demand of some economic good with elements of meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural drought. It differs from the aforementioned types of drought because its occurrence depends on the time and space processes of supply and demand to identify or classify droughts. The supply of many economic goods, such as water, forage, food grains, fish, and hydroelectric power, depends on weather. Because of the natural variability of climate, water supply is ample in some years but unable to meet human and environmental needs in other years. Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather- related shortfall in water supply. For example, in Uruguay in 198889, drought resulted in significantly reduced hydroelectric power production because power plants were dependent on streamflow rather than storage for power generation. Reducing hydroelectric power production required the government to convert to more expensive (imported) petroleum and implement stringent energy conservation measures to meet the nations power needs. Or DEFINITION OF DROUGHT Drought is a weather-related natural disaster. It affects vast regions for months or years. It has an impact on food production and it reduces life expectancy and the economic performance of large regions or entire countries. Drought is a recurrent feature of the climate. It occurs in virtually all climatic zones, and its characteristics vary significantly among regions. Drought differs from aridity in that drought is temporary; aridity is a permanent characteristic of regions with low rainfall. Drought is an insidious hazard of nature. It is related to a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time, usually for a season or more. This deficiency results in a water shortage for some activity, group, or environmental sector. Drought is also related to the timing of precipitation. Other climatic factors such as high temperature, high wind, and low relative humidity are often associated with drought. Drought is more than a physical phenomenon or natural event. Its impact results from the relation between a natural event and demands on the water supply, and it is often exacerbated by human activities. The experience from droughts has underscored the vulnerability of human societies to this natural hazard. Drought definitions are of two types: (1) conceptual, and (2) operational. Conceptual definitions help understand the meaning of drought and its effects. For example, drought is a protracted period of deficient precipitation which causes extensive damage to crops, resulting in loss of yield.
Landslide- A landslide, also known as a landslip, is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows, which can occur in offshore, coastal and onshore environments. Although the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability. Typically, pre-conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions that make the area/slope prone to failure, whereas the actual landslide often requires a trigger before being released.
Causes Landslides occur when the stability of the slope changes from a stable to an unstable condition. A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors, acting together or alone. Natural causes of landslides include: groundwater (pore water) pressure acting to destabilize the slope Loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil structure (e.g. after a wildfire - a fire in forests lasting for 34 days) erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves weakening of a slope through saturation by snow melt, glaciers melting, or heavy rains earthquakes adding loads to barely stable slope earthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes volcanic eruptions Landslides are aggravated by human activities, such as deforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already fragile slopes. vibrations from machinery or traffic blasting earthwork which alters the shape of a slope, or which imposes new loads on an existing slope in shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds colluvium to bedrock Construction, agricultural or forestry activities (logging) which change the amount of water which infiltrates the soil.
Types- Debris flow Slope material that becomes saturated with water may develop into a debris flow or mud flow. The resulting slurry of rock and mud may pick up trees, houses and cars, thus blocking bridges and tributaries causing flooding along its path. Debris flow is often mistaken for flash flood, but they are entirely different processes.
Earthflows Earthflows are downslope, viscous flows of saturated, fine-grained materials, which move at any speed from slow to fast. Typically, they can move at speeds from 0.17 to 20 km/h. Though these are a lot like mudflows, overall they are slower moving and are covered with solid material carried along by flow from within. They are different from fluid flows in that they are more rapid. Clay, fine sand and silt, and fine-grained, pyroclastic material are all susceptible to earthflows. The velocity of the earthflow is all dependent on how much water content is in the flow itself: if there is more water content in the flow, the higher the velocity will be.
Debris landslide A debris slide is a type of slide characterized by the chaotic movement of rocks soil and debris mixed with water or ice (or both). They are usually triggered by the saturation of thickly vegetated slopes which results in an incoherent mixture of broken timber, smaller vegetation and other debris. [2] Debris avalanches differ from debris slides because their movement is much more rapid. This is usually a result of lower cohesion or higher water content and commonly steeper slopes.
Shallow landslide shallow landslides can often happen in areas that have slopes with high permeable soils on top of low permeable bottom soils. The low permeable, bottom soils trap the water in the shallower, high permeable soils creating high water pressure in the top soils. As the top soils are filled with water and become heavy, slopes can become very unstable and slide over the low permeable bottom soils. Say there is a slope with silt and sand as its top soil and bedrock as its bottom soil
Deep-seated landslide Landslides in which the sliding surface is mostly deeply located below the maximum rooting depth of trees (typically to depths greater than ten meters). Deep-seated landslides usually involve deep regolith, weathered rock, and/or bedrock and include large slope failure associated with translational, rotational, or complex movement. These typically move slowly, only several meters per year, but occasionally move faster. They tend to be larger than shallow landslides and form along a plane of weakness such as a fault or bedding plane. They can be visually identified by concave scarps at the top and steep areas at the toe.
Forest fire-
A forest fire is an uncontrolled fire occurring in nature. Sometimes, the forest fire is so large that it takes a long time for the fire fighting crews to gain control over the situation. This could result in massive destruction.
Volcano and earthquakes- Volcanic Earthquakes
Earthquakes related to volcanic activity may produce hazards which include ground cracks, ground deformation, and damage to manmade structures. There are two general categories of earthquakes that can occur at a volcano: volcano-tectonic earthquakes and long period earthquakes. Earthquakes produced by stress changes in solid rock due to the injection or withdrawal of magma (molton rock) are called volcano- tectonic earthquakes (Chouet, 1993). These earthquakes can cause land to subside and can produce large ground cracks. These earthquakes can occur as rock is moving to fill in spaces where magma is no longer present. Volcano-tectonic earthquakes don't indicate that the volcano will be erupting but can occur at anytime. The second category of volcanic earthquakes are long period earthquakes which are produced by the injection of magma into surrounding rock. These earthquakes are a result of pressure changes during the unsteady transport of the magma. When magma injection is sustained a lot of earthquakes are produced (Chouet, 1993). This type of activity indicates that a volcano is about to erupt. Scientists use seismographs to record the signal from these earthquakes. This signal is known as volcanic tremor. People living near an erupting volcano are very aware of volcanic earthquakes. Their houses will shake and windows rattle from the numerous earthquakes that occur each day before and during a volcanic eruption. Residents in Pompeii felt earthquakes daily before Vesuvius erupted in A.D. 79 but continued to go about their daily routines (Francis, 1993). When Mount Pinatubo in the Philipines erupted in 1991, nerves were rattled as much as windows by volcanic earthquakes. Earthquakes exhibiting volcanic tremor warn of an impending eruption so that people can be evacuated to areas of safety. The volcanic tremor signal has been used successfully to predict the 1980 eruptions Mount St. Helens and the 1991 eruption of Pinatubo. Volcano-tectonic earthquakes can cause damage to manmade structures and landsliding. To prevent damage from being done, structures should be built according to earthquake standards, building foundations should be constructed on firm ground and not unconsolidated material which may amplify earthquake intensity, and buildings should be constructed on stable slopes in areas of low hazard potential.
Tsunami- A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami English pronunciation: is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, generally an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. [3]
Tsunami waves do not resemble normal sea waves, because their wavelength is far longer. Rather than appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide, and for this reason they are often referred to as tidal waves. Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called "wave train". [4] Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive power can be enormous and they can affect entire ocean basins; the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history with over 230,000 people killed in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean. Tsunami are sometimes referred to as tidal waves, which are unusually high sea waves that are triggered especially by earthquakes. In recent years, this term has fallen out of favor, especially in the scientific community, because tsunami actually have nothing to do with tides. The once-popular term derives from their most common appearance, which is that of an extraordinarily high tidal bore. Tsunami and tides both produce waves of water that move inland, but in the case of tsunami the inland movement of water is much greater and lasts for a longer period, giving the impression of an incredibly high tide. Although the meanings of "tidal" include "resembling"or "having the form or character of"the tides, and the term tsunami is no more accurate because tsunami are not limited to harbours, use of the term tidal wave is discouraged by geologists and oceanographers.
Unit-3 Ecological disaster- An environmental disaster is a disaster to the natural environment due to human activity, [1] which distinguishes it from the concept of a natural disaster. It is also distinct from intentional acts of war such as nuclear bombings. In this case, the impact of humans' alteration of the ecosystem has led to widespread and/or long- lasting consequences. It can include the deaths of animals (including humans) and plants, or severe disruption of human life, possibly requiring migration. Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. The term deforestation is often misused to describe any activity where all trees in an area are removed. However in temperate climates, the removal of all trees in an areain conformance with sustainable forestry practicesis correctly described as regeneration harvest. In temperate mesic climates, natural regeneration of forest stands often will not occur in the absence of disturbance, whether natural or anthropogenic. Furthermore, biodiversity after regeneration harvest often mimics that found after natural disturbance, including biodiversity loss after naturally occurring rainforest destruction. Deforestation occurs for many reasons: trees are cut down to be used or sold as fuel (sometimes in the form of charcoal) or timber, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock, plantations of commodities and settlements. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity. It has adverse impacts on bio equestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Erosion is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earth's surface by exogenic processes such as wind or water flow, and thentransported and deposited in other locations. While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally. Excessive erosion causes problems such as desertification, decreases in agricultural productivity due to land degradation, sedimentation of waterways, and ecological collapse due to loss of the nutrient rich upper soil layers. Water and wind erosion are now the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are responsible for 84% of degraded acreage, making excessive erosion one of the most significant global environmental problems
Soil erosion is the washing or blowing away (by wind or water) of the top layer of soil (dirt). This is a serious problem for people who want to grow crops. Crops are the foods that farmers grow. If the soil has eroded, the crops will not grow very well. Soil erosion can be prevented several ways. Planting wind breaks can be effective. A wind break is a line of plants that are planted to stop or slow the wind. A thick row of bushes planted next to a field of plants can stop the wind from blowing the soil away. This method also helps against water erosion, as the soil gets caught up against the roots of the bushes, rather than washing away. Terracing can also be effective. Terraces are level places that have been made by people on hill sides. People can cut level sides into the side of hills to create a place to grow crops. If the crops are growing on a slope, then one should plant them in lines that run across, the slope, rather than up and down. So, if the slope goes downhill to the south, then the plants should be in rows that run from east to west. To prevent decomposition the government can put up groynes (wooden planks) along the beaches, or they could build sea walls against the cliffs. Soil erosion is a natural process. It becomes a problem when human activity causes it to occur much faster than under natural conditions. CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION Wind and water are the main agents of soil erosion. The amount of soil they can carry away is influenced by two related factors: * speed - the faster either moves, the more soil it can erode; * plant cover - plants protect the soil and in their absence wind and water can do much more damage. Air pollution- Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulates, biological materials, or other harmful materials into the Earth's atmosphere, possibly causing disease, death to humans, damage to other living organisms such as food crops, or the natural or built environment. The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater). Water pollution occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities. Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. An estimated of 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness every day. Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some degree of water pollution, and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe drinking water. In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed countries continue to struggle with pollution problems as well. In the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream miles, 47% of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted. Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water. Category[edit] Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources, although they are interrelated. [7] Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin. Point sources .Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial storm water, such as from construction sites. Nonpoint sources Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from "sheet flow" over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution. Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution. However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source.
Hiv- The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lenti virus (slowly replicating retrovirus) that causes the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive. Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate, or breast milk. Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells.
Human immunodeficiency virus infection / acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a disease of the human immune systemcaused by infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). [1] During the initial infection, a person may experience a brief period of influenza-like illness. This is typically followed by a prolonged period without symptoms. As the illness progresses, it interferes more and more with the immune system, making the person much more likely to get infections, including opportunistic infections and tumors that do not usually affect people who have working immune systems. Lifestyle diseases (also sometimes called diseases of longevity or diseases of civilization interchangeably) are diseases that appear to increase in frequency as countries become more industrialized and people live longer. They can include Alzheimer's disease, Arthritis, atherosclerosis, asthma, some kinds of cancer, chronic liver disease or cirrhosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Type 2 diabetes, heart disease, metabolic syndrome, chronic renal failure, osteoporosis, stroke, depression and obesity. Some commenters maintain a distinction between diseases of longevity and diseases of civilization. Certain diseases, such as diabetes, dental caries or asthma appear at greater rates in young populations living in the "western" way; their increased incidence is not related to age, so the terms cannot accurately be used interchangeably for all diseases. Causes Diet and lifestyle are major factors thought to influence susceptibility to many diseases. Drug abuse, tobacco smoking, and alcohol drinking, as well as a lack of exercise may also increase the risk of developing certain diseases, especially later in life.
In many Western countries, people began to eat more meat, dairy products, vegetable oils, sugary foods, and alcoholic beverages during the latter half of the 20th century. People also developed sedentary lifestyles and greater rates of obesity. Rates of colorectal cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, endometrial cancer and lung cancer started increasing after this dietary change. People in developing countries, whose diets still depend largely on low-sugar starchy foods with little meat or fat have lower rates of these cancers.
Unit-4 Disaster Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness (PMP) Prevention, Mitigation, and Preparedness (PMP) is the channel through which FOCUS works to decrease a communitys vulnerability to natural disasters such as landslides, floods, mudslides, epidemics, and earthquakes, catastrophic rain or snow, and prepares them to respond rapidly and effectively to natural disasters. In this way, the initiative also seeks to ensure that communities are empowered in the learning process. There are a variety of activities in each category, including: building community awareness, the provision of communications equipment (two-way radios), and mitigation projects, such as flood retaining walls.
Disaster Preparedness Preparedness and focuses on plans to respond to a disaster threat or occurrence. It takes into account an estimation of emergency needs and identifies the resources to meet these needs. It also involves preparation of well-designed plans to structure the entire post-disaster response, and familiarising the stakeholders, particularly the communities through training and simulation exercises. Preparedness has to be supported by the necessary legislation. means a readiness to cope with disasters or similar emergencies which cannot be avoided. The first objective of preparedness is to reduce the disaster impact through appropriate actions and improve the capacity of those who are likely to be affected most (that is,
Important Components of Preparedness Plan Generally community preparedness depends upon following four major components - Population characteristics (number of children, squatter settlement etc ) - Building and critical infrastructure such as road, drinking water, communication network, health and sanitation - Physical environment - Social environment (social groups) In view of these components risk assessment study has been conducted and identified that Delhi is densely built and consists of a high number of urban population. Any major earthquake or fire/chemical explosion can affect district very badly. Although various steps have been taken by the Delhi Government but still a high degree of awareness and training is required to lay down an organization system within communities.
structural and non structural measures- Structural measures: Any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of hazards, or application of engineering techniques to achieve hazard-resistance and resilience in structures or systems; Non-structural measures: Any measure not involving physical construction that uses knowledge, practice or agreement to reduce risks and impacts, in particular through policies and laws, public awareness raising, training and education. Or .Structural Mitigation . 1).Risk Mapping, Assessment and Analysis The first and probably the most complex task of mitigation is to map the hazard, risks and vulnerabilities, analyze and assess the levels of risks and monitor it continuously. It is only on the basis of such a knowledge base that a proper and effective strategy for mitigation and preparedness can be developed. .2) Sea Wall and Embankments Among the structural mitigation measures sea walls and embankments are probably the most effective and capital intensive investment to mitigate the risks of water and climate related disasters. If sea walls are essential to protect coastal cities and harbors, saline water embankments are recommended to protect rural settlements and to prevent saline water ingress into agricultural and horticultural land. Further, saline embankments have the potential to kill the mangroves due to chocking of saline water. 3) Bio-Shields Bio shields usually consist of mangroves, casuarinas salicornia, laucaena, atriplex, palms, bamboo and other tree species and halophytes and other shrub species that inhabit lower tidal zones. These can block or buffer wave action with their stems, which can measure up to 30 meter high and several meters in circumference. They trap sediment in their roots; thereby maintain a shallow slope on the seabed that absorbs the energy of tidal surges. They also break the high velocity of winds and thus protect agricultural crops and shelters besides providing shelter and grazing lands for the livestock and farms. They reduce evaporation from the soil, transpiration from the plants and moderate xtreme temperatures. They protect fertile coastal agricultural land from erosion. Systematic regeneration of the bio-shields in the coastal belts wherever feasible is the most natural and cost effective method of protecting these areas from storm surges and erosion.
5) Shelter A large number of people in the coastal areas live in thatched houses which cannot withstand the high velocity of various types of disasters resulting in extensive damages of such houses and deaths and injuries of a large number of poor people.. The poor economic conditions of the people may not permit them to rebuild their houses as per the disaster resistant designs and specifications. Therefore, community shelters constructed at appropriate places within the easy access of the habitations of the vulnerable communities can provide an immediate protection from deaths and injuries due to the collapse of houses. Such shelters are spacious enough to accommodate a few hundred people of the neighboring hamlets and provide provisions of drinking water, sanitation, kitchen, etc
Non Structural Mitigation 1) Community Based Disaster Preparedness Communities are the first real time responder to any disaster situation. However developed or efficient a response mechanism could be there would always be a time gap between the disaster and the actual response from the government and other agencies. Therefore if the communities are mobilized and trained to assess their own risk through participatory risk assessment process, develop their own contingency plans and set up their own teams for evacuation, search and rescue, emergency shelter, first aid etc, the risks of disasters can be managed with significant reduction in number of deaths and injuries. 2) Risk Transfer and Risk Financing Mounting economic losses due to disasters cannot be compensated by the Government whose role would be limited to providing ex-gratia relief to the next of kin of persons who have died or to those sustained injuries and to provide support for the reconstruction of houses and livelihood regeneration for the poor and lower middle class people. Government support would also be necessary for reconstruction of the damaged public assets. The risks of industrial, commercial and other infrastructure and assets in the private and household sector can only be secured through the mechanism of risk financing and risk insurance. As the country develops, the share of private sector in the GDP would increase and, therefore, risk financing would be assuming increasing importance. 3) Capacity Development and Training Capacity development is the most cost effective method of reducing the vulnerabilities of the people living in the vulnerable areas. The vulnerable communities have a certain degree of capacities built into their social systems and practices acquired through inherited experiences of generations. But such indigenous capacities are often overwhelmed by the vagaries of nature due to various anthropogenic factors like the degradation of environment, changing land uses, pressures of population on settlements, climate change etc. Therefore, the local capacities have to be continuously upgraded and further developed according to the changing needs and the developments of science and technology and other improved practices in various sectors 4) Awareness and Education While training and capacity development target specific groups according to their specific training needs, awareness generation is more of a general in nature which District Disaster Management Plan, Kannur 2009 69sensitizes common masses about the risks, vulnerabilities of disasters and the preventive, mitigative and preparedness measures that can be taken at the government, community, household and individual level. Electronic, print and folk media can play important roles in awareness generation on a large scale. Awareness and sensitization programme can also be organized for more specific and limited audience such as parliamentarians, policy makers, media and other selected audience. Disaster management has already been included in the educational curriculum of the schools in many countries. 5) Contingency Plans The disastrous consequences in the absence of a pre-disaster contingency plan have been demonstrated repeatedly in many countries on a number of occasions. Therefore, one of the most critical elements of disaster risk management is to have a contingency plan in readiness, which would clearly delineate the roles and responsibilities of various agencies within and outside the government, define the exact functions to be performed by them, the process to be followed in the performance of these functions, the tools and equipments to be kept in readiness, procurements to be made, evacuation drills to be followed, the emergency medical plan to be put in place etc. Such a contingency plan should be prepared vertically at the national, provincial, district and sub-district and community level and horizontally for the different sectors police, civil defense, health, fire services, food and civil supplies, agriculture, fisheries, water supply, roads and bridges and so on.
Purpose of the Hazard Analysis/Risk Assessment The preparation of a hazard analysis and risk assessment is an important first step in the emergency planning process. The results of this research will be of value in helping Regional staff understand the probability and severity of emergencies that may occur in the Region. With this knowledge, the level of preparedness can be assessed and measures taken to enhance capabilities through training and preparation of a more effective response to such occurrences. Consequently, it is felt that a rigorous hazard analysis and risk assessment process represents a valuable emergency-planning tool for the Region.
Unit-5
Role of govt and ngos-
Successful disaster reduction strategies involve careful efforts to combine knowledge, technology, expertise, institutional capacities, management skills, and practical experience for optimum results, which would not be possible without proper collaboration between the two key players: state and civil society. The state can effectively link up knowledge, technology, skills, resources, expertise offered by specialist institutions with grassroots experience, organisational capacity, participatory management skills, community based initiatives of NGOs for disaster reduction. NGOs can be innovative, rooted to the ground, and participatory in their approach while government can replicate best practices for larger impact.
Significance of NGO involvement in development and disaster reduction
The role of NGOs assumes significance in view of their wider engagement in civic and development initiatives. Factors such as disillusionment with centralised structures; emphasis on pluralism, expanded civic engagement; and collaboration amongst multiple actors explain this change in perception. The growing importance of NGOs can also be attributed to the realisation that neither the state nor the market can fully address enormous problems facing the world today. Over last few decades, NGOs have become important players in the development process across the globe, engaged in wide ranging activities starting with community development to training, policy research, and advocacy. Their organisational flexibility, informal work style, and close engagement with grassroots communities enable them to deliver services to people at lower costs. They supplement government initiatives by acting as a conduit between development programmes and beneficiaries, informing and sensitising people about their rights and entitlements. Their ability to mobilise people and understand peoples concerns enables them to better articulate problems encountered by people.
Today, NGOs play an important role in disaster response and mitigation in different regions. Many international NGOs specifically focus on providing humanitarian aid to disaster victims. Local NGOs in South Asia have also played an active role in disaster management in recent years. In India, NGOs played a significant role in emergency response and rehabilitation following recent disasters: the 1993 earthquake at Latur, which killed 7601 people, the 1999 Orissa super cyclone which killed 8931 people and the 2001 Gujarat earthquake which killed over 13,000 people.
unit-6
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to in situ observation. In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth (both on the surface, and in the atmosphere and oceans) by means of propagated signals (e.g. electromagnetic radiation). It may be split into active remote sensing, when a signal is first emitted from aircraft or satellites) or passive (e.g. sunlight) when information is merely recorded. Satellite remote sensing has provided major advances in understanding the climate system and its changes, by quantifying processes and spatio-temporal states of the atmosphere, land and oceans. In this Review, we highlight some important discoveries about the climate system that have not been detected by climate models and conventional observations; for example, the spatial pattern of sea-level rise and the cooling effects of increased stratospheric aerosols. New insights are made feasible by the unparalleled global- and fine-scale spatial coverage of satellite observations. Nevertheless, the short duration of observation series and their uncertainties still pose challenges for capturing the robust long-term trends of many climate variables. We point out the need for future work and future systems to make better use of remote sensing in climate change studies. The quality of remote sensing data consists of its spatial, spectral, radiometric and temporal resolutions. Spatial resolution The size of a pixel that is recorded in a raster image typically pixels may correspond to square areas ranging in side length from 1 to 1,000 metres (3.3 to 3,280.8 ft). Spectral resolution The wavelength width of the different frequency bands recorded usually, this is related to the number of frequency bands recorded by the platform. Current Landsat collection is that of seven bands, including several in the infra-red spectrum, ranging from a spectral resolution of 0.07 to 2.1 m. The Hyperion sensor on Earth Observing-1 resolves 220 bands from 0.4 to 2.5 m, with a spectral resolution of 0.10 to 0.11 m per band. Radiometric resolution The number of different intensities of radiation the sensor is able to distinguish. Typically, this ranges from 8 to 14 bits, corresponding to 256 levels of the gray scale and up to 16,384 intensities or "shades" of colour, in each band. It also depends on the instrument noise. Temporal resolution The frequency of flyovers by the satellite or plane, and is only relevant in time-series studies or those requiring an averaged or mosaic image as in deforesting monitoring. This was first used by the intelligence community where repeated coverage revealed changes in infrastructure, the deployment of units or the modification/introduction of equipment. Cloud cover over a given area or object makes it necessary to repeat the collection of said location. Role-
Disaster management planning is structured around the disaster management cycle model. The cycle consists of four stages reduction, readiness, response and recovery. Remotely sensed data can provide a valuable source of information at each of these stages, helping to understand spatial phenomena, and providing scientists and authorities with objective data sources for decision making. The challenge with disaster management is that the inherent unpredictability and range of hazards does not allow for a single all-encompassing solution to be developed and explored. Instead, there are a multitude of different remote sensing platforms and sensors that can and should be employed for image acquisition. An extensive coverage of each, including optimal processing regimes for their data would be prohibitively long; instead this chapter aims to give some general examples of the use of remote sensing in disaster management, while directing the reader to more specific studies in the literature. The types of data required and information provision needs for each stage will be discussed including optical, thermal, and synthetic aperture radar as data sources over a variety of spatial and temporal scales. Remote sensing can be used to assist risk reduction initiatives through identification of hazard zones associated with flood plains, coastal inundation and erosion, and active faults. It can also be used to verify hazard models by measuring the location and magnitude of actual events. Imagery is widely used by meteorologists for providing weather forecasting and warnings of potentially severe weather events, providing the public and emergency responders with information that can assist decision making around short term readiness. These images are commonly presented in print, television and on the internet, and they are well accepted by viewers around the world. Imagery of fires, volcanic eruptions and flooding are often used during the response phase for the visual impact that they provide. If people in potentially at-risk locations personalise the risk, they are more likely to take readiness actions such as making emergency plans for contact and evacuation or assembling emergency kits. Remote sensing images of similar communities experiencing hazards, or the progress of a hazard such as a fire front, can assist with this personalisation process. For agencies that respond to emergencies, remote sensing imagery provides a rapid method of assessing the magnitude of hazard impacts, areas most affected, and where key transport and other infrastructure links have been disrupted or destroyed. Remote sensing can also be used to provide an indication of the rate of recovery in an area post disaster based on indicators such as vegetation regrowth, debris removal, and reconstruction. There are few examples where remote sensing is incorporated seamlessly into all stages of the disaster management cycle for planning purposes. This requires a collaborative effort from emergency managers, policy planners and remote sensing technical staff that may not always be co-located, or even working for the same organisation. However, data is becoming more readily available, and some satellites and constellations are even targeting at least partially the disaster management / emergency response community in recognition of the value remotely sensed imagery can provide. If this current trend continues, integrating remote sensing and emergency management will become increasingly more commonplace. Gis- Geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) are very useful and effective tools in disaster management. Various disasters like earthquakes, landslides, floods, fires, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions and cyclones are natural hazards that kill lots of people and destroy property and infrastructures every year. Landslides are the most regular geological vulnerabilities in mountain regions, particularly in Sikkim Himalaya. Remotely sensed data can be used very efficiently to assess severity and impact of damage due to these disasters. In the disaster relief phase, GIS, grouped with global positioning system (GPS) is extremely useful in search and rescue operations in areas that have been devastated and where it is difficult to find ones bearings. Disaster mapping is the drawing of areas that have been through excessive natural or man-made troubles to the normal environment where there is a loss of life, property and national infrastructures. GIS and remote sensing are incredibly useful and effective tools in disaster management. These technologies have been the object of substantial interest for all countries and bodies concerned with space and in exacting emergency services and disaster management. In disaster management, the objectives of the disaster experts are to monitor the situation, simulate the complicated disaster occurrence as accurately as possible so as to come up with better prediction models, suggest appropriate contingency plans and prepare spatial databases. Remotely sensed data can be used very effectively for quickly assessing severity and impact of damage due to, earthquakes, landslides, flooding, forest fires, cyclones and other disasters. During the disaster prevention stage, GIS is used in managing the huge levels of data required for vulnerability and hazard assessment. In the disaster preparedness stage, it is a tool for planning evacuation routes, designing centres for emergency operations, and for the integration of satellite data with other relevant data in the design of disaster warning systems. In the disaster relief phase, GIS, in combination with GPS, is extremely useful in search and rescue operations in areas that have been devastated and where it is difficult to find ones bearings. In the disaster rehabilitation stage, GIS is used to organise the damage information and post-disaster census information and in the evaluation of sites for reconstruction. Natural hazard information should be included routinely in developmental planning and investment projects preparation. They should include cost/benefit analysis of investing in hazard mitigation measures and weigh them against the losses that are likely to occur if these measures are not taken. GIS can play a role at the following levels:
National level State level District level Block level Ward or village level Site investigation scale
The application of remote sensing and GIS has become a well developed and successful tool in disaster management, as we have our location observation programmes and the requisite for hazard mitigation and monitoring rank high in the planning of new satellites. GIS allows for the combination of different kinds of data using models. It allows for the combination of the different kinds of spatial data with non-spatial data, attribute data and use them as useful information in the various stages of disaster management. Various disasters like earthquake, landslides, flood, fires, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, and cyclones are natural hazards that kill lots of of people and destroy property and infrastructure every year. The rapid increase of the population and its increased concentration, often in hazardous environment, has escalated both the frequency and severity of natural disasters. Among the tropical climate and unstable land forms, coupled with deforestation, unplanned growth propagation non-engineered constructions which make the disaster prone areas sheer vulnerable, slow communication, poor budgetary allocation for disaster prevention, developing countries suffer more or less unceasingly by natural disasters.
Role of science and technology-
Science and technology at the core of disaster risk reduction The task of managing disaster risks and disaster events is necessarily dependent on scientific knowledge and evidencebased technique. It would be impossible to deal with earthquakes, for example, without understanding where and how the Earths crust moves and buckles and how different building materials and structures re act to the shock waves that result. Earthquake resistant buildings depend on proven methods of design and construction. Equally, it would be impossible to implement disaster risk reduction measures and achieve incre ased resilience of communities without knowledge of the social factors and cultural setting of the affected society and without use of social sciences concepts and tools.
A growing concern for all countries and people is the increasing scale of disaster occurrence and disaster impact globally over the last fifty years. This trend has been revealed as a direct result of systematic scientific collection of disasterrelated data. Scientific studies such as the UNISDR Global Assessment Reporting show that the increase in disasters is largely a result of the growth of population and wealth, which puts more people and assets in harms way.Increases in relative exposure and vulnerability also play a part, for example from resort development along exposed shorelines and from pressures on the poor to settle in hazardous zones such as floodplains or unstable hill slopes. Poverty, conflict, food insecurity, scarce water supplies, air pollution and industrial risks Together exacerbate the risks of disaster. On top of this, climate change is already occurring and is likely to make matters worse, through more extreme conditions and greater vulnerability of population s. However, the evidence worldwide points to continuing shortcomings in how disaster risk is recognized and managed in practice. Among the underlying causes is an inadequate appreciati on of the potential of science and technology to cut risk and losses. Many fields of sciences and technology are important to understanding and reducing disaster risk, including the natural and social sciences and various applied sciences. A major challenge is to co ordinate and integrate their potential inputs to produce the comprehensive knowledge and practi cal tools needed to routinely manage and reduce risks.
Status of Macro and Micro Nutrients in Selected Soils of Moshi Rural District, Kilimanjaro Tanzania: Case Study of Mboni, Kyou and Makami Chini Villages.