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The fluid flow equations

Enrique Ortega
eortega@cimne.upc.edu
The Navier-Stokes equations
2 Fluid flow equations
( )
0
0
0
i
i
j j
i ij j
i j j
j
i i
i ij
i i i i
u
t x
u u
p
u f
t x x x
u
u q e e
u p
t x x x x


t
t
c c
+ =
c c
c c
c c
+ + =
c c c c
c
c c c c
+ + + =
c c c c c
(1)
(2)
(3)
In conservative differential form, the laws governing a viscous fluid flow can be
written as
where t
ij
, e and q
i
denote the viscous stress tensor, the internal energy and the
heat fluxes respectively (notice that internal heat sources are not accounted for
in Eq. (3)).
continuity
momentum
energy
3 Fluid flow equations
j
i k
ij ij
j i k
u
u u
x x x
t o
| |
c
c c
= + +
|
|
c c c
\ .
p v
p
e c T c T

= =
i
i
T
q k
x
c
=
c
stress tensor (Newtonian fluid)
internal energy (perfect gas)
heat flux (Fouriers law)
These terms are given by
where is the dynamic viscosity, is the second coefficient of viscosity (usually
=-2/3) , k is the thermal conductivity and c
p
and c
v
are the specific heats at
constant pressure and volume respectively.
Finally, in order to complete the system, proper initial and boundary conditions
shouldbe given.
(4)
(5)
(6)
How to obtain dimensionless forms?
The procedure consists on dividing each term in the equation by a collection of
proper variables or constants (constant reference values are generally used)
whose product has the same dimensions. Then, the terms can be manipulated to
introduce the relevant flowparameters.
Non-dimensional equations. Why is this form preferred?
They increase the insight about the relationships between the key flow
parameters and the relative importance of the terms to be studied.
Non-dimensional parameters allowcharacterizing the flowbehavior and they are
the startingpoint for setting similarity.
In some cases, the non-dimensional formreduces the number of parameters or
variables of the problem.
From the numerical point of view, this procedure homogenizes the order of
magnitude of the different terms, which helps to avoid numerical problems.
4 Fluid flow equations
With the objective of obtaining non-dimensional forms of Eqs. (1), (2) and (3), the
followingnon-dimensional variables are defined:
2
2
( )
i i i i
u u c p p c T T T x x L
t t c L e e c k k k





' ' ' ' '
= = = = =
' ' ' '
= = = =
where denotes reference freestreamconditions and L is a characteristic length
of the problem(e.g. the wing mean aerodynamic chord). Next, all the variables in
the Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) will be replacedby their dimensionless counterparts.
Continuity equation
(7)
(8)
The non-dimensional formof the continuity equation is not directly affected by any
non-dimensional parameter.
( )
0
i
i
u
t x


c c
+ =
c c
( )
0
i
i
c c
u
L t L x




| | | | '
c c
' '
+ =
| |
' '
c c
\ . \ .
5 Fluid flow equations
Dimensionless form of the Navier-Stokes equations
Momentum equation (with = 0 and f = g)
0
j j j
i
i j
i j j j i
u u u
u p
u g
t x x x x x

(
| |
c c c
c c c
+ + + =
( |
|
c c c c c c
(
\ .

( )
2 2 2
2
0
j j
i
i j
j
i
g
j j i
u u
c c c p
u
L t L x L x
u
u c
g e
L x x x

' '
c c
| | | | | | '
c
' ' '
+ +
| | |
' ' '
c c c
\ . \ . \ .
(
| | '
c
' | |
c c
' '
+ =
( |
|
|
' ' '
c c c
( \ .
\ .

2
M 1
0
Re Fr
j j j
i
i g
i j j j i
u u u
u p
u e
t x x x x x

(
| | ' ' '
c c c
' ' c c c
| | | |
' ' ' ' '
+ + + =
( |
| |
|
' ' ' ' ' '
c c c c c c
\ . \ .
(
\ .

Introducingthe non-dimensional variables we obtain
where is a versor pointing along the gravity direction. Then, introducing the Re,
Mach and Froude numbers and dividingall terms by

/L

2
we obtain

g
e
(9)
(10)
(11)
6 Fluid flow equations
Energy equation (with = 0 and q = -kVT)
Then, replacing Eq. (13) into Eq. (12) and introducing the non-dimensional
variables we obtain
0
j j
i i
i
i i j i i i i
u u
u u e e T
u p k
t x x x x x x x

| |
c c
c c c c c c
+ + + =
|
|
c c c c c c c c
\ .
3 3
3 2
2 2
c c
c
0
Pr( 1)
i
i
j j
i i
i j i i i i
e e
u
L t L x
u u
u u c RT T
p
L x L x x x L x x







| | | | ' '
c c
' ' '
+
| |
' '
c c
\ . \ .
| | ' '
c c
' ' | | | | ' c c c c
' ' '
+ + =
|
| |
|
' ' ' ' ' '
c c c c c c
\ . \ .
\ .
(12)
(14)
7 Fluid flow equations
Pr Pr( 1)
i i i i i i
T Cp T R T
k
x x x x x x

c c c c c c
= =
c c c c c c
Firstly, the last term in Eq. (12) can be rewritten as follows
(13)
2
2
Pr( 1)
i i
c T
L x x

| | ' '
c c
|
' '
c c
\ .
Dividing all terms in Eq. (14) by

c
3

/L

2
, the dimensionless energy equation
results
M
0
Re Pr( 1)
j j
i i
i
i i j i i i i
u u
u u e e T
u p
t x x x x x x x

(
| | ' '
c c
' ' ' ' ' '
c c c c c c
' ' ' ' '
+ + + =
( |
|
' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
c c c c c c c c
(
\ .

(15)
8 Fluid flow equations
As it is possible to observe, the dimensionless forms of the flow equations (8),
(11) and (15) present the followingnon-dimensional parameters
V L V V Cp
Re , M , Fr , Pr
k
gL
a

= = = =
These characterize the flowbehavior for each particular problemand set forth the
guidelines for achievingflowsimilarity.
A similar procedure can be performed with the initial and boundary conditions of
the problem.
(16)
9 Similarity requirements
The Reynolds number
The Reynolds number (inertial/viscous forces) affects the viscous forces termin
the momentum equation and the viscosity and thermal conductivity
contributions in the energy equation.
For low-speed viscous flows Re is the main similarity parameter.
In aerodynamic problems, typically we have Re=10
5
-10
7
. Thus, analyses
involving large Re numbers allow omitting viscosity and conductivity terms in
the momentumand the energy equations.
Some remarks about the dimensionless parameters
The Froude number
The Froude number represents the ratio between inertial and gravity forces and
affects the body forces termin the momentumequation.
In aerodynamics, inertial forces >>gravity forces and Fr >>1. Thus, the body
forces termcan be neglected.
10 Similarity requirements
The Mach number
The Mach number characterizes compressibility effects. It represents the ratio
between inertial and pressure forces and affects the pressure term in the
momentumequation and the viscositycontributionin the energy equation.
For low-speed viscous flows M is not an important similarity parameter.
For high-speed flows, Mach number is a key parameter. The Mach number
has strong effects on the flow properties and it is also important for problems
where strong heat transfer processes occur.
The Prandtl number
The Prandtl number is important in heat conduction problems. In air Pr~1 and
Re>>1; consequently, PrRe>>1 and the terms involving conductive effects are
negligible (the flowcan be consideredadiabatic).
Some levels of approximation
Enrique Ortega
eortega@cimne.upc.edu
12 Simplifying the flow equations
From momentum equations (Newtons 2nd law) we can say that the pressure
force acting on a fluid element is proportional to the inertial, viscous and gravity
forces acting on the same fluid element. If we neglect viscous and gravity forces,
we can state
2
V p
L L
A
~
2
p
a

A
~
A
2
2
2
V
M
a

A
~ =
If M<<1, the relative changes
in density are negligible and
the flow can be considered
as incompressible
and due to
the relative change in density can be expressed as
(1)
(2)
(3)
1. Flow compressibility
13 Simplifying the flow equations
(4)
(5)
(6)
For lowMach number flows the fluid can be considered to be incompressible (see
Eq. (3)). In such cases the fluidflowequations reduce to
continuity
momentum
energy
where the viscous dissipation term u can be neglected and is assumed to be
constant. If u is neglected, Eq. (6) converts into a heat conduction equation and T
is uncoupled fromcontinuity and momentum. Also note that the continuity equation
(4) reduces to a constrainover the velocityfield.
2
0
i
i
j j
j
j i i
j
i
p ij
i i
u
x
Du u
p
g
Dt x x x
u
q DT
c
Dt x x

t
c
=
c
c
c
= +
c c c
c
c
= +
c c
u
The incompressible NS equations
2. Inviscid approaches
14 Simplifying the flow equations
( )
0
0
0
i
i
j j
i
i j
i
i
i i
u
t x
u u
p
u
t x x
u e e
u p
t x x




c c
+ =
c c
c c
c
+ + =
c c c
c c c
+ + =
c c c
(7)
(8)
(9)
For aerodynamic problems where Re>>1, Fr>>1 and Pr ~ 1, the effects of
viscosity, gravity and thermal conduction can be neglected. Therefore, the fluid
flowequations reduce to the so-calledEuler equations:
continuity
momentum
energy
15 Simplifying the flow equations
The energy equation(9) can be written as
De
p
Dt
= V V
where the last equation implies that the entropy is conserved (excepting at
boundary layers and shocks). If the flowis isentropic we can state p/

=const.
and introducing the thermodynamic relation
1
Tds de pd

| |
= +
|
\ .
we obtain
(10)
1 Ds D
T p
Dt Dt

| |
| |
= V
|
|
\ .
\ .
V
2
1 Ds D
T p
Dt Dt

| |
| |
= V
|
|
\ .
\ .
V
1
0
Ds p D
Dt T Dt


| |
= V + =
|
\ .
V
=0 (continuity)
(11)
16 Simplifying the flow equations
As seen before, for low Mach numbers the fluid can be considered
incompressible (see Eq. (3)). The incompressible Euler equations are
0
1
0
0
i
i
j j
i
i j
i
i
i i
u
x
u u
p
u
t x x
u e e p
u
t x x

c
=
c
c c
c
+ + =
c c c
c c c
+ + =
c c c
(12)
(13)
(14)
continuity
momentum
energy
Likewise, the continuity equation is reduced to a constraint over the velocity field.
In addition, if the flow is isentropic the energy equation can be replaced by a
relation such as p/

=const. In such a case, Eqs. (12-14) reduce to Eq. (13) with


V constrainedby Eq. (12).
17 Simplifying the flow equations
Fromvector algebra we knowthat
( )
2 2
V V
2 2
V = V V = V V V V V V e
( 0
t
c
V =
c
V
e
e)
Thus, applyingthe rotational to both sides of Eq. (15) and introducingEq. (16)
(VxVF 0)
Then
( V = V V V V V V V V V e) e e + e e
and
t
c
+ V = V
c
V V = 0
e
e e
0
D
Dt
=
e
The vorticity for each fluid element remains constant. If the vorticity is zero far
away fromthe body, hence, vorticitymust be zero everywhere.
(17)
(18)
(19)
V(V x V)=0
VV=0
w VV=0
In vector form, the momentumequations (13) can be written as
1
p
t
c
+ V = V
c
V
V V
(15)
(16)
18 Simplifying the flow equations
Now, for a steady, inviscid, incompressible irrotational flowwe have that
( 0 = V = V e )
and hence, V should come froma potential function, i.e. V =V| (VxV|0). Under
these conditions, the continuityequationreduces to the potential flowequation
2
0 | V =
Any function satisfying Eq. (21) is called a harmonic function and represents a
possible incompressible irrotational flow.
As the potential function | is linear, superposition principles can be applied. This
greatly facilitates the construction of complex flows by using simpler elementary
solutions. We will came back to this point in Module 2.
(20)
(21)
19 Simplifying the flow equations
The Bernoulli equation
Considering gravity forces (conservative and irrotational) and using the vector
identity(16), the momentumequationcan be written as
Assumingthe flowto be steady, Eq. (28) along a streamline results
where U =gz is the gravity potential per unit mass. Eq. (23) along a streamline can
be written in terms of exact differentials. This leads to
(22)
( )
2
V 1
2
p
t
| |
c
+ V V = V
|
c
\ .
V
V V g
( ) ( )
2
V
0
2
p
U d d

| |
V + + = V =
|
\ .
V V s s
this term is ds
(23)
(24)
V V 0
dp
d gdz

+ + =
20 Simplifying the flow equations
Integration of Eq. (24) yields
(25)
2
V
const.
2
s
dp
gz C

+ + = =
}
which is validalong the streamline.
The integral of Eq. (25) depends on the characteristics of the flow through the
relationship between p and . In the simpler case in which the flow is
incompressible, is not a functionof p, and Eq. (25) gives
(26)
2
V
2
s
p
gz C

+ + =
which is known as the incompressible Bernoulli equation.
21 Simplifying the flow equations
What happens if Eq. (22) is not stated along a streamline?
It is possible to see that for an arbitrary direction ds the termon the right hand
side of Eq. (23) does not vanish. Thus, we have
UsingEqs. (24) and (25) on the left hand side, Eq. (28) can be written as
(27)
which indicates that C
s
is no longer a constant and its spatial variation depends
on the flowvorticity. Summarizing, we can say that:
( ) ( )
s
C V = V V V
If the flowis irrotational, the constant in Eq. (25) is the same at every point in
the flowfield (VC
s
=0).
If the flow is not irrotational, Eq. (25) is only valid along a streamline. The
value of C
s
will differ fromone streamline to another (see howit varies in [2],
pp. 225).
(28)
( ) ( )
2
V
0
2
p
U d d

| |
V + + = V =
|
\ .
V V s s
22 Simplifying the flow equations
Bernoullis equation can be interpreted as a statement of the conservation of
energy. For example, assuming a steady incompressible flow along a
streamline, we have obtained
Remark
Hence, Eq. (29) can be read as:
kinetic energy + potential energy (pressure + gravitational forces) = constant
2
V
const.
2
p U + + =
kinetic energy per
unit volume
potential energy related to the
body forces (per unit volume)
as grad(p) is the resultant pressure
force (per unit volume), this force is
irrotational and p is its potential
(29)
23 Simplifying the flow equations
Compressible form
Assuming that pressure and density changes are isentropic, it is possible to
state that p/

=const.=k. Then, the integral termin Eq. (25) can be resolvedby


Eq. (31) can be written in terms of the speed of the soundas
(31)
and the compressible Bernoulli equationalong a streamline results
(30)
1
1 1 1
k k
1 1
dp p
p dp p

= = =

} }
(32)
2
V
2 1
s
p
gz C


+ + =

2 2
V
2 1
s
c
gz C

+ + =

24 Simplifying the flow equations


Bernoulli equation for unsteady irrotational flow
As seen before, if the flowis irrotational the velocity can be written as a gradient
of a scalar potential |, i.e.
where U =gz is the gravity potential. The term involving Vp in Eq. (34) can be
recast assuming that is only f(p) (barotropic flow) and applying the chain rule (*).
Hence,
(33)
(34)
(35)
| = V V
Then, replacingEq. (33) into the momentumequation (22) it is possible to obtain
1
2
p U
t
| | |

cV V V
+ V = V V
c
1
ref ref
p p
p p
dp d dp
p p
dp
| |
|
V = V = V
|
\ .
} }
() ()
d d dp
dx dp dx
= (*)
25 Simplifying the flow equations
IntroducingEq. (35) into Eq. (34) we obtain
(36)
where it is possible to note that the termbetween brackets can not depend on the
spatial position and therefore it is only a functionof time. Thus,
0
2
ref
p
p
dp
U
t
| | |

| |
c V V
|
V + + + =
|
c
\ .
}
(37)
( )
2
ref
p
p
dp
U C t
t
| | |

c V V
+ + + =
c
}
For an incompressible flow, the integration of Eq. (37) gives
( )
2
p
U C t
t
| | |

c V V
+ + + =
c
and the procedure presentedin pp. 20 can be appliedfor compressible flows.
(38)
26 References and complementary material
References
1. White F. M. Viscous fluid flow, 2nd edition. McGraw-Hill Inc.
(1991).
2. Karamcheti K. Principles of ideal-fluid aerodynamics. R. E. Krieger
Pub. Co (1980).
3. Anderson J . D. J r. Fundamentals of aerodynamics. McGraw-Hill
Book Company(1984).
Enrique Ortega
eortega@cimne.upc.edu

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