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I.Ancientattitudestowardcolor
Prejudiceagainstpeoplewholookdifferentgoesbacktothebeginningof
recordedhistory.Althoughthecolorblackwasassociatedbytheancient
GreeksandearlyChristianswiththeunderworldanddemons,scholarssuchas
FrankSnowden,Jr.maintainthattherewasonthewholeafavorableviewof
Africanpeopleinantiquity,ascanbeseeninthepoemsofHomerandthe
practicesoftheearlyChristianChurchwhichdeclaredthatGodhadcreatedall
peoplealike.
1
TheoldestimagesofBlackAfricansinancientEgyptshowthemwell
integratedintosociety.BlackasacolorisvaluedpositivelyinEgyptianculture,
asthecoloroffertility(darkasthesiltoftheNile),writesJanNederveen
PieterseinhisbookWhiteonBlack:ImagesofAfricaandBlacksinWesternPopular
Culture.
AfterthedownfalloftheancientRomanEmpire,themainriftdividing
Europeansandotherpeopleswasnotrace,butreligion.Withinafewcenturies,
IslambecamethenewimperialforceandthemainenemyofChristianEurope.
BythetimeoftheCrusades,theArabicspeakingworldofIslamwasdemonized
byEuropeansasbarbaric,degenerate,andintrinsicallydifferentfromthe
ChristianWest.
II.TheMoorishcivilizingmission
ThetermsMoorishandMoorsreferredtopeoplewhooriginatedin
Morocco.Butitwasusedinaveryimprecisesenseandcoveredawidevariety
ofpeoples,white,brownandblack,fromNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast.They
hadbeenconvertedtothereligionofIslamintheseventhandeighthcenturies.
TheysoonmovedintoAfrica,ChinaandIndia,andspreadacrosstheMiddle
EastandEuropeintotheIberianPeninsula(currentdaySpainandPortugal).
TheyevencrossedthePyreneesintoFrance.TheselargelyArabicspeaking
peoplearrivedinEuropeintheearlymedievalperiod,whatusedtobecalledthe
DarkAges.Theywoulddominatepartsofthecontinentfor800years.
ArabscholarstooktheleadintranslatingtheworksoftheclassicalGreeks,
andbuildinguponthelearningoftheEgyptians,Phoenicians,Jews,Chinese
Persians,IndiansandAfricans.Theyintroducedthiswisdomofthepastand
theirownscientificandmathematicalachievementsintoEurope.Asearlyasthe
ninthcentury,Arabastronomersassumedthattheworldwasround,and
calculateditsdiameterandcircumferencewithconsiderableaccuracy.They
developedthecompass,quadrantandastrolabe,withoutwhichtheEuropean
voyagesofdiscoverycouldnothavetakenplace.InSpain,theMoors
improvedagriculture,publichealthandsanitation,establishedlibrariesandbuilt
irrigationsystemsandbeautifulcitieslikeSevilleandGrenada.
Forhundredsofyears,then,theArabicEmpirecivilizedalargepartofthe
globe.SocietieswerecreatedinwhichMuslims,JewsandChristianscoexistedin
amannerthatwasrarelyequaledinsubsequentyears.ManyJewsalsospoke
Arabicandfullyparticipatedintheintellectualfloweringoftheperiod.Some
liketheTalmudicscholarRabbiMosesMaimonidesofCordoba(Spain)were
valuedadviserstoMuslimrulers.
III.SlaverybeforeColumbus
InoneimportantrespectEuropebeforetheperiodofcolonialexpansion
initiatedbyColumbusvoyagesresembledwhatcameafter.Itheavilydepended
onslavelabor.
ThefiguresforthenumbersofpeopleenslavedinancientGreeceare
astonishingperhapsthreeorfourslavesforeachfreehousehold,accordingto
historianDavidStannard.
2
Stannardestimatesthatbetweenthefirstandsecond
centuriesA.D.,nearlyhalfthepopulationofItalywereslaves,mostlycaptives
takeninRomeswars.Peopleofallethnicitieswereenslaved,withthemajority
beingwhite.
IntheearlyMiddleAges,manyslavesweretakenfromthecentralEuropean
landsoftheSlavs.WilliamtheConquerorspopulationsurveyknownasthe
DomesdayBookrevealsthatintheeleventhcentury,oneoutofeverytenpeople
inBritainwasenslaved.TheChristianChurchgraduallycametoopposethe
enslavementofChristians,andconversiontoChristianitybecameapossible
routeoutofslavery.
AnyonewhohasvisitedthemagnificentMesquita(mosque)intheSpanish
cityofCordoba,andseenevidencethattheslaveswhowerebuildingitwere
chainedtothecolumnsatnight,knowsthatslaveryshouldnotbeidealizedin
theyearsbeforeColumbus.Yetitdiddifferfundamentallyfromthekindof
slaveryintroducedinthewakeofEuropeanexpansion.Slavesmighthavebeen
regardedasinfidels,orbarbarians,whocouldbetreatedwithgreatcruelty,but
theywerenotseenasaclassofessentiallyinferiorbeings.
Neitherwasslaverynecessarilydefinedassomethingwhichwouldlast
foreverandbehandeddownfromonegenerationtothenext.Prisonersofwar
whowereenslavedwereoftenmadetoperformdomesticserviceforasetperiod
oftime.Oftenconsideredmembersoffamilieswithwhomtheylived,such
captivescouldeventuallygetalltherightsoffreemenandeveninheritfamily
wealth.Inshort,slaveswerenotregardedautomaticallyaschattelsor
commodities.Theywerenotoutcastsfromthehumanrace.
IV.1492:DefeatoftheMoors
In1492,threemomentouseventsoccurredinSpainwhichallcontributedto
theriseofracism.TheMoorsweredefeatedbytheChristiansatGrenada,the
JewswereexpelledfromSpainandColumbusreachedthelandsthatweretobe
namedtheCaribbeanaftertheCaribs,thefirstgroupofpeopleintheNew
Worldtobedemonizedascannibals,reducedtoslaveryanddestroyed.
Aggression,terrorandsocialinsecuritywereallmagnifiedinthecentury
following1348,whenthebubonicplagueeliminatedathirdofthepopulationof
Europe,andfamineandtheHundredYearsWartookaheavytollofthe
survivors.Europeansocietywasinchaoticupheaval.
AswhatwascalledtheChristianReconquistaslowlytookSpainbackfrom
theMoors,theIslamiccontrolofsignificantportionsofEuropewasnearingits
end.ChristiansfromEuropewithPortugaltakingtheleadweremeanwhile
establishingdirecttradinganddiplomaticcontactswithAfrica.Bythemiddleof
thefifteenthcentury,AfricanswerebeingsenttoPortugal,firstasgiftstothe
ruler,PrinceHenry,andthenasslaves.TheimageofAfricainEuropewould
soonbetransformed.
InJanuary1492,theChristianrulersKingFerdinandandQueenIsabella
defeatedtheMoorsatGrenada,theirlaststronghold.Atfirst,theChristian
monarchspromisedthatMoorishcultureandinstitutionswouldbeprotected.
Butin1502,theKingandQueenorderedtheexpulsionoftheMoorsfromthe
IberianPeninsula.TheycouldonlystayiftheyconvertedtoChristianity.Many
ofthosewhodidconvertwerelaterchargedwithsecretlyremainingfaithfulto
Islam.Overthenextcentury,morethanamillionpeoplewhotracedtheir
ancestrytoNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEastwereforcedoutofSpain.
V.1492:ExpulsionoftheJews
WhattheKingandQueenofCastilledidtotheMoorshadalreadybeendone
totheJews.OnMarch31,1492theChristianrulersdecreedthatJewswho
refusedtoconverttoChristianityshouldbeexpelledfromSpain.Asmanyas
200,000peoplerefusedtoconvertandwereorderedtoleavebyAugust2
nd
,the
daybeforeColumbusfirstvoyage.ThevoyagesofColumbuswerelargely
financedbypropertyconfiscatedfromSpainsJewishpopulation.
JewshadlivedintheIberianPeninsulafor1000years.Theywereamongthe
oldestpermanentsettlersintheregion.ButinChristianpartsofthePeninsula
theywereconsideredinfidels,andwerenotpermittedtoholdland,toengage
socalledChristiantradeslikemasonryorcarpentry,orjointhetradeguilds.
Instead,theyservedthekingsofCastilleastaxcollectorsandmoneylenders.
Inordertofitintolifemorefully,thousandsofJewsconvertedtoChristianity
(theywerecalledconversos)inthecenturiesbefore1492.Theconversos
includedthefamilyofBartolomedeLasCasas,wholaterbecameaCatholic
priestandthechampionoftheindigenouspeoplesorIndiansintheWest
Indies(asthelandsColumbusdiscoveredwerecalled).Aparticularlyzealous
conversobecametheheadoftheSpanishInquisitioninSeville.TheInquisition
wasauthorizedbythePopein1478toactagainsthereticswhowerebelievedto
beunderminingthefaith.Over8,000people,mostofthemconversoswho
werethoughttobeinsincereintheirembraceofChristianity,wereburnedto
deathbytheInquisitionbythedawnofthenextcentury
TheantiSemitism(hatredofJews)whichledtotheexpulsionoftheJews
fromSpainandtheirtortureandkillingbytheInquisitionwasonthesurfacea
matterofreligiouspersecution.Buttherewerealsoeconomicreasonsforanti
SemiticoutburststhatoccurredfromtimetotimearoundEurope.Akeyto
understandingantiSemitismandhowitwasmanipulatedinfeudalEuropeis
theworldusury.
Usuryreferstothepracticeoflendingmoneyforinterest,somethingwhich
wetakeforgrantedtoday.Butduringthemedievalfeudalperiodbeforethe
economicsystemofcapitalismemergedthemedievalChristianchurch
maintainedthatusurywasasin.BecauseJewsdidnotseeitassuch,theycame
toplayacentralroleinmedievalEuropeasmerchants,financialadvisersand
moneylenderstokingsandemperors.
Inthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,withthedevelopmentofcapitalism,
privateindividualsbeganproducinggoodsforthemarketinordertogeta
profit.Theyneededcapitaltoinvest.Astheeconomychanged,thebanon
usurywasfinallyabandonedbytheCatholicChurch,andtheuniqueeconomic
functionthatJewshadperformedinEuropewasbroughttoanend.Anew
Christianbourgeoisie(tradersandbusinessmenwholivedinthetowns)came
toseeJewsastheirleadingeconomicrivals.AntiSemitismwascultivatedin
ordertoeliminateeconomiccompetitors.Overtheyears,Jewishbusinessmen
werereducedtothestatusofsmallmoneylendersorpawnbrokers.Intheseroles
theycouldeasilybemadethescapegoatsforpopulardiscontentandblamedfor
allsocialproblems.Meanwhile,therecordsofwhoowedthemmoneycouldbe
convenientlywipedoutinriotsandviciouspogroms.
Withthegrowthofcapitalism,antiSemitismemergesasaparticularformof
racisminEurope.ThereisnosuchthingasaJewishrace,oranyotherpure
raceforthatmatter.ButracialstereotypesspreadwithpopularantiSemitism.
TheydrewuponthefolkmemoryconnectingJewswithusuryandcommercial
dominance,andstokedfearsofJewishconspiracyandfinancialpower.
TheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturysawtheexpansioninEuropeof
industrialcapitalism.Manypeopleweredrivenfromthelandandforcedto
workinfactoriesintowns.AntiSemitismwasusedtoshifttheblamefrom
thosewhowereactuallyprofitingfromtheirsuffering.Fascistregimesinthe
twentiethcenturyusedantiSemitismtounitetheingroup(us)againsttheout
group(them),blamingbadJewishcapitalandaninternationalconspiracyfor
homegrowneconomicproblems.
AntiSemitismandthesortofantiBlackracismthatdevelopedintheeraof
Columbusbothrelyfortheirpoweronprejudice,onstereotypesandthefanning
ofhostilityandfears.Butthetwodonotserveidenticalfunctions.AntiSemitism
islargelyascapegoatingdeviceusedagainstapeopleregardedformorethana
thousandyearsasoutsiders,whileracismdehumanizesapeopleinorderto
renderthempowerlessandjustifytheirexploitation.
V.1492:Columbuspursuitofmerchandise
OnApril17,1492,lessthanamonthaftertheSpanisheditexpellingtheJews
fromSpain,Columbus(orDonCristobalashewasknowninSpain)signeda
businessdealwiththeKingandQueenwhichdetailedthepayhewouldreceive
forhisvoyage.Thedealincludedthefollowingprovision:
Item,thatofallandeverykindofmerchandise,whetherpearls,precious
stones,gold,silver,spices,andotherobjectsandmerchandisewhatsoever,of
whateverkind,nameandsort,whichmaybebought,bartered,discovered,
acquiredandobtainedwithinthelimitsofthesaidAdmiralty,YourHighnesses
grantfromnowhenceforthtothesaidDonCristobal,andwillthathemayhave
andtakeforhimself,thetenthpartofthewhole,afterdeductingalltheexpenses
whichmaybeincurredtherein,sothatofwhatshallremainclearandfreehe
mayhaveandtakethetenthpartforhimself,andmaydotherewithashe
pleases,theotherninepartsbeingreservedforYourHighnesses....
3
Inotherwords,Columbuswouldgettokeeponetenthofeverythinghe
discoveredoracquired.Withthisagreement,theinhabitantsofthelands
Columbusbumpedintowereasgoodasdoomed.
Inthemidtolatefifteenthcentury,aschronicwarfare,disease,famineand
socialunrestcombinedtokeepthepopulationofallofEuropeatnomorethan
seventymillion,scholarsestimatethatthepopulationinNorthandSouth
Americawasonehundredmillionormore.Betweeneightandtwelvemillion
peoplewhowouldsoonbecalledIndianswerebelievedtolivenorthof
presentdayMexico.TheAzteccapitalofTenochtitlan,containing350,000
people,hadfivetimesthepopulationofeitherLondonorSeville.
TheislandwhichtodayisdividedbetweenHaitiandtheDominicanRepublic
hadanestimatedeightmillionpeoplewhenColumbuslandedthereandcalledit
Hispaniola.By1518,fewerthan20,000ofthenativeinhabitantswereleftalive,
andvirtuallynoonewasleftby1535.
WhenColumbusfirstsawagroupoftheindigenousinhabitantscalledTainos
(orLukayos)onOctober12,1492,hereachedinawaythatgavenohintofwhat
wastocome.Hewroteinhisjournalthattheyimpressedhimasavery
handsomerace...theireyeswerelargeandverybeautiful,notblack,butthecolor
oftheinhabitantsoftheCanaries....theywerestraightlimbedwithoutexception.
ColumbuslaterwastowritetoQueenIsabellaintheseterms:
Theyareaverylovingraceandwithoutcovetousnessandsuitabletoany
useandIdeclaretoyourHighnessesthatthereisnotabettercountrynora
betterpeopleintheworld.Theylovetheirneighborsastheydothemselvesand
theirspeechisthesoftestintheworldbeingalwaysaccompaniedbysmiles.
4
Theywere,hereported,ripeforconversiontoChristianity,havingnoreligion
themselves.
Howcanweunderstandtheimminentexterminationofthislovingraceof
potentialChristians?DuringhissecondtriptotheNewWorldIn1495,hemade
twodecisionsthatwouldleadtogenocide.Hisgreedforgoldledhimtoorder
thateachTaino14yearsofageorolderhadtoproduceahawksbellfullof
goldeverythreemonths.Thosewhofailedtomeetthisquotainalandwhere
therewasinfactlittlegoldtobefoundhadtheirlimbscutoffandbledtodeath
orweretornapartbytrainedattackdogs.Methodsofovertterrorwere
employedtoconvincetheTainosthattheSpanishmeantbusiness.
Duringthesameyear,increasinglyfrustratedbyhisfailuretofindlarge
quantitiesofgold,Columbusroundedupmorethanathousandpeacefuland
unarmedTainosandsent500ofthemtobesoldinSpainasslaves.Hecalled
themamostprofitablemerchandiseandwrotetotheQueenin1496thatwe
cansendfromhereinthenameoftheHolyTrinityalltheslavesandBrazilwood
whichcouldbesold.Wecansell4,000slaveswhowillbeworth,atleast20
million.
5
HehopedtoovercomeQueenIsabellasreligiousscruplesagainstenslaving
humanbeingsbyarguingthatthesavageandcannibalisticCaribsshouldbe
exchangedasslavesagainstlivestock,etc.,tobeprovidedbymerchantsin
Spain.ByenslavingCaribs,hewrote,Spaincouldsavetheirsoulsandsavethe
gentleTainosfrombeingpreyedonbythesefierceneighbors.
Thereareseveralproblemswiththisrationale.Columbushadactually
shippedTainosknownasLukayostoSpainforsaleasslaves,notthosepeoplehe
calledCaribs.Furthermore,therewasinfactongreatdistinctionbetweenthe
neighborsscholarshavewrittenthattheywereindistinguishablefromeach
other.ButbecausetheCaribs,unliketheLukayos,foughtbackwhenthey
encounteredColumbusduringhisfirstvoyagebyshootingarrowsathisships,
theyweredemonizedassavagecannibals.
ThereisinfactnofirmevidencethattheCaribsdidpracticecannibalism.
ButattributingcannibalismtotheCaribsservedColumbuspurpose.Itopened
thewayforaformofmassslaverywhichcouldbeprofitablehewaslooking
forawaytoenlargehistenpercentshareoftheplunderandjustifiedonthe
groundsthatenslavementcouldbenefitboththecolonizersandthosewhowere
notfullyhuman.
VI.TheAfricanslavetrade
FiftyyearsbeforeColumbusconquest,Africancaptivesseizedbythe
Portuguesewerealreadybeingsoldatauction.Shortlybeforehecrossedthe
Atlantic,ColumbussailedonaPortugueseshiptotheAfricancoastofGuinea,
wherehesawgoldandenslavedAfricanswaitingtobeloadedonboard.
By1510,asindigenousIndiansweredyingout,KingFerdinandpasseda
decreepermittingashipmentof250AfricanstobesenttotheNewWorld.
BartolomedeLasCasashadatfirstwelcomedtheAfricanslavetrade.Hisfather
andunclehadaccompaniedColumbusonhissecondvoyage,andhehadgoneto
theWestIndiesin1502asasettlertoshareinthespoils.In1510,hebecamethe
firstpriesttobeordainedintheNewWorld.Appalledatthecrueltyhesaw
aroundhim,hesoonbecamethedefenderoftheindigenouspeople.Hethought
theAfricanslavetradewouldbeawayofsavingtheTainosfromextinction.
ButhesoonrealizedthatenslavingAfricanswasasevilasenslavingTainos,
andheraisedhisvoiceagainstthepractice.Bythenitwastoolate.TheNew
WorldplantationsystemhadbecomewhollydependentonAfricanslavelabor.
Africanslaveswhotoiledinthesugarcanefieldswereseenasmerecommodities
tobeboughtandsold.Aracistideologywasrapidlyevolvingwhichjustified
theirenslavementonthegroundsthattheywereheathens(notChristians),and
thatthecoloroftheirskinwasabadgeofnaturalinferiority.
Inthecenturiestocome,peopleofEuropeandescentwouldinventthe
doctrineofwhitesupremacy,justifyitwiththediscoveriesofscience,and
reapricheconomicrewards.
1
FrankM.Snowden,Jr.,BeforeColorPrejudice:theAncientViewofBlacks(Harvard
UniversityPress,1983).
2
DavidStannard,AmericanHolocaust:ColumbusandtheConquestoftheNewWorld
(OxfordUniversityPress,1992),p.180.
3
JohnNobleWilford,TheMysteriousHistoryofColumbus(AlfredA.Knopf,
1991),p.96.
4
ColumbuswritingsarequotedinJanCarew,Columbusandtheoriginsof
racismintheAmericas:PartOne,Race&Class,Spring1988.
5
QuotedinJanCrew,ColumbusandtheoriginsofracismintheAmericas,Part
Two,Race&Class,JulySeptember1988,p.49.
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