1.

Do plants and animals have any metabolic reactions that cannot be modeled by
hypotheses and verified by experimentation and observation? What was vital
force thought to be?
All chemical processes of plants and animals, no matter how complex it may
be, can be modeled through hypotheses and may be verified through various
experimentations and observation. Therefore, we can say that there are no
metabolic reactions of these living creatures that cannot be modeled by hypotheses
and verified by experimentation and observation.
The vital force was thought to be a hypothetical force by Berzelius in which
life processes can only come from nonmaterial vital principle and impossible to be
described entirely as physical and chemical phenomena.

2. In the Concepts section of this chapter, three major discoveries of the 1800s are
described. One concerned the synthesis of biological compoundsl one involved
enzymes, and the third was a discovery made by Louis Pasteur. List these
discoveries and explain why they are important.
Biological compounds could be synthesized in the laboratory using inorganic
chemicals and ordinary chemical processes Through this, it is not a necessity to
use living organisms to extract or get these biological compounds, which would
cause endangerment or even extinction if ever plants & animals are used.
Enzymes were extracted from yeast cells, and some steps of fermentation
were carried out in vitro without the presence of living cells With this, enzymes
would not be extracted through animal cells and fermentation process would not
be done with the presence of living cells.
Louis Pasteur proved that spontaneous generation does not occur and that
there is no such thing as vital force Without this, people would still believe
that living things could arise from nonliving things (such as maggots formed by
meat) and believe that they could not form/synthesize compounds through
chemicals.

3. Some elements are most stable as ions than as neutral atoms. Why? Give
examples of biologically important positive ions.

a.)Neutral atoms have the tendency to lose or gain electrons due to
inexactly filled orbitals, which make them unstable. Elements as ions are far
more stable than neutral atoms because as ions, they transfer or receive
electrons or bond with other unstable elements to have exactly filled orbitals
and have less energy, therefore becoming stable.

b.)Examples of biologically important cations are Ca2+, K+, Na+, Cu2+, and
Fe3+.



4. What does it mean to say that after sodium reacts with chlorine, the resulting
compound NaCl is more stable than the two reactants? If they are more stable,
did they give off energy? If so, did they become warmer during the reaction? If
so, where did the energy of that heat go?

a.)Since sodium has an excess valence electron and chlorine lacks one
valence electron, by means of chemical bonding, the two elements
became stable having filled exactly 8 valence electrons and have less
energy after the reaction.

b.)They become warmer during the reaction because the energy of the
heat is liberated/emitted to the surroundings.

5. If a reaction gives off energy (libertes it to the environment), is that reaction
exergonic or endergonic? If the energy is given off as heat, what is the reaction
called?

The reaction is exergonic when it gives off energy to the
environment. Since the energy is given off as heat, the reaction is
called exothermic reaction.

6. The reations for the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen and can be
made to run in the opposite direction (water is broken down into hydrogen and
oxygen) if the energy is supplied. This reverse reaction occurs in plants in the
process of photosynthesis. What do you think is that source of the energy?
Because energy is put into the reaction ( rather than being liberated), what type
of reaction is this?

a.)The source of the energy is the electrolysis of water (involvement of
electrical energy coming from an exothermic reaction occurring somewhere),
which causes the break down of water into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.

b.)The type of reaction is called endergonic reaction wherein energy is
put/absorbed into the reaction.

7. What type of bond holds sodium to chorine in sodium chloride? What type of
bond holds hydrogen to oxygen in water?
Ionic bonds hold sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride. Covalent bonds
hold hydrogen to oxygen in water.

8. Examine Figure 2-3b, which shows hydrogen bonding in water. Within any plant
or animal cell there are millions of water molecules that are hydrogen bonded
together. This allows a plant to pull water upward through its body (water is
pulled in plants and pushed in animals). Imagine how water is pulled. What
would happen if there were no hydrogen bonds?
If there were no hydrogen bonds, which cause water to be sticky, water
could not be lifted from roots to leaves and a plant cannot survive and
basically wilt/die.

9. If a solution has a high concentration of protons (H+), is it acidic or basic? What
about if it has a high concentration of hydroxyl ions? (OH-)? What HCl is mixed
with water, it breaks down to H+ ions and Cl- ions. Because of the H+ ions it
produces, is HCl acid or base?
a.)A solution that has a high concentration of protons (H+) is acidic while
if it has a high concentration of hydroxyl ions (OH-) it is basic.
b.) HCl is an acid due to the production of H+ ions after the break down of
H+ ions and Cl- ions when it is mixed with water (increase in the
concentration of free protons).

10. The bonding between carbon atoms is important because virtually all biological
molecules in plants (and our own bodies) contain carbon atoms bonded to other
atoms, often to other carbon atoms. What is the shape of a molecule in which
the carbon has only single bonds? What is the shape of two carbons boned by a
double bond? What about a triple bond?
The shape of a molecule in which the carbon has only single bond is arranged
in a tetrahedron and the carbon backbone is zigzag; two carbon bonded by a
double bond forms a straight molecule; in triple bond, the molecule is flat and
shaped like a Y.

11. Why is it necessary for two reactants to collied vigorously for a reaction to
occur? What happens to the shape of valence orbitals if a reactin occurs? What
happens if no reaction occurs?
a.) It is necessary for two reactants to collide vigorously for a reaction to
occur in order to overcome electron-cloud repulsion (or the activation-
energy barrier).
b.) If a reaction occurs, the electrons rearrange into more stable bonding
orbitals, changing the shape of the valence orbitals.
c.) If no reaction occurs, electrons would not have rearranged in structure,
there would be no formation of stabilizing bonding orbitals, and the
electron clouds of the two reactants would have repelled each other.

12. Although there is no way to change the energy of activation of a reaction, it is
possible to change the ___________. There are two names for the substances
that do this. ______________ (is a general term) and __________ (is used
when this is a protein in a living organism).
a.) It is possible to change the mechanism of a reaction.
b.) Catalyst (general term).
c.) Enzymes (protein in a living organism).

13. An endergonic reaction tends to proceed slowly because it absorbs energy. How
do plants force endergonic reactions to occur rapidly? Is ATP involved? Why is
ATP such a versatile molecule? Because its breakdown to ADP, ad Pi is highly
exergonic, is its synthesis endergonic?
a.) Plants force endergonic reactions to occur rapidly through the use of
energy-carrying coenzymes such as the ATP.
b.) ATP is such a versatile molecule because it is both highly reactive and
unstable and it cannot be stored or moved from one cell to another.
c.) Yes, the breakdown to ADP and Pi can be coupled by endergonic reactions
and force them to proceed.

14. Name five functional groups and give the chemical formula for each. What
properties does each functional group give to the molecule to which it is
attatched?
Hydrogen (H+ or H) Low reactivity; lipid solubility
Hydroxyl (OH- or OH) Alcohol group; hydrogen bonding; water
solubility
Methyl ( CH3) Low reactivity; lipid solubility
Ketone ( C=O) Moderately reactive, similar to an aldehyde, but
the oxygen is located on an internal carbon rather than a terminal one.
Aldehyde (R-CHO) Moderately reactive; water solubility

15. What are carbohyrates, pentoses, and hxoses? Name serval hexoses and
describe how they differ from each other. How can enzymes distinguish between
them?
a.)Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, while some
contain atoms nitrogen or sulfur; and the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is close
to 2:1 and has a chemical formula of (CH2O) n.
b.)Pentoses are monosaccharides, which contain five carbon atoms, while
hexoses contain six carbon atoms.
c.)Enzymes easily distinguish between isomers by their unique shapes.

16. Various sugars in a class may have the same chemical formula but differ in their
atomic arrangementsl such molecules are called ______________.
Insomers



17. Examine figure 2-10. Monosacchirides are a bit unusual in that they are just
long enough that as they vibrate one end often accidentally comes close to the
other end of the same molecule and the two can react. Therefore, they can exist
as ring-shaped molecules or as open, chain-shaped ones. Do the two forms of
the ame molecule have the same chemical and physical properties?

No, the two forms of the same molecule have different chemical and physical
properties.
18. When we eat plants, we are eating mostly polysaccharides. What are the two
starches that we eat? One is unbranched: _____________; the other is
branched: _____________ (by the way, if we eat more starch that we need, we
store it in our bodies as the polysaccharide glycogen). Another polysaccharide
that we eat is in the cell walls; it is ______________.

a.) Amylose
b.) Amylopectin
c.) Cellulose

19. What is the technical name of the bond in starch? What is the technical name of
the bond in cellulose? They both involve the same carbon atoms of the glucose
molecules ( the #1 and the #4 carbons). Starch and cellulose are virtually
identical, except that all of the glucoses face the same way in starch, whereas in
the cellulose alternating glucoses face in the opposite direction. Does this
matter? Can you digest starch? Can u digest cellulose?
a.) Alpha-1, 4-glycosidic bond
b.) Beta-1, 4-glycosidic bond
c.) Yes
d.) Yes
e.) No

20. Proteins are unbranched polymers composed of _________ __________
_________. The bond that holds the monomers together in proteins is called a
___________ bond.
a.) Amino acid
b.) Peptide bond


21. What are the three groups found in every amino acid? What are the R groups,
and how do they differ from one amino acid to another? Would you agree that
because R groups are not involvd in forming a peptide bond they are not really
very important?

a.) COOH (carboxyl group), NH2 (amino group), and H (hydrogen).
b.) They
c.) No. They are important factors because they cause amino acids to
differ.

22. What is the primary structure of a protein? Are proteins flexible or rigid? Are any
of the bonds in the backbone a double or triple bond, or are all of them single
bonds?

a.) amino acid sequence
b.) flexible
c.) The bonds in the backbone are all single bonds because when
proteins have double bonds, they would become rigid.

23. If proteins had double bonds in the backbone, they would be rigid molecules.
Do you think they would then have a secondary, tertiary, or quaternary
structure? Why is the tertiary structure of the hypothetical protein in figure 2-15b
different from that of figure 2-15c?
a.) Yes
b.) In figure 2-15b, the regions interact so it forms a shape. In 2-
15c, the structure lacks 4 negative amino acids so its
somewhat different in a distorted way.

24. The tertiary structure of a protein is affected by pH (acidity) and heat. Can you
give examples of that? Our stomachs secrete acid. What do you think is the
effect on our ability to digest protein? Have you ever fried or boiled an egg?
What is the change caused by the heat?

a.) Cooking of egg white and heating/cooking pineapple.
b.) The protein will unfold resulting to the unlinking of amino acids.
Then, they will combine with the other proteins in your body with
the synthesis needed.
c.) Yes
d.) The egg solidifies and turns from liquid to a somewhat soft solid.

25. What do the initials DNA and RNA stand for? What are the four nucleotides that
occur in DNA? What are the four the occur in RNA? Which nucleotide, unique to
DNA is never found in RNA? Which nucleotide is unique to RNA?

a.) Deoxyribonucleic acid
b.) Ribonucleic acid
c.) adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine
d.) adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine
e.) Thyamine
f.) Uracil

26. What sugar occurs in DNA? What sugar occurs in RNA?

a.) Deoxyribose
b.) Ribose

27. Fats and oils are substances known as ______________. They are always
hydrophobic and insoluble in water. If one of these molecules encountered a
protein that has a region of hydrophobic amino acids and a region of hydrophilic
ones, which region would the molecule associate with?

a.) Lipids.
b.) The hydrophilic one.

28. The basic units of many lipids are fatty acids. What is a saturated fatty acid? Do
they tend to be straight or kinked (see figure 2-18)?

a.) A saturated fatty acid is also reffered to as fats. It is where each
carbon is attached to two others by what is called a carbon-carbon
single bond; each carbon also has two hydrogen atoms attached to
it.
b.) They tend to be straight.

29. What is an unsaturated fatty acid? Do they tend to be straight or kinked?

a.) An unsaturated fatty acid is also reffered to as oil. It is where two
adjacent carbon atoms are attached to each other by a carbon-carbon
double bond and each of these two carbons has only a single hydrogen
attached to it. It can either be monosaturated or polysaturated
depending on the number of double bonds.
b.) They tend to be kinked.

30. If you place both a stick of butter and a cup of oil in the refrigerator, the butter
becomes hard while the oil remains liquid. Which is composed of saturated fats
and which is mostly composed of unsaturated ones? It is very important for
plants (and animals) to have fats in their cell membranes that remain liquid
otherwise the plant would die. Do you think plants of cold climates have more
unsaturated fats in their cell membranes than plants of hot climates?

a.)Butter is made up mainly of saturated fats while oil is mainly made
up of unsaturated fats.
b.)No, because add fatty acids depending on what season it is.

31. Fatty acids tend to polymerize with each other, especially when exposed to
oxygen. If the fatty acids are relatively short, the polymer is called ________. If
they are relatively long, it is called _____________.

a.) Cutin b.) Wax

32. How does a triglyceride differ from a phospholipid? How do these two differ in
their ability to dissolve in water? How does this make one especially suitable for
the construction of membranes?

a.)Triglyceride is composed of three fatty acids and one molecule of
glycerol while phosolipids are composed of two fatty acids, glycerol
and a phosphate group.
b.)In triglyceride, all parts of the molecules are hydrophobic, so if
mixed with water, they coalesce into spherical droplets. The phosphate
groups in phosolipids however, is extremely hydrophilic; therefore,
these molecules have one end that tends to dissolve in water and one
end that repels water.
c.)This is especially suitable for the construction of membranes
because the nature of both repelling and attracting water is exactly the
property needed to build membranes.

33. Cofactors are essential to the activity of some enzymes. Name two cofactors.

Magnesium and Iron.

34. Each coenzyme carries one of three things into a reaction. What are the three
things?

Energy, electrons or functional groups.

35. What is the full name of ATP? The last two phosphate groups of ATP are
attatched by _________ - __________ - _____________ bonds.

a.) Adenosine triphosphate b.) High-energy phosphate bonds.

36. When a reaction needs to have energy put into it, forcing it to proceed, what is
the molecule that usually participates? After the reaction, what has the energy-
carrying coenzyme been converted to?
a.) ATP b.) Glucose or Lipids

37. Examine figure 2-22. The breakdown of ATP to ADP and Pi gives of energy. The
reaction A+B --- AB absorbs energy. How does combning these two reactions
allow the second one to proceed? Would combining the two reactions force the
second one to proceed if the breakdown of ATP gave off only 2 units of energy?

a.) Because it provided enough extra energy and there was a
mechanism that can substitute into a new common reaction
mechanism for the two old separate mechanisms. b.) No it cant.

38. Many reactions in plants generate molecules that have a strong tendency to
donate electrons. Other reactions need electrons to proceed. Name three
electron carriers that transport electrons from one type of reaction to the other.

NAD ( nicotinamide amide adenine dinucleotide), FAD ( flavin adenine
dinucleotide), FMN ( flavin mononucleotide).

39. The atoms of molecules that an enzyme interacts with are its
_______________, and these must fit into and be bound by the enzymes
___________ ____________ if a reactions is to occur.

a.) Substrates. b.) Reactants and Substrates

40. Some enzymes will bind to only one or two substrates. Is their substrate
specificity high or low? Other enzymes will bind to various substrates as long as
they are at least somewhat similar. Is ther substrate specificity high or low?

a.) High b.) Low

41. Cells control the activities of their enzymes by a variety of methods. Name at
least five factors that affect enzyme activity.

Temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and
the presence of any inhibitors or activators.