Guide To Selection of Cooling Systems (Draft) PDF

A Guide to Selection of Cooling Systems
Prepared for

Department of Human Services, Capital Management Branch

DRAFT ONLY
Dated: July 2001

Revision 3
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Table of Contents

1. Executive Summary

2. Introduction

3. Scope of this guide
3.1 Application
3.2 Limitations

4. Purpose of Cooling System
4.1 Space cooling
4.2 Process cooling

5. Types of Cooling Systems and Equipment
5.1 Basic systems
5.2 Chillers
5.3 Heat Rejection Equipment
5.4 Air-conditioning sub-systems

6. System Selection Methodology

7. Key determining factors in the selection of a cooling system
7.1 Cooling load profiling
7.2 Operational regimes
7.3 Available energy sources & relative energy costs
7.4 Micro-climatic conditions
7.5 Environmental planning constraints on the proposed plant location
7.6 System reliability considerations
7.7 Life cycle costing considerations

8. Air-cooled or Water-cooled System
8.1 Circumstances favouring air-cooled systems
8.2 Circumstances favouring water-cooled systems
8.3 Recent Life Cycle Costing results
8.4 Issues for cooling tower selection

9. Check List for project development proposal review


1. Executive Summary

The Department of Human Services and funded agencies rely on engineering systems to
provide a suitable working environment for delivery of health and community services. In
accordance with this need, there are 216 cooling towers located in over 124 Victorian public
hospitals and several hundred associated health care facilities to provide a comfortable
environment for staff and patients.

Cooling towers have been found to provide a favourable environment for Legionella bacteria
growth and the Legionella bacteria could be transmitted to the atmosphere via the aerosols in
cooling tower exhaust. To reduce the incidence of Legionnaires disease, the Victorian
Government has established a risk management strategy, which strengthens the regulatory
framework and improves the maintenance standards of all existing and new cooling towers in
Victoria.

Associated with this strategy, new regulations have been introduced that require all existing
cooling towers to be registered, to have risk management plans implemented and these plans
audited annually. The responsibility for compliance, registration, preparing risk management
plans and audits rests with the agency or Board responsible for control of day to day
operations.

Complimenting the risk management strategy, the Department of Human Services has
prepared this Guideline to set out major considerations when selecting a cooling system.

This guideline is to be adopted for new projects or major redevelopment when new cooling
systems are being designed or existing systems being refurbishment. The Guideline sets out
key parameters, description of alternative basic systems, selection methodology and key
considerations for use by the departmental and public bodies such as hospitals.

All cooling towers are to comply with the requirements of the Australian/New Zealand
Standard AS/NZ 3666.

This Guideline has been prepared from the Legionella risk management perspective to ensure
that the compliance costs for the new regulatory requirements are included in the life cycle
cost analysis for selecting the appropriate cooling system. Generic studies, using life cycle
costing, were carried out to determine the conditions under which air-cooled systems would be
more favourable than water-cooled systems.
The guideline clearly leans towards the use of air-cooled systems rather than water-cooled
systems except where there are engineering or physical constraints in the development of new
facilities. The situation in dealing with refurbishments however may need to be dealt with on a
site-specific basis.
In circumstances where the design of a cooling system is part of a redevelopment,
consideration will have to be given to works required to upgrade associated engineering
infrastructure such as power supply, monitoring and control systems

2 Introduction

Design and Demand management

The size of an air-conditioning plant is sized to meet the performance requirements of people
and equipment in the space to be air-conditioned. It is simpler by far to minimise air
conditioning requirements at the outset. This can best be achieved by minimising the need
for cooling by using passive design techniques such as building mass and planning for
through ventilation.

Other options that can be considered at the design stage are separating the zones that
require strict air temperature/volume control like operating theatres in hospitals from general
use areas where a much wider range of temperatures can be accepted including
administration, stores, cafeteria, records and reception.

Another key aspect that needs consideration is the performance targets for temperature can
be reviewed and where appropriate, the range in temperature can be allowed to be wider.
This leads to less stringent engineering demands and hence less emphasis on cooling
systems use and outputs.

These design activities can contribute to the reduction in the plant size and costs for both
capital and recurrent expenses. Reducing plant size by using good design principles may
include the following:-

Careful orientation of building
Provision of external shading to reduce solar gain
Design for micro-climatic and prevailing wind conditions
Careful selection of construction material to provide better cladding, ceiling and wall
insulation
Encouraging use of natural ventilation
Reduce infiltration and provision of air locks where appropriate
Review window size and location
Utilise more efficient lighting systems and energy efficient equipment/appliances
Provide exhaust systems for high heat generating equipment
Participate in energy efficient design and rating systems.

This Guideline has been prepared with a primary view to assist major participants with a
process for systematic selection, design, and implementation of cooling systems.

3 Scope of this Guide

The guideline covers: -

Key issues associated with cooling systems
.
Description of cooling systems and equipment available for selection

A system selection methodology

Factors to be considered in evaluating options

3.1 Target Audience

This document is intended for use primarily by DHS and hospital representatives involved in
Project Control Groups (PCG), hospital and agency staff, facility managers, project managers,
consultants and contractors engaged to design, deliver and install DHS capital works projects.
This guide should be referred to during the early planning stages of infrastructure development
or refurbishment projects as well as feasibility study stage or schematic design phase when
alternative cooling systems are considered and proposed for a capital works project.

3.2 Application of this guide
This guide has been prepared with a primary focus on the need to manage or eliminate
Legionella risks associated with cooling towers.
The application of conventional life cycle costing methods in determining the appropriate
cooling system for deployment is assumed to identify the least cost option that meets the
functional requirements of the project.
Full compliance with relevant standards, statutory regulations and code of practices is also
assumed.
It is recognised that the Guideline is intended to identify the appropriate system for use. It is
not to be assumed that air-based systems can be used effectively in all cases. Where existing
water-cooled systems are operating efficiently and safely, they should be allowed to remain in
service. Risk management plans must be prepared and implemented with a program of annual
audits for all existing cooling towers remaining in service.
To assist with the understanding and preparation of risk management plans for cooling tower,
the following documents published by the Public Health Division should be referred to.
Attachment 1
A Guide to Developing Risk Management Plans for Cooling Towers Systems.
Attachment 2
Managing the risk of Legionnaires' disease - Advisory Notes for Hospitals
Attachment 3
A risk-rating tool for Hospital Cooling Towers.

4 Purpose of Cooling System

The main purpose of a cooling system is to provide space cooling (such as air-conditioning) or
process cooling.

Heat, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems are installed in buildings to provide
occupant comfort, health and safety. A cooling system is a part of a HVAC system that
provides space cooling.

In specialised applications, a cooling system provides cooling to meet process requirements,
as with computer room environmental control or Medical Imaging Systems.

The Cooling System the overview and components

Refer to existing material describing the critical aspects for hospitals operating theatres has
been set out in the guideline 6.3 and this should be used for system design parameters eg
temperature ranges, amounts of fresh air and air volume changes.

For other purposes use performance characteristics set by the agency in consultation with the
DHS following consideration of industry norms, financial considerations and meeting normal
expected loads for 95% of the predictable meteorological conditions.

4.1 Space cooling

Cooling systems operate to remove heat from an occupied space.

The room temperature of an occupied space rises due to the following heat gains within the
room.

Body heat emitted by occupants
Introduced warm outside air.
Heat generated by lights and other electrical equipment.
Solar heat gain through windows
Heat gain through the building fabric and abutting non-air conditioned space.

In space cooling, pre-treated cool air is distributed into the air-conditioned space via the supply
system such as air ducts or plenums.

Heat gained within the space is transferred from the room to the atmosphere in a four-stage
heat transfer process.

Stage 1 - Heat is removed from the conditioned space by extracting the room air temperature.

Stage 2 - Heat is exchanged from the extracted warm room air by passing the air over the
coolant circulating in the cooling coil inside the air-handler of an air-conditioning
system.

Stage 3 - Heat is extracted from the coolant by refrigerant compression and evaporation in the
chiller and transferred to the condenser of the chiller.

Stage 4 - Heat is rejected to the atmosphere from the condenser via a cooling tower (water-
cooled) or via fan-forced ambient air passing through the condenser (air-cooled).

The choice of heat rejection equipment to be used for the final stage (4) of the heat transfer
process differentiates the commonly referred to air and water based cooling systems.

The preceding stages of the heat transfer process are identical for both types of cooling
systems.

4.2 Process cooling

To maintain proper functioning of process equipment or system, the waste heat emitted by the
process must be removed from the equipment.

The heat transfer process is similar to that described for the space cooling. Stage 1 & 2 is
normally combined into one stage.

Stage 3 and 4 are the same as for space cooling.

4.3 Planning

The conceptual/schematic design of facilities can have a large effect on the loads and systems
selected and where possible the initial design should be scrutinised and modified to ensure
measures noted above in the introduction are all considered in order to minimise the
requirements for cooling in the first place.

This may be more applicable to new projects than redevelopments/refurbishments, however
where applicable the use of passive energy design can be undertaken at little or negligible
cost to the agency while substantially reducing plant/reticulation costs and achieving recurrent
savings.

4.4 Diagram Cooling System Diagrammatic Layout

5 Types of Cooling Systems and Equipment

5.1 Basic systems

The basic types of cooling systems and their unit capacity range are as follows.
Room air conditioners. (Capacity range of 0-10 kW per unit, suitable for an area of not
more than 100 m
2
).
Packaged unit with integral air-cooled condenser. (Capacity range of 10-120kW, suitable
for a maximum area of 100-1200 m
2
per unit).
Split system with outdoor air-cooled condenser. (Capacity range of 10-120kW, suitable for
an area of 100-1200 m
2
per unit).
Chilled Water System comprising air-cooled or water-cooled chillers. Cooling towers are
required for water-cooled chillers. (Capacity range of 120-5000kW, suitable for an area of
1200-50,000 m
2
per chiller).
Geothermal Cooling System deploying the earths constant temperature of 15
o
C to 17
o
C at
depths of between 50 m to 100 m as a heat sink. Refrigeration equipment and its
associated heat rejection equipment are not used.
Evaporative Cooling System (generally used in areas where large quantities of air is or can be
exhausted e.g. kitchens, factories etc.

5.2 Key components of cooling systems typically used in hospitals
Air-conditioning Sub-systems local heat exchanger
Chillers energy driven heat exchanger between Heat Rejection Equipment and internal
air-conditioning sub-systems
Heat Rejection Equipment exchange heat to atmosphere

5.2.1 Chillers energy driven plant to create chilled Types & Capacity
The following types of water-cooled chillers are currently readily available.
Scroll 120-250 kW
Screw 250-1200 kW
Reciprocating 150-1500 kW
Centrifugal 1500-4000 kW
Absorption 1500-5000 kW

Most of these chillers are also available in the air-cooled version but the maximum chiller
capacity currently available is approximately 1500 kW.
Fuel source - With the exception of absorption chillers, all other chillers are powered
mainly by electric motors. Gas engine driven reciprocating chillers are available but
not commonly used in Australia. Absorption chillers can be powered by steam, gas or
high temperature hot water for small capacity units.
Operating Cost -The running (energy) costs for the scroll, screw and reciprocating
chillers are similar. The running cost for the centrifugal type is significantly (40-50%)
lower than the others.
Flexibility -The scroll, screw and reciprocating chillers operate satisfactorily on low
load conditions that are well below their rated capacity. Centrifugal chillers would
operate satisfactorily down to 20-35% of their rated capacity.
Expected Life - If properly maintained the electric chillers should last 20+years
whereas absorption chillers could go for 30+ Years
Energy efficiency - Facilities making use of stored energy eg ice storage are useful for
situations where cheap off peak electricity is available. Absorption chillers are viable
where there is excess heat available eg cogeneration plants, etc
5.3 Key Component - Heat Rejection Equipment

In the final stage of the heat transfer process of a cooling system, the removed heat needs to
be rejected into the atmosphere, lake or a similar form of heat sink via an appropriate and
effective heat exchange medium. Heat rejection into the atmosphere is the most common
application.

The common types of heat rejection equipment are as follows:

Cooling towers
Evaporative condensers
Air-cooled condensers

5.3.1 Cooling Towers & Evaporative Condensers

Cooling towers lower the temperature of recirculated condenser water by bringing the water
into contact with fan forced or induced atmospheric air. (define term: induced atmospheric air).

Cooling Towers provide an ideal environment for the growth of Legionella due to the
favourable temperature of and nutrients in the circulating water within the tower. In accordance
with the recent legislation, all cooling towers require risk management plans to be developed,
implemented and annually audited to reduce the risk of Legionella bacteria transmitted into the
atmosphere via aerosols in the cooling tower exhaust.

Evaporative condensers operate in a similar way as cooling towers and are deemed to be
cooling towers under the Building (Legionella) Act 2000.

5.3.2 Air-cooled Condensers
In air-cooled condensers heat is transferred from the refrigerant in the condenser coil to the
cooler ambient air. Ambient air is fan-forced to pass through the condenser coil to effect the
required heat transfer (define term: Ambient air and differentiate from induced atmospheric
air).

An air-cooled condenser could be integral with a packaged air conditioner, or a chiller or a
stand-alone unit.

The thermal efficiency of air-cooled condensers is lower than that of cooling towers.
Consequently, the area (footprint) required for accommodating air-cooled condensers is
higher than cooling towers. Another impact is the costs of operation are higher (Jeff to
confirm)

There are limitations on the distance separation and installation height differential between the
chiller and the condensers. Typically the condensers should not be more than 40 to 50m
above or below and not more 80m away from the chiller.

Air-cooled condensers are considered to be Legionella Risk free.

5.4 Key Component - Air-conditioning Sub-systems
The following are various types of sub-systems of an air conditioning system, which provide
heating and cooling to an occupied space via distribution of the conditioned air. Induction and
fan coils units will have either chilled water or refrigerant piping connected as a means of
lowering the ambient air temperature. These sub-systems have no influence on the selection
of air-cooled or water-cooled systems.
Various types of sub-systems include:
Single zone ducted air system (constant volume)
Multi-zone ducted air system (constant volume)
Variable Air Volume system
Induction Units
Fan Coil Units

6. System Selection Methodology

To determine which type of cooling system should be deployed for a new project, the following
assessment tasks should be carried out to enable an appropriate conclusion be reached.

There are base issues that are to be addressed initially including definition of the area to be
temperature controlled and the limits to be maintained (refer to guideline 6.3)

The methodology set out below is best used for a new facility. In the circumstances where
redevelopment/refurbishment occurs the integration of the existing system needs separate
attention.

6.1 Methodology

Determine the functional and operational requirements by assessing the cooling load and
load profiles including location, hours of operations, number/types of occupants,
equipment being used etc.
Determine the required system configuration in terms of number and plant capacity by
taking into account the total capacity and operational requirement, reliability and
Maintainability considerations
Identify planning and environmental issues, in particular those that would prohibit the use
of certain type of equipment or costly treatment or measures required to render the
proposed equipment fit for use.
For redevelopment projects the retention of existing plant should be assessed and a
comparison with replacement undertaken.
Review of available energy alternatives including waste heat from industrial process.
Identify alternative types of systems and equipment that are suitable for the application.
Carry out life cycle cost analysis to identify the least cost option considering capital cost,
recurrent costs for operation, maintenance and repairs over the same time frame ( say 20-
25 years).
If a water-cooled system is identified as the least cost option, then evaluate whether it is
appropriate to eliminate the risks associated with cooling towers by paying for the cost
premium to go for the air-cooled system.
Review risk profile using the risk rating tool and giving due consideration to system that
represent minimal risk. The comparative cost penalty should be identified in terms of
different cooling systems as well as overall asset operations and maintenance budget.

7. Key determining factors in the selection of a cooling system

The following are considered to key factors that determine the size and number of chillers
required for a cooling system, which in turn influence the selection of a cooling system via life
cycle cost analysis.

7.1 Cooling load profiling

Peak load demand that determines the overall capacity of the system
Part load requirements that determine the number and size of chillers required. With high
capacity centrifugal chillers part load application should not be less than 20% to 35% of
the full load capacity. If the part load requirement is less this amount, a reduced capacity
chiller should be selected.
Essential services requirements that determine the system reliability requirements.(clarify
issue for PCG)
Future load requirements

7.2 Operational regimes

It is imperative to determine which portion of the total load required 24-hours operations. It
would be more cost efficient to operate a smaller capacity chiller at full load than a bigger
capacity at part-full load.

7.3 Available energy sources & relative energy costs

If conventional energy sources are not readily available and high infrastructure cost is required
to bring the energy source to the development site, then alternative renewable energy sources
such as Geothermal should be considered by using Life Cycle Costing Analysis to determine
the viability of the proposed alternative.

If the price differential between electricity and natural gas is high, gas fired reciprocating
chillers or absorption chillers should be considered.

7.4 Micro-climatic conditions

High humidity, tropic climatic conditions would favour the selection of air-cooled chillers or air
cooled condensers of direct expansion (define term: direct expansion )systems.

7.5 Siting

Environmental planning constraints on the proposed plant location need to be considered.
The need to minimise noise emission in residential area during out-of-office hours would
increase the cost of the air-cooled system making this option more costly.

Cooling towers must be sited at least 6 metres away from any fresh air intake points. There
are situations where the minimum separating distance could not be compiled. Air-cooled type
system must be selected.

New cooling towers should not be located in the vicinity of dedicated aged care residence or
other HealthCare facilities where at-risk patients are constantly present and potentially
exposed to possible airborne Legionella bacteria from cooling tower exhaust.

7.6 System reliability & Maintainability considerations

7.6.1 Accessibility

For ease of maintenance the CT or similar needs to be easily maintained and able to be
monitored in terms of testing, inspection etc

7.6.2 N+1 Strategy

Need an intro to indicate that in those situations where cooling is required for critical service
delivery, the relevant areas need to be determined and classed as essential. For essential
services continuity of supply is critical, therefore the provision of cooling cannot be relied on a
single chiller. At one back-up unit would be required.

The provision of the one additional back-up unit is known as the N+1 strategy. This strategy
involves the provision of one more unit than the quantity required for the normal system
operations. For example, if the total capacity requirement is 1500 kW, two units each of 750
kW should be provided instead of one unit of 1500 kW if the essential load is less than 50% of
total load. Otherwise two units having the capacity equals to the essential load would be
required.

7.6.3 Maintainability

Chillers and associated cooling towers require to be shut down regularly for routine
maintenance and cleaning.

For a critical continuous process that could not afford service disruptions, N+1 strategy should
be adopted. Otherwise, in the case of water-cooled system, exposure to Legionella risk would
be increased to an unacceptable level.

7.7 Life cycle costing considerations

Capital costs
The capital cost must include the total cost of the complete installation that accounts for
the building cost, associated electrical power supply reticulation and control costs

Energy costs

Programmed maintenance & servicing costs

The total maintenance cost for water-cooled system must also include the routine water
testing and treatment costs at a frequency as determined by the Risk Management Plan.

Risk Management costs

For the water-cooled system, the cost of developing, implementing and auditing of the
Risk Management Plan as prescribed by the new statutory regulations.

7.8 Physical Attributes

The area required for a Cooling Tower is in the order of 25% the area needed by the air
cooled system. the air cooled system thus would require a comparative area of
.square meters for a typical A2 hospital eg the size of a Regional Base facility.

8. Air-cooled or Water-cooled Systems

8.1 Circumstances favouring Air-cooled Systems

Air-cooled chillers are favoured over the water-cooled systems where there are at risk people
accommodated/located and generally under the following circumstances.

Smaller system capacity requirement.

Where the system is not required to operate after office hours and in particular at night.

Where the system is not to be located in or around noise restricted areas such as
residential areas.

Where there is adequate and accessible roof top space for the system equipment.

Where siting of cooling tower is restricted due to Legionella risk minimisation constraints.

A high humidity climatic condition in the tropical areas where the effectiveness of the
cooling towers is significantly reduced.

8.2 Circumstances favouring Water-cooled Systems

Water-cooled chillers are generally favourable over the air-cooled system under the following
circumstances.

Larger system capacity requirement.

Where the system is required to operate after office hours and in particular at night.

Where the system is to be located in or around residential areas.

Where there is limited roof top space for the system equipment.

8.3 Recent Life Cycle Costing Results

Results from recent generic studies on comparative life cycle costs of air-cooled and water-
cooled systems indicate that each system is considered to be more favourable than the other
over a certain range of plant capacity. As a guide, some conclusions could be generalised and
summarised as follows.

Capacity Range (kW) Area Served (m2) Favourable System

150-750 1500 - 7500 Air-cooled

750-1500 7500 - 15000 Water-cooled (with small margins)

1500 and above 15000 + Water (with increasing margins)

Samples of comparative net present values of life cycle costs over a period of 20 years for
various plant capacities are attached in Appendix (x).

Sample Comparative Net Present Values: 1500 kW Capacity

8.4 Key Issues for Cooling Tower Selection and Installation

Having completed the system selection process and if a water-based system is to be adopted,
the following key issues should be addressed and adopted for the selection of cooling tower
and system design to minimise the known Legionella associated critical risk factors:

8.4.1 Stagnant water

Any likelihood of stagnant water being present in the system must be eliminated.

The piping for the cooling tower system must be installed without any dead legs.

A circulating pump with a timer fitted to automatically circulate the water at regular intervals is
to be installed.

8.4.2 Nutrient Growth

Presence of nutrients for Legionella bacteria growth must be minimised.

The cooling tower should be constructed from suitable materials that minimise corrosion and
an appropriate control system be put in place.

The tower basin and the 'top deck' of the proposed cooling tower be protected from sunlight.

8.4.3 Cooling Tower System Design

The cooling tower to be selected must be designed and constructed to comply with the
Australian Standard AS 3666. In particular it must be fitted with effective drift eliminators.

The operations of cooling tower system must be designed to minimise the number of start-stop
operations by using a variable speed fan and by lowering the shut down temperature.

The depth and volume of the tower water basin must be appropriate for the likely drain-off
from the piping system when the system is shut down.

The design, construction of and access to the tower shall be such that accessibility for
cleaning and maintenance could be carried out effectively.

8.4.4 Water quality

The cooling tower system must be fitted with an automatic biocide-dosing device and auto-
bleed device to maintain water quality and to control the growth of Legionella bacteria
introduced into the system.

9. Check List for project development proposal review

Have the part load, 24-hr load and essential load been assessed in determining the
system capacity requirement and configuration?

Is the proposed system configuration in terms of number of chillers and unit capacity
allows for operation efficiency on part load, 24-hr load and essential load conditions?

Is the proposed system configuration allows for N+1 strategy for continuity of service for
the essential load requirement?

Has life cycle costing analysis been carried out to identify the least cost option?

Has the total installed cost inclusive of the building cost been factored into the life cycle
cost?

Have the programmed maintenance & servicing costs and risk management costs been
factored into the life cycle cost?

What is the cost premium (expressed in terms of a percentage of the Project development
cost for elimination of Legionella Risks for an air-cooled system? Is it worth the savings to
take on the risk associated with cooling towers?

Questions to ask and issues to be considered when considering Air-cooled or water-
cooled Systems during retro-fitting of existing water-cooled systems:

Is it time for chiller replacement?

Is there sufficient space for air-cooled condensers on the roof?

Is existing chiller located too far from cooling towers?

Is it technically feasible to replace existing cooling tower with condensers?

Is the noise of an air-cooled chiller an issue with neighbours and other persons in close
proximity?

Has the process to select a system satisfied the functional requirements?

Has a Life Cycle Costing been undertaken that identifies the least cost option?

Is it worthwhile to spend a cost premium to eliminate risks?

Should the extra costs be better spent on other more pressing issues?


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