7-1

7. Behaviour and Design of Connections (AS 4100 Section 9)

7.1 Introduction

7.1.1 General

In order to provide safety of structures, design of connections is equally important to that of
members. The steel used in connections is often a small percentage of total steel in a
structure, but the cost of connections can be high as making connections is quite labour-
intensive. Designing for not only strength (including fatigue resistance) and serviceability, but
also for economy is important. Connections shall be designed to transmit the calculated
design action effects. Connection elements consist of:
(a) Connection components (cleats, gusset plates, brackets, connection plates); and
(b) Connectors (bolts, pins, rivets and welds)

Connection components shall be designed using the relevant provisions of beams,
compression members, tension members and members with combined loading. This section
deals with only the connectors. Pin connections are more expensive, and are therefore used
only in special applications requiring relative rotations to occur between connected members.
Hot-driven rivets have been commonly used in the past in the same way as bolts. However,
they have now been replaced by bolting and welding. Therefore this section deals with bolts
and welds only. Design methods and other details for pins are very similar to that of bolts and
are given in Section 9.5 of AS 4100.

7.1.2 Classification of Connections

There are three types of connections, viz. connections in rigid construction, connections in
semi-rigid construction and connections in simple construction (Figure 7.1(a)). In the first
type, connections should have sufficient rigidity so that the original angles between members
are unchanged, and thus joint deformations are not important. In the second type, connections
should have a dependable flexural restraint, but will not provide full rigidity. Experimental
evidence may be required in this case. In the third case, the connections shall not develop any
bending moments and shall provide the required rotation. They will be subject to reaction
forces acting at an appropriate eccentricity.
Simple
(a) Rigidity of Connections
Figure 7.1 Types of Connections

7-2
Semi-rigid

Rigid
(a) Rigidity of Connections







(b) Connections transferring force only

7-3

(c) Connections transferring moment only


V*
M*


(d) Connections transferring moment and force






(e) Standardised Connections
(From AISC Publication by Hogan and Thomas, 1994)

Figure 7.1 Types of Connections

7-4
7.1.3 Minimum Design Actions

Each element in a connection shall be designed so that the structure is capable of resisting all
design actions (includes deformation criteria). Except for lacing connections and connections
to sag rods, purlins and girts, all connections shall be designed to transmit the greater of the
design action in the member and the minimum design action effect (capacity for minimum
size member for strength limit state), which is:

(a) For rigid connections (moment joints) 50% of the member design moment capacity
(b) For simple connections a shear force of 40 kN
(c) For end connections of tension or compression members 30% of the member design
capacity.
(d) For splices in axial tension members - 30% of the member design capacity.
(e) For splices in axial compression members if members are not in full contact, 30% of the
member design capacity. Otherwise, all the forces to be transmitted by bearing with
fasteners providing 15% of the member design capacity. For splices located between
points of effective lateral support see Clause 9.1.4 of AS 4600
(f) For splices in flexural members - 30% of the member design moment capacity. If the
splice is designed to transmit shear force only, design for shear force and any bending
moment resulting from eccentricity
(g) For splices in members subject to combined actions as for (d), (e) and (f) above.

7.1.4 Details of Connections

Attempts shall be made to ensure that the centroidal axes of the components meet at a point
(but not at the expense of simple and practical joints). Otherwise, components shall be
designed for the design bending moment due to the eccentricity. However, for end
connections of single angle, double angle and similar type members with fillet welds, and for
bolted end connections of angle members, eccentricity may be neglected in statically loaded
members. It must be considered for component subject to fatigue loading. Figure 7.1(b)
shows examples of connections that transfer only forces (mainly shear, but also in tension in
some cases) whereas Figures 7.1(c) and (d) show the connections transferring moment only
and moment and force, respectively. As seen in these figures, there are a variety of
connections that can be specified by designers. The Australian practice has been to specify
standardised connections to simplify fabrication and erection procedures. Figure 7.1(e)
provides some common examples used in steel construction. The AISC publication Design
of Standardised Structural Connections by Hogan, T.J. and Thomas, I.. (1994) provides
further details of these connections, analysis and design methods.

Appropriate fasteners shall be used, for example, if slip is of concern (or a connection is
subject to impact or vibration), high strength bolts in a friction-type joint (8.8/TF) or welds
have to be used. Where bolts are required to carry a design tensile force, the bolts shall be
designed to carry any additional tensile force due to prying action. When non-slip fasteners
(high strength bolts in a friction type connection or welds) are used together with slip-type
fasteners (snug tight bolts or high strength bolts in bearing type connections), all of the design
action is carried by the non-slip fasteners. Sharing of design action is assumed for a mixture
of non-slip fasteners, but when weld is one of them, it is assumed to carry all the design
actions.


7-5
7.2 Design of Bolts

Bolts are commonly used in structural steelwork connections, in particular for site/field
connections as they only require simple equipment. They can be used to support loads by
shear and bearing, friction between plates or by tension as shown in Figure 7.2. A good
understanding of the use and design of bolted connections is therefore important in the design,
detailing, fabrication and erection of steel structures.





Figure 7.2 The mechanism of load transfer in bolted connections

7.2.1 Bolts and Bolting Categories
Table 7.1 shows the bolts and bolting categories used. The bolting category designation
identifies the bolt strength grade (4.6 or 8.8) and the installation/method of tensioning
procedure (S Snug tight and T Full tensioning). Another letter following T indicates the
type of joint: F Friction type joint; B - Bearing type joint). The friction type joint transfers
the design shear forces at the serviceability limit state by the friction between the contact
surfaces whereas the bearing type joint transfers the design shear forces by shear in the bolts
and bearing on the connected parts at the strength limit state. Category 4.6/S refers to
commercial bolts of strength grade 4.6 conforming to AS 1111 installed by an averagely built
tradesperson using a standard hand wrench to a snug tight condition (cannot turn the nut any
further). Category 8.8/S refers to high strength structural bolts of strength grade 8.8
conforming to AS 1252 using a standard wrench to a snug tight condition. Categories 8.8/TF
and 8.8/TB refer to high strength structural bolts of strength grade 8.8 conforming to AS 1252
and fully tensioned in a controlled manner. The difference between these two bolts is that the
8.8/TF joints have an interface that should be capable of developing the friction required.
Therefore these interfaces require special preparation, but this is not required for 8.8/TB
joints. The difference in the load transfer mechanism is shown in Figure 7.2: 8.8/TB joints
mainly by shear and bearing whereas 8.8/TF joints mainly by friction. It is important that
drawings include correct labelling of joints, 8.8/TB, 8.8/TF etc.
7-6
Table 7.1 Bolts and Bolting Categories

Bolting
Category
Bolt
Grade
Min. Tensile
Strength f
uf
(MPa)
Method of
Tensioning
Bolt Name Bolt
Standard
4.6/S 4.6 400 Snug tight Commercial bolt AS 1111
8.8/S 8.8 830 Snug tight High strength
structural bolt
AS 1252
8.8/TF 8.8 830 Full
tensioning
High strength
structural Bolt
Fully tensioned
Friction type joint
AS 1252
8.8/TB 8.8 830 Full
tensioning
High strength
structural Bolt
Fully Tensioned
Bearing type joint
AS 1252

Note: The minimum yield strength of bolts f
yf
is obtained from the number after 4 and 8 in the
bolting category, ie. for 4.6 bolts f
yf
= 0.6 x f
uf
of 400 = 240 MPa and for 8.8 bolts f
yf
=
0.8 x 830 = 660 MPa. The numbers 4 and 8 indicate the approximate tensile strength,
ie. 4 x 100 = 400 MPa for 4.6 bolts and 8 x 100 = 800 MPa for 8.8 bolts


Table 7.2 lists the commonly used metric bolts (indicated by the prefix M), their cross-
sectional areas and the minimum bolt tension force in a Full tensioning procedure. The 8.8/S
bolt is considered the most cost effective as indicated by the cost indices: 1.0 for 8.8/S, 1.6 for
4.6/S and 2.0 for 8.8/TB.bolt. Among the bolts, M20 is the most economical. Attempts
should be made to use M16, M20 and M24 bolts instead of M30 and M36 as indicated by the
cost indices (1.4 for M16, 1 for M20, 1.2 for M24, 1.6 for M30 and 2.1 for M36). Overall,
M20 8.8/S is the most economical for use in connections. In practice, 8.8/S bolts are used in
flexible joints where the additional strength makes it more economical than 4.6/S bolts. The
bolt holes are 2 or 3 mm larger than bolts for the purpose of providing erection tolerance,
which lead to slip under service loading. If the joints are rigid, requiring a no-slip condition,
the 8.8/TF bolts are used (only in such situations).


Table 7.2 Bolt Areas and Minimum Bolt Tension

Nominal Bolt
Diameter d
f

Shank Area A
o

(mm
2
)
Core Area A
c

(mm
2
)
Tension Area A
s

(mm
2
)
Min. Bolt
Tension (kN)
M12 113 76.2 84.3
M16 201 144 157 95
M20 314 225 245 145
M24 452 324 353 210
M30 706 519 561 335
M36 1016 759 817 490

Generally, the following size commercial bolts (grade 4.6) are used in these applications.
M12 purlins and girts
M16 cleats, brackets (lightly loaded)
7-7
M20, M24 General structural connections, holding down bolts
M30, M36 holding down bolts.

On the other hand, the high strength structural bolts are used as follows.
M16 connections in small members
M20, M24 flexible and rigid connections
M30, M36 to be avoided when full tensioning is required

In the design of simple joints, if threads are excluded from the shear plane, the capacity will
be reduced by about 30% as core area has to be used in the design instead of shank area.
However, this is still preferred as there is no need for the labour-intensive inspection process.


7.2.2 Bolt Strength Limit States

7.2.2.1 Bolt in Shear

For a bolt subject to a design shear force V
f
*, the following limit state requirements must be
satisfied.

V
f
* V
f
(7.1)

where = the capacity reduction factor = 0.8 from Table 3.4 of AS4100
V
f
= the nominal shear capacity of a bolt

The nominal bolt shear capacity V
f
is given by

V
f
= 0.62 f
uf
k
r
(n
n
A
c
+ n
x
A
o
) (7.2)

where
f
uf
= minimum tensile strength of the bolt
k
r
= reduction factor given in Table 7.3 to account for the length of a bolted lap
connection
n
n
= number of shear planes with threads intercepting the shear plane
A
c
= Core area (minor diameter area) of the bolt
n
x
= number of shear planes without threads intercepting the shear plane
A
o
= nominal plain shank area of the bolt


Table 7.3 Reduction Factor for a Bolted Lap Connection (k
r
)

Length (mm) l
j
< 300 300 l
j
1300 l
j
> 1300
k
r
1.0 1.075 - (l
j
/4000) 0.75


The basis of the shear capacity formula is that the average shear strength of bolts is 0.62 x the
tensile strength of the bolts. In fact, this value of 0.62 is close to the ratio of shear to normal
yield stress of 1/3 = 0.577 derived from yielding theories. The average shear strength is then
multiplied by (n
n
A
c
+ n
x
A
o
), which is simply the number of shear planes x appropriate bolt
7-8
area. Tests have shown that for longer lap splice connections (see Figure 7.3) the load is not
equally shared among the bolts with the end bolts carrying more load and consequently
failing prematurely compared with a short joint. This happens even though some of the non-
uniformity of loading is reduced at load redistribution at larger loads. Therefore the shear
capacity formula includes a reduction factor k
r
based on the length of connection l
j
.

N*/2



N*
lj

Figure 7.3 Lap Splice Connection


It must be noted that the capacity reduction factor is 0.8, and not 0.9 for steel members to
allow for the greater uncertainties in bolted connections.

Typical bolted connections in shear are splices in members, end connections to bracing
members and connections of members to gusset plates. Figure 7.4 shows examples of bolted
connections in shear.

Figure 7.4 Examples of Bolted Connections in Shear


7.2.2.2 Bolt in Tension

For a bolt subject to a design tension force N
tf
*, the following limit state requirement must be
satisfied.

N
tf
* N
tf
(7.3)

where = the capacity reduction factor = 0.8 from Table 3.4 of AS4100
N
tf
= the nominal tension capacity of a bolt


Bolts
Plates
7-9
The nominal bolt tension capacity is given by

N
tf
= A
s
f
uf
(7.4)

where A
s
= Tensile stress area of the bolt

Research has shown that the use of pretensioning in the 8.8/T bolts does not significantly
decrease the ultimate capacities of these bolts. Therefore the capacity of 8.8/T bolts is
calculated in the same way as for other bolts.

Figure 7.5 shows examples of bolted connections in tension.



Figure 7.5 Examples of Bolted Connections in Tension


7.2.2.3 Bolt subject to combined shear and tension

For a bolt subject to a design shear force V
f
* and design tension force N
tf
*, the following
limit state requirement must be satisfied, which is an elliptical interaction relationship.


2
tf
tf
2
f
f
)
N
* N
( )
V
* V
(

1 (7.5)

where = the capacity reduction factor = 0.8 from Table 3.4 of AS4100
V
f
, N
tf
= the nominal shear and tension capacities of a bolt calculated as above.

Figure 7.6 shows examples of bolted connections subject to combined shear and tension.

V*
N*


Figure 7.6 Examples of Bolted Connections Subjected to Combined Shear and Tension

7-10
7.2.2.4 Ply in Bearing

In a bearing joint, once its frictional resistance is exceeded, the bolt bears against the inside of
the bolt hole in the plate (ply) and the load thus gets transferred as shear in the bolt and
bearing in the connected plates. Two bearing type failure modes have been observed in these
joints as shown in Figure 7.7 (other than the bolt shear and plate tension failures). They are
the local bearing failure of the connected plies and tear-out failure of the plate behind the
bolts. Following design formulae have been developed based on experimental research.



(a) Bearing Failure (b) Tearing Failure
Figure 7.7 Bearing and Tearing Failures

For a ply subject to a design bearing force V
b
* due to a bolt in shear V
f
*, the following limit
state requirement must be satisfied.

V
b
* V
b
(7.6)

where = the capacity reduction factor = 0.9 from Table 3.4 of AS4100
V
b
= the nominal bearing capacity of a ply.

The nominal bearing capacity of a ply is given by

V
b
= Lesser of 3.2 d
f
t
p
f
up
(local bearing failure) and a
e
t
p
f
up
(tear-out failure) (7.7)

where
d
f
= diameter of bolt
t
p
= thickness of the ply
f
up
= tensile strength of the ply
a
e
= minimum distance from the edge of a hole to the edge of a ply or to the edge of an
adjacent bolt hole, measured in the direction of the force, plus half the bolt
diameter

The local bearing failure capacity formula 3.2 d
f
t
p
f
up
includes 3.2 f
up
as it was found that
considerable bearing/crushing of the plate occurred at a nominal bearing stress of 3.15 to 3.4
times the tensile strength. So this observed average failure stress is then multiplied by the
appropriate bearing area d
f
t
p
to obtain the failure/capacity load.

The tear-out failure occurs mainly because of the inadequate edge distance (see Figure 7.7).
Accordingly, the capacity formula includes the appropriate edge distance a
e
, which is
illustrated in Figure 7.8. Since tear-out failure can occur due to tearing to the edge of the
plate or to the adjacent holes, the minimum of the two a
e
values shown in Figure 7.8 must be
used. Although the tear-out failure between the holes is possible, usually local crushing will
occur prior to it. It must be noted that the plates have to be also designed to carry the tension
7-11
force as per Section 2 of these lecture notes (for gross yielding and net section fracture in
tension).


ae

N*
N*
ae


Figure 7.8 Tear-out Failure Locations and Definition of a
e


Since bolts are made of much higher strength steel than the plates being connected, the
bearing failures usually takes place in the plates as explained above. Therefore there is no
need to check bolts in bearing.


7.2.3 Bolt Serviceability Limit State for Friction Type Connections

The serviceability limit state is checked only when no slip is required. Thus it is applicable
for the friction type connections, 8.8/TF. Once this check has been made at serviceability
loads (no-slip check only at these loads only), the strength limit state must also be checked.

7.2.3.1 Shear

For friction type connections (8.8/TF) in which slip in the serviceability limit state is to be
limited, a bolt subject to a design shear force V
sf
* in the plane of the interfaces shall satisfy:

V
sf
* V
sf
(7.8)

where = the capacity reduction factor = 0.7 from Table 3.4 of AS4100
V
sf
= the nominal shear capacity of a bolt for a friction-type connection

The nominal bolt shear capacity is given by

V
sf
= n
ei
N
ti
k
h
(7.9)
where
= Slip factor = 0.35 for clean as-rolled surfaces; for other surfaces as determined
by testing based on Appendix J of AS 4100
n
ei
= number of effective interfaces
N
ti
= minimum bolt tension at installation
k
h
= factor for different hole types: 1.0 for standard holes, 0.85 for short slotted and
oversize holes and 0.70 for long slotted holes

7.2.3.2 Combined Shear and Tension

Bolts in a connection for which slip in the serviceability limit state is to be limited, a bolt
subject to a design shear force V
sf
* in the plane of the interfaces and design tension force N
tf
*
7-12
shall satisfy the following equation.

)
N
* N
( )
V
* V
(
tf
tf
sf
sf

1 (7.10)
where
= the capacity reduction factor = 0.7 from Table 3.4 of AS4100
V
sf
= the nominal shear capacity of a bolt for a friction-type connection
N
tf
= the nominal tension capacity of a bolt = the minimum bolt tension at installation N
ti



7.2.4 Design Details for Bolts

Minimum pitch (distance between centres of bolt holes) = 2.5 x nominal bolt diameter d
f

Maximum pitch
Normal case = the lesser of 15 x thickness of the thinnest plate connected (t
p
) or 200 mm
No design force and no corrosion = the lesser of 32 t
p
or 300 mm
An outside line of fasteners in the direction of force = the lesser of 4t
p
+100mm or 200 mm

Minimum edge distance: the minimum distance from the centre of a hole to the edge of a
plate or rolled section shall be as follows.
Sheared or hand flame cut edge = 1.75 d
f

Rolled plate, flat bar or section: machine flame cut, sawn or planed edge = = 1.50 d
f

Rolled edge of a rolled flat bar or section = 1.25 d
f


Maximum edge distance: the lesser of 12 t
p
or 150 mm

Bolt holes are to be
2 mm larger than the nominal bolt diameter for a bolt M24 or smaller
3 mm (maximum) larger than the nominal bolt diameter for a bolt larger than M24 bolt
6 mm (maximum) larger than the anchor bolt diameter in a base plate
Oversize holes can be justified if it assists erection (as for base plates).

The AISC publication Bolting of Steel Structures by Firkins and Hogan (1990) gives further
details on detailing, installation, and corrosion protection of bolts.

7.2.5 Economic Design and Detailing

The AISC publication Economical Structural Steelwork is a good source for this. Following
are a summary of important points for economic design and detailing relating to bolts.
Use standardised connections
Adopt simple details
Use the same bolt diameter and category throughout in smaller structures
Use only one bolt diameter in any single connection
Use minimum number of site/field connections by making large sub-assemblies in the
workshop
If possible use bolts in double shear (larger strength and efficient)
Avoid long lap joints
Use 4.6/S bolting category for lightly loaded connections
7-13
Use the most efficient and commonly used 8.8/S bolting category for larger design loads
and flexible connections.
Use 8.8/TF and 8.8/TB bolting categories only for rigid connections. Use 8.8/TF when
slip prevention is required as 8.8/TF is more costly than 8.8/TB bolting category.
Avoid mixing 8.8/S and 8.8/T bolting categories if possible.
For practical reasons, threads are considered to be included in the shear plane unless
indicated otherwise on the drawings although excluding threads will give a greater shear
capacity.
Match corrosion protection of the bolts to the end use of the structure


7.2.6 Assessment of the Strength of a Bolt Group

Bolted connections in steel buildings often have a large number of bolts (>8) with a minimum
of two bolts. These bolt groups are subjected to either in-plane or out-of-plane loading. The
design of these bolt groups is somewhat complicated as the determination of the maximum
design force induced in the bolts is not simple at all (note the design capacities of bolts are
easily determined as given by the formulae in the previous sections).

For bolt groups subject to in-plane loading, the design actions shall be determined by an
analysis based on the following assumptions.
1. The connection plates are rigid and rotate about the instantaneous centre (I) of the bolt
group
2. In the case of a pure moment only, I coincides with the bolt group centroid whereas in
the case of an in-plane shear force at the centroid, the I is at infinity and the design
shear force is considered to be uniformly distributed. In all other cases, the results from
independent analyses as in the above two cases shall be superposed.
Two examples in the following section explain the procedure for bolt groups subject to in-
plane loading. For bolt groups subject to out-of-plane loading also, examples are included to
illustrate the specific procedure to be used for them.


7.2.7 Example Problems

Example Problem No.1

Determine the design capacities (shear and tension) of a M20 4.6/S bolt.


Example Problem No.2

Determine the design capacities (shear, tension and bearing) of a M20 8.8/TB or TF bolt. The
plates are 8 mm thick and Grade 250 steel. The minimum edge distance is 40 mm.


Example Problem No.3

Determine the serviceability limit state design capacities (shear and tension) of a M20 8.8/TB
or TF bolt.
7-14
Example Problem No.4

Determine the design capacity of the lap connection shown in Figure 7.9

8mm
8mm
12mm


40 60 40


Figure 7.9 Lap Connection in Example Problem No.4

Example Problem No.5

The bolt-group shown in Figure 7.10 is subjected to an in-plane shear and moment loading.
Design the bolts required for this connection subjected to a load combination due to G = 120
and Q = 160 kN acting at an eccentricity of 525 mm.



Figure 7.10 Bolt Group in Example Problem No.5

To do this problem, an appropriate theoretical formula has to be derived so that the maximum
design forces induced in the bolts can be calculated. Derivation of the formula is shown next.

Assumptions used in the analysis are:
1. Vertical load is shared equally.
2. The shear force due to load with an eccentricity is not shared equally, being proportional
to the distance of the bolt from the centroid of the group.
4 M20/8.8S bolts
7-15
The eccentric loading creates a torsional moment on the bolt group, and thus the bolts are
subject to shear forces. For a symmetric bolt group, the centroid/centre of rotation is the
origin/centre point of bolt group. Therefore the resisting torsional moment of the bolt group,
M
r
is given by:

M
r
= F
T
r
1
+ (F
T
x r
2
/ r
1
) r
2
+ (F
T
x r
3
/ r
1
) r
3
+ -------
where F
T
= the shear force in the right hand corner bolt which is at a distance r
1
from the
centroid.

The shear force in the second bolt is then (F
T
x r
2
/ r
1
) based on assumption (2) above, and is
multiplied by its distance to the centroid, r
2
. This process is repeated for all the bolts in the
group. This therefore leads to the following equation.

M
r
= (F
T
/ r
1
) (r
1
2
+ r
2
2
+ r
3
2
+---------) = (F
T
/ r
1
) r
2


M
r
= (F
T
/ r
1
) (x
2
+y
2
) = Applied torsional moment M
t
= Applied load P x eccentricity e = Pe
F
T
= (M
t
r
1
) / (x
2
+y
2
) = (Pe r
1
) / (x
2
+y
2
)
The horizontal component F
H
= (Pe y
1
) / (x
2
+y
2
)
The vertical component F
V
= (Pe x
1
) / (x
2
+y
2
)

The above analysis is for the applied load P acting with an eccentricity e. The shear force in
the bolts due to the vertical load P is simply assumed to be shared equally by the bolts =
P/number of bolts. This component will have to be added to the F
V
component above to
determine the total vertical component, ie. F
V
= (Pe x
1
) / (x
2
+y
2
) + (P/number of bolts)


Example Problem No.6

The bolt-group shown in Figure 7.11 is subjected to an out-of-plane loading. Design the bolts
required for this connection subjected to a load combination due to G = 80 and Q = 75 kN
acting at an eccentricity of 200 mm.



Figure 7.11 Bolt Group in Example Problem No.6

To do this problem, an appropriate theoretical formula has to be derived so that the maximum
7-16
design forces induced in the bolts can be calculated. Derivation of the formula is shown next.

Assumptions used in the analysis are:
1. Vertical load is shared equally.
2. The shear force due to load with an eccentricity is not shared equally, being proportional
to the distance of the bolt from the centroid of the group.

In this case, the eccentric loading creates a bending moment on the bolt group and thus the
bolts are subject to tension forces with the top level bolts under the largest tension. For this
bolt group, the centre of rotation is assumed at the lowest level of bolts. Therefore the
resisting bending moment of the bolt group, M
r
is given by:

M
r
= (F
T
y
1
+ (F
T
x y
2
/ y
1
) y
2
+ (F
T
x y
3
/ y
1
) y
3
+ -------
where F
T
= the tension force in the top level bolts which is at a distance y
1
from the centroid.

The tension force in the second level of bolt is then (F
T
x y
2
/ y
1
) based on assumption (2)
above, and is multiplied by its distance to the assumed centroid, y
2
. This process is repeated
for all the bolts in the group. This therefore leads to the following equation.

M
r
= 2 (F
T
/ y
1
) (y
1
2
+ y
2
2
+ y
3
2
+---------) = (F
T
/ y
1
) y
2

The factor 2 is included because of the two bolts at each level.
M
r
= 2 (F
T
/ y
1
) y
2
= Applied moment M = Applied load P x eccentricity e = Pe
F
T
= (M y
1
) / 2 y
2
= (Pe y
1
) / 2 y
2


The above analysis is for the applied load P acting with an eccentricity e, which gives the
tension, force in the bolt. The shear force in the bolts due to the vertical load P is simply
assumed to be shared equally by the bolts = P/number of bolts.


7-17
7.3 Design of Welds

7.3.1 General
Structural connections between steel members are commonly made by arc-welding techniques
in which the molten weld metal fused with the members being connected. There are many
types of welds such as butt, fillet, slot or plug welds and their combinations. Welding
specifications are given in AS 1554. Figure 7.12 shows the basic methods of using welds in
connections and some examples of welded connections. Advantages of welding are: provide
greater strength and less preparation in the workshop compared with bolts, no weakening by
bolt holes, weld metal strength is better than the members being connected, provide more
rigid connections. On the other hand, welding can cause member distortion and reduced
ductility and induce high residual stresses. Further, site/field welding is almost impossible and
costly compared with bolting.





Figure 7.12 Methods of using welds in connections

Weld quality can be either GP (General Purpose) or SP (Structural Purpose) as specified in
AS 1554.1 and accordingly for each category and type of weld, different capacity factors from
Table 3.4 of AS 4100 shall be used, ie. for GP, = 0.6 and for SP, = 0.8. Design drawings
must specify the weld quality.

7.3.2 Butt Welds

A complete penetration butt weld is one having complete fusion of weld and parent metal
throughout the complete depth of the joint. An incomplete butt weld is where the above does
not occur. The size of a complete penetration butt weld shall be the minimum depth to which
the weld extends from its face into a joint, except in a T-joint or corner joint for which it is the
thickness of the part whose end or edge butts against the face of the other part. The size is
7-18
taken as the design throat thickness used in the calculations. Different edge preparations and
welding processes are given in AS 1554. When parts of different thickness or width are
connected and subjected to tension, a 1 to 1 transition or chamfer must be provided in the
parts and/or welds.

Effective length of a butt weld is the length of the continuous full size of weld and the
effective area is the product of the effective length and the design throat thickness.

Often the weld metal is of higher strength than that of elements joined, thus the static capacity
of the weld is greater than that of the elements joined. Thus the design is controlled by the
elements joined.

For complete penetration butt welds, the design throat thickness is the size of the weld. But
their design capacity is determined by the members being connected. Since the weld metal is
commonly of greater strength than that of the members, the design capacity of the butt weld
connection is given by that of the weakest part joined.

Design capacity = x nominal capacity of the weaker part joined
where = 0.9 for SP category and 0.6 for GP category.
A factor of 0.9 is used for SP category as for members, but AS 4100 specifies a lower
factor of 0.6 for GP category.

The size of an incomplete penetration butt weld shall be the minimum depth to which the
weld extends from its face into a joint. It is preferable to specify the required design throat
thickness (DTT) rather than the size of it. Often DTT is < size, but if a fully automatic process
is used DTT = size. The design capacity shall be calculated as for a fillet weld using the
design throat thickness, determined using Clause 9.7.2.3 (b) of AS 4100.

7.3.3 Fillet Welds

The size of a fillet weld shall be specified by the leg lengths. The leg lengths are the lengths
of the sides lying along legs (t
w1
and t
w2
) of the largest triangle inscribed within the cross
section of the weld. Any gap between plates is not included in the triangle. Figure 7.13 shows
different cases of fillet welds. Design throat thickness (DTT) t
t
is shown in the figure. Fully
automatic welding process can be used to increase the DTT for the same size. When the legs
are of equal length, a single leg length size (t
w
) is to be used.

DTT = t
t
is marked in each case with Equal leg fillet (45)

Figure 7.13 Fillet Weld Size


t
w1

t
w2

7-19
Strength limit state for fillet weld

For a fillet weld subject to a design force per unit length v
w
*, the following limit state
requirement must be satisfied.

v
w
* v
w
(7.11)

where = the capacity reduction factor = 0.8 and 0.6 for SP and GP categories, respectively,
from Table 3.4 of AS 4100.

The nominal capacity of a fillet weld per unit length v
w
in N/mm is given by

v
w
= 0.6 f
uw
t
t
k
r
(7.12)

where
f
uw
= nominal tensile strength of weld metal (see Table 7.4)
t
t
= design throat thickness
k
r
= reduction factor given in Table 7.5 to account for the length of a welded lap
connection (l
w
). For all other connection types, k
r
=1.


Table 7.4 Nominal Tensile Strength of Weld Metal (f
uw
)

Manual metal arc
electrode (AS 1553.1)
Submerged arc (AS 1858.1)
Flux cored arc (AS 2203)
Gas metal arc (AS2717.1)
Nominal tensile
strength of weld,
f
uw
MPa
E41XX W40X
(not included in AS2717.1)
410
E48XX W50X 480


Table 7.5 Reduction Factor for a Welded Lap Connection (k
r
)

Length of
weld l
w
(m)
l
w
1.7 1.7 < l
w
8.0 l
w
> 8.0
k
r
1.00 1.10 0.06 l
w
0.62



It must be noted that the capacity reduction factors are 0.8 and 0.6, and not 0.9 as for steel
members to allow for the greater uncertainties in welded connections. For GP category, the
designer must be satisfied that this weld can properly transmit the imposed loads in the
strength limit state condition by taking into account the increased defects permitted in the
weld.

The fillet weld capacity is based on the shear capacity in the weld plane across the design
throat thickness (see Figure 7.13). As for the shear capacity formula of the bolts, an
approximate shear yield stress of f
uw
/3 = 0.6 f
uw
is used. This is multiplied by the design
throat thickness t
t
to obtain the capacity per unit length. This capacity is used to check against
7-20
any type of shear flow or normal force acting on the weld.

Minimum and Maximum sizes of a fillet weld

The preferred sizes of a fillet weld less than 15 mm are 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 and 12 mm, but they
shall satisfy the minimum and maximum requirements as per the following. The minimum
size of a fillet weld to be used depends on the thickness of thickest plate being connected.
Table 7.6 presents these requirements.


Table 7.6 Minimum Size of a Fillet Weld

Thickness of the
Thickest Plate t (mm)
Minimum size of a
fillet weld t
w
(mm)
t 7 3
7 < t 10 4
10 < t 15 5
15 < t 6

Maximum size of a fillet weld shall be
The thickness of the plate for a plate < 6 mm in thickness
The thickness of the material 1mm for a plate 6 mm in thickness unless the weld is to
be built out to obtain the design throat thickness

Lengths and spacing of fillet weld

Effective length of a fillet weld is the overall length of the full size fillet, including end
returns, and the effective area is the product of the effective length and the design throat
thickness. Following requirements have to be met for fillet welds.

The minimum effective length is 4 times the weld size (t
w
for equal leg fillet weld),
otherwise the design weld size has to be taken as
4
1
the effective length.
Minimum length of a segment of intermittent fillet weld is the greater of 4 x the weld size
or 40 mm.
Maximum transverse spacing of continuous fillet weds used to connect two components
of a built-up member in the direction of design action is 32 t
p
except in the case of
intermittent welds at the end of tension members it is the lesser of 16 t
p
and 200 mm
where t
p
is the thickness of the thinnest plate joined.
Minimum clear spacing between consecutive collinear segments of intermittent fillet
welds is Minimum of (16 t
p
and 300 mm), (24 t
p
and 300 mm) for compression and
tension members, respectively.
For built-up members, see Clause 9.7.3.9 of AS 4100.

This section on welding presented the design methods and details for butt and fillet welds.
Clauses 9.7.4 and 9.7.5 of AS 4100 present these for Plug and Slot welds, and Compound
welds, respectively.


7-21
7.3.4 Economic Design and Detailing

The AISC publication Economical Structural Steelwork is a good source for this. The
principal considerations in economic detailing of welds are simplicity, weld volume,
accessibility, erection and inspection. Following are a summary of important points for
economical weld design and detailing relating.

Design with welding in mind
Do not specify oversize welds (increased cost and shrinkage). Eg. 8 mm fillet weld versus
6 mm fillet weld: 33% stronger, but 78% more weld metal.
Use welding judiciously when using it to reduce material mass (weld metal costs 50 to
100 times more than parent metal)
Keep the number of parts to be welded to the minimum practicable
Remember the special effects of welding such as distortion
Use workshop fabrication whenever possible
Keep in mind the economics of welding. Single run continuous fillet welds are usually
more economic than intermittent welds of a larger size
Keep in mind the cost of butt welding. Complete penetration welds to be specified only
when they are really required. The use of partial penetration butt welds can reduce weld
metal and thus cost.
Use fillet welds in preference to butt welds wherever possible. Since butt welds require
edge preparation, fillet welds up to 16 mm thickness are usually cheaper than butt welds
Provide adequate access for welding
Use a minimum number of joints
Standardise joint details if possible
Avoid joints which create difficult welding procedures


7.3.5 Assessment of the Strength of a Weld Group

Structural steel connections often include weld groups that may be subjected to in-plane or
out-of-plane loading. The design of these weld groups is somewhat complicated as the
determination of the maximum design force induced in the welds is not simple at all
(compared with the design capacity of weld that is easily determined as given by the formulae
in the previous sections).

Clause 9.8 of AS 4100 gives the various assumptions required for the analysis of weld groups
subject to in-plane and out-of-plane loading. Examples in the following section explain the
procedure for weld groups subject to in-plane and out-of-plane loading.


7.3.6 Example Problems

Example Problem No.1

Determine the design capacity of 4 mm E41XX equal leg fillet welds of SP and GP
categories.


7-22
Example Problem No.2

Design the fillet weld required for a bracing member subject to a tension force of 500 kN if
the member is (a) flat plate (b) 100 x 75 x 10 UA.



Example Problem No.3

Verify the strength of the 6 mm fillet welds, which connect the 45 mm flanges to the 10 mm
web of the plate girder shown in Figure 7.14. The girder is subjected to a uniformly
distributed dead load component of 30 kN/m in addition to the point loads shown on the
figure. Density of steel is 7850 kg/m
3
.
450 mm
1200 mm
G = 520 kN
Q = 300 kN
G = 520 kN
Q = 300 kN
4 m 4m 4m


Figure 7.14 Plate Girder in Example Problem No.3



Example Problem No.4

Design the fillet weld group shown in Figure 7.15. It is subject to a load combination due to
G = 44 kN and Q = 30 kN.

Figure 7.15 Fillet Group Weld in Example Problem No.4

7-23

Example Problem No.5

Design the fillet weld group shown in Figure 7.16. It is subject to a load combination due to
G = 60 kN and Q = 50 kN.


Figure 7.16 Fillet Weld Group in Example Problem No.5

7-24
TUTORIAL PROBLEMS ON BOLTED CONNECTIONS

Question 1

Determine the design capacity of the bolts under the situation shown

Bolt type and situation M20 4.6/S
Strength
M20 8.8/S
Strength
M20 8.8/TF
Strength
M20 8.8/TF
Service
Shear and bearing single lap joint
with 10 mm plates

Shear and bearing double lap
joint with 6 mm outer plates and 10
mm inner plates

Min. & Max. pitch 10 mm plate
Min. and Max. Edge Distance
rolled edge, 10 mm plate

Tension capacity


Question 2

Design a double lap joint to carry 1000 kN using 6 mm outer plates and a 10 mm inner plate.
Provide pitch and edge distance details.

Question 3

Determine the required size of 4.6/S and/or 8.8/S bolts for the connections shown below.





Figure 1 Figure 2
7-25
TUTORIAL PROBLEMS ON WELDED CONNECTIONS

Question 1

Determine the design capacities of the following equal leg fillet welds
6 mm E41XX GP and SP categories
8 mm E41XX GP and SP categories
10 mm E41XX GP and SP categories


Question 2

Design the welded connection to transfer a design force of 800 kN from the inclined members
to the truss joint concentrically (see Figure 1).


Figure 1. Truss Joint

Question 3

Design the fillet welds for the built-up member carrying the loads shown in Figure 2. The
loads on this 10 m span beam are: uniformly distributed loads G = 8 kN/m, Q = 10 kN/m;
Point loads: G = 80 kN Q = 100 kN.

Figure 2. Built-up Member


7-26
Question 4

Determine the design load capacity of the fillet welded bracket shown in Figure 3.


Question 5

Design the fillet welds for the Tee column bracket shown in Figure 4.


Figure 3. Bracket Figure 4. Tee column bracket