Animal Care Series:

C A R E P R A C T I C E S
AIRY D
Dairy Workgroup
University of California

Cooperative Extension
i
FOREWORD
Dairy Care Practices is one in a series of University of California publications
addressing the issue of animal care relating to food production in California. This
revised publication is a joint project of University of California Cooperative Extension,
dairy industry representatives, and members of the Dairy Workgroup.
Dairy Care Practices was edited by Carolyn Stull, Ph.D., Animal Welfare
Specialist, Veterinary Medicine Cooperative Extension; Steven Berry, D.V.M., Dairy
Management and Health Specialist, Animal Science Department; and, Ed DePeters,
Ph.D., Professor, Animal Science Department.
The authors (listed alphabetically) include: Marit Arana, Ph.D., Area Dairy
Advisor, San Joaquin, Sacramento, Yolo, Solano Alameda, and Contra Costa Counties;
Donald Bath, Ph.D., Extension Dairy Nutritionist (Emeritus), Animal Science
Department; Steven Berry, D.V.M., Dairy Management and Health Specialist, Animal
Science Department; John Bruhn, Ph.D., Extension Food Technologist, Dept. of Food
and Technology; L.J. (Bees) Butler, Ph.D., Dairy Marketing Specialist, Department of
Agricultural Economics; Carol Collar, Farm Advisor, Kings County; Ed DePeters, Ph.D.,
Associate Professor, Animal Science Department; Walter Guterbock, D.V.M., Adjunct
Professor, Veterinary Medicine Teaching and Research Center, Tulare; Gerald
Higginbotham, Ph.D., Farm Advisor, Madera and Fresno Counties; Pam Hullinger,
D.V.M., Animal Care Program, California Department of Food and Agriculture; John
Kirk, D.V.M., Dairy Extension Veterinarian, Veterinary Medicine Teaching and
Research Center, Tulare; Jim Oltjen, Ph.D., Animal Management Systems Specialist,
Animal Science Department; Nyles Peterson, Farm Advisor, Los Angeles, San
Bernardino, and San Diego Counties; Barbara Reed, Farm Advisor, North Region; Peter
Robinson, Ph.D., Extension Dairy Specialist, Department of Animal Science; Tom
Shultz, Ph.D., Farm Advisor, Tulare County; Carolyn Stull, Ph.D., Animal Welfare
Specialist, Veterinary Medicine Cooperative Extension; and Abraham Wubishet, Ph.D.,
Farm Advisor, Los Angeles, Riverside, and San Bernardino Counties.
Published by the University of California, Davis; Second Edition, June 1998.
The University of California, in compliance with Titles VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972,
Sections 503 and 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Age Discrimination Act of 1975, does not discriminate on the basis of race, religion, color,
national origin, sex, mental or physical handicap, or age in any of its programs or activities, or with respect to any of its employment policies, practices, or
procedures. Nor does the University of California discriminate on the basis of ancestry, sexual orientation, marital status, citizenship, medical condition (as
defined in section 12926 of the California Government Code) or because individuals are special disabled veterans (as defined by the Vietnam Era Veterans
Readjustment Act of 1974 and Section 12940 of the California Government Code). Inquiries regarding this policy may be addressed to the Affirmative
Action Director, University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources, 300 Lakeside Drive, 6th Floor, Oakland, CA 94612-3560. (510)987-0097.
1
INTRODUCTION
Proper animal care has evolved from research and decades of practical
experience. Researchers continue to investigate and enhance animal care methods. The
care and management of dairy cows depends on age, location, lactation and pregnancy
status, facilities, environment, health, nutrition, and many other factors. The young calf
has different needs for basic care than the dry or lactating cow. Thus, managers must be
aware of individual animal needs and provide for them. Proper care practices which
provide for animal well-being also may be the most efficient in terms of production. If
certain management practices conflict with animal well-being, it will be to the producer's
long-term advantage to adopt practices that put animal welfare ahead of short-term
savings.
The goals of this publication are to explain why, when, and how specific practices
are used in dairy production systems in California to support animal well-being and not
to set forth or suggest specific guidelines for production practices. This publication will
help producers to evaluate husbandry procedures and offer production practices that are
safe, ethical, and cost efficient. Variations from suggested care practices in this
publication are acceptable. Continued research is essential to provide additional
information about the basic needs of dairy cattle under different management systems.
As new, scientifically based techniques and practices become available, management
should adopt these methods to existing systems.
This publication includes a description of the dairy industry in California which
documents several of the industry's unique characteristics. This is followed by
Management Components with sections addressing specific phases of dairy production.
Each section describes appropriate facilities, nutrition, and health care practices. A
Glossary, Bibliography, and Index are included to assist the reader with terminology
and sources of additional information.
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3
THE DAIRY INDUSTRY
IN CALIFORNIA
California's dairy industry is for about 12 percent of total cow
influenced by two key factors. First, numbers in the U.S., compared with less
California's geographical isolation than 5 percent in 1960. Average herd
substantially limits the amount of fluid size in California is approximately 650
milk that can flow into or out of the milk cows, compared with a national
state. The Sierra Nevada Mountains and average of 60 milk cows.
the unpopulated desert to the east of
California, and the Pacific Ocean to the Average milk production per
west, present geographical barriers to cow in California is also one of the
low-cost transportation of milk. highest in the U.S. (along with
Therefore, the California dairy industry Washington and New Mexico). In 1996,
has to produce enough fluid milk to average milk production per cow
meet the demands of the state's more exceeded 20,000 pounds compared with
than 30 million residents. The second the national average of just over 15,000
factor influencing the California dairy pounds.
industry is its unique pricing system.
Price is determined by a complex set of In 1996, California's 2,200
stabilization, marketing, and pooling dairies marketed nearly 22 billion
plans. This system is quite different pounds of milk and were exceeded only
from the federal milk marketing orders by Wisconsin. Cash receipts from milk
that affect milk price in most of the U.S. sales make dairying the largest
California dairying also differs the 2,323 dairies in California, about
substantially from typical dairying areas 2,144 are Grade A and produce 98
in the East and Midwest. Drylot dairy percent of the milk. The remaining 2
farming was developed in Southern percent is produced by Grade B dairies.
California in the 1920s and 1930s
because of expensive land, and it Southern California produces
predominates today. Dairy producers approximately 27 percent of the state's
can milk 500 to 800 cows on a land area milk and another 33 percent is produced
as small as 100 acres by housing cows in in the South or San Joaquin Valley; the
a drylot, handling waste properly, and remaining 40% is produced in Northern
purchasing all their feed ingredients. California (including the North Valley,
This allows for a more intensive system North and South Bay areas, and Del
of milk production than traditional
pasture-based systems.
California cow numbers have
increased about 2 percent per year in
recent decades. Milk cows now account
agricultural industry in California. Of
4
Norte-Humboldt region). In the past 20 elsewhere reduces milk production.
years, production has shifted north as
urban and environmental pressures in While costs of traditional feeds
Southern California have sent southern in California are slightly higher than
dairies into the San Joaquin Valley. elsewhere, there are many relatively
This has created a seasonal shortfall in inexpensive vegetable, fruit, nut, grain,
meeting Southern California's fluid milk and fiber by-products available for
needs. Consequently, about 25 percent feeding dairy cows. In addition alfalfa
of Southern California's bulk raw milk available in California is of much higher
needs are met from milk produced in the quality and availability than that grown
South Valley. in the East and Midwest because of the
Finally, a prominent irrigation. Finally, the average
characteristic of dairying in California is California dairy is large enough to allow
the relatively low cost of milk producers to capture economies of size
production. There appear to be several and scale, thus reducing average per unit
reasons for this. The climate is costs considerably.
favorable for dairying. In other parts of
the U.S., harsh winter weather requires The dairy industry in California
shelter for animals; these requirements developed because of the state's
are much less in California's mild geographical location and marketing
winters. California summers are dry, in plan. It is comprised of intensive
contrast to the humid conditions found systems of management with high
in other parts of the U.S. Cows can be producing cows and low production
accommodated on hot California days costs. New technologies and advances
with simple shade structures and a water through research continue to improve
mister system. The combination of high dairy care practices in California.
temperature and humidity
long growing season and controlled
5
MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS
SECTION 1. CALF CARE FROM BIRTH TO WEANING
INTRODUCTION avoided. This is especially critical
Heifer calves are raised as
replacements for lactating cows and are Facility features which are
essential to the successful future of the desirable but do not necessarily
dairy. The greatest mortality and influence calf health include: design for
morbidity period for dairy cattle is from labor efficiency, conservation of space,
birth to weaning. Management goals for esthetics, and location for easy access by
the first 6 to 8 weeks of a calf's life dairy personnel but not the public. Calf
should be to minimize disease and theft is common, and easy public access
mortality by providing a suitable enhances rustling potential. Storage
environment, establishing a quality facilities for supplies, equipment, and
nutritional program, and implementing a sanitizing materials as well as access to
preventive health care plan. refrigeration for milk and health care
FACILITIES considerations in calf housing design.
Health and survival of the maintaining a successful calf raising
newborn calf depend on its care and program.
environment. Designs for calf-rearing
facilities range from complete barn Individual Pens
enclosures to minimum shelters. A wide
range of acceptable housing facilities Individual pens separate calves
exists within California. Calf housing and reduce the spread of communicable
should provide an environment that is diseases and make it easier to observe
clean and dry and will minimize stress. behavior, feed consumption, and fecal
Protection from heat, cold, wind, and and urine production. Changes in feed
rain is important. Adequate space, consumption and fecal consistency can
animal comfort, and proper ventilation be early indicators of disease.
are important in designing a facility.
Facilities should be accessible for Many calves are successfully
thorough cleaning and disinfecting on a raised in 2-foot by 4-foot expanded
regular basis to reduce the number of metal or slatted wood, elevated pens.
pathogens. More hock, leg, and joint problems are
Placing the facility upwind from pens than with other systems. Plastic
corrals and cow traffic decreases dust coated expanded metal may reduce these
problems. Housing calves between hay problems. Calves may suffer
stacks, barns, or other large structures
that impede air movement should be
during the summer.
products are also important
These features assist in developing and
associated with expanded metal floor
6
from cold stress in elevated pens because Open-sided pole barns containing
they provide little shelter from drafts individual pens are referred to as "cold
and cold in the winter. Pneumonia may housing." Cold housing is adequate in
also be associated with these pens when most California conditions. Wind
they are placed over a flush system for barriers, such as plywood or roll-up
cleaning since pathogens can be snow fencing material, can be used
aerosolized during the flushing during the winter.
procedure. Recommended
modifications of the elevated pen are to Closed Housing
double the pen size and include a
bedding box filled with straw or other Closed housing consists of an
materials to allow for more comfort and enclosed barn containing individual
fewer leg and foot problems (University pens. The most critical aspect of closed
of California, Cooperative Extension housing is adequate ventilation.
Leaflet #2327). Accumulation of moisture and manure
Hutches hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia, increase
Individual, outside hutches Environmentally controlled, closed
predominate in California. Most are housing is expensive to construct and
approximately 4-foot by 8-foot wooden operate and is difficult to manage.
hutches, although other materials are
used. Slightly smaller individual FEEDING AND NUTRITION
hutches grouped in units of three are
commonly used in southern California. Colostrum Management
Hutches are more labor intensive than
elevated metal pens, but they allow for Colostrum is the milk produced
complete separation of unweaned calves. by the cow prior to and during the first
Because hutches rest on the ground, few days after calving. Colostrum
calves are better insulated from drafts obtained from the first milking after
than in elevated pens. Hutches can be calving contains more protein,
moved and modified to adjust for particularly immunoglobulins, fat,
temperature, sunlight, predominating minerals, and vitamins than milk
winds, and direction of inclement produced later. Immunoglobulins, or
weather. Hutches are easy to move or proteins produced by the cow's immune
lift for cleaning. Fiberglass and system, are secreted into the colostrum
polyethylene hutches are easier to around the time of calving. For
sanitize than wooden hutches or metal approximately 4-6 weeks after birth,
pens, but these should be opaque to
reduce heat from the sun.
Cold Housing
gases, such as methane, carbon dioxide,
the potential for respiratory disease.
7
calves depend on the immunoglobulins beneficial local effects in the lumen of
absorbed from colostrum for protection the intestine. If there is an ample supply
from infectious agents in their of colostrum, it should be mixed with
environment. Proper selection, whole milk and fed during the first 3 to
collection, storage, and feeding of 4 days of the newborn's life.
colostrum are essential to a successful
calf raising program. Colostrometers are If a cow "leaks" milk from her
used to select the highest quality udder prior to first milking after calving,
colostrum for storage and subsequent much of the colostrum may be lost.
feeding. Colostrometers are available to Colostrum from cows that Aleak@ should
measure the specific gravity of not be used for the first feeding of a calf.
colostrum, which should be greater than
1.106. This helps to ensure that the calf Specific immunoglobulins are
receives immunoglobulins. produced in colostrum in response to
The ability of the calf's intestine the herd. Cows are normally vaccinated
to absorb immunoglobulins declines or immunized against specific diseases
within hours after birth. The newborn to produce a higher level of specific
calf can absorb the large immunoglobulins in their colostrum.
immunoglobulins as intact proteins Such programs are best established with
which impart passive immunity. the assistance of a veterinarian.
However, within 24 hours of birth,
intestinal closure occurs and intact If colostrum is not fed
proteins cannot be absorbed. immediately after collection, it should be
Consequently, timing is important when stored frozen or refrigerated for later
feeding colostrum the first time use. Freezing does not destroy
following birth to ensure absorption of immunoglobulins and other nutrients in
intact immunoglobulins. Calves, heifer the colostrum, but does prevent bacterial
and bull, should be fed 2 to 4 quarts of growth and deterioration of the
high quality colostrum by bottle or colostrum. Frozen colostrum can be
esophageal tube within the first few thawed slowly in warm water. The
hours after birth. microwave can lead to uneven heating
and may effect immunoglobulin quality.
Continued feeding of colostrum Temperatures over 111 F can destroy the
from the first through the third or fourth immunoglobulins. If colostrum is
day of life is important because allowed to stand in a container, it should
immunoglobulins in colostrum vary be gently stirred before feeding since the
greatly in type, size, and complexity. heavier and lighter particles may have
Each type reacts differently with the separated. Once thawed, this colostrum
absorptive capacity of the intestinal wall. can be fed to the calf following birth as
Although most immunoglobulins are an alternative to feeding the dam's
absorbed only in the first few hours of colostrum.
the calf's life, others may be available
for absorption up to 72 hours. The
immunoglobulins also may have
disease or other organisms prevalent in
o
8
Calf Nutrition ensure consistency when mixing milk
Colostrum feeding usually ends
by the fourth day, after which fresh In addition to milk, dry
whole milk or an excellent quality milk concentrate feed (calf starter) and good
replacer should be fed. Milk replacers quality hay (e.g. alfalfa) can be offered
are powdered products which contain free choice once the calf is a few days
predominately dry milk ingredients. old. These feeds should be palatable,
These products are mixed with water and easily digested, and high in digestible
are formulated to provide proper nutrition protein. Similar to water provided, these
for the growing calf. feeds should be clean and fresh.
On some dairies, milk from The calf's diet should contain all
medicated or "hospital" cows is fed to known nutritional components necessary
calves. This is not a recommended for normal growth and health relative to
practice due to the potential transfer of the calf's age, environment, and
disease to calves. Caution should be physiological requirements. Rations for
taken if calves destined for sale or calves between birth and weaning should
slaughter are fed a medicated milk meet or exceed recommendations of the
replacer or milk from cows treated with National Research Council's Nutrient
antibiotics. This will prevent problems Requirements for Dairy Cattle (1989)
associated with antibiotic residues in the and allow body weight gains between
meat of slaughtered calves. All 1.5 to 1.7 pounds per day.
withdrawal times for medicated feeds
should be followed. Water
Milk replacers with protein Water is an essential nutrient. It
derived from dairy products are the most is necessary for various metabolic
easily digested. Other protein sources activities, such as digestion, hydrolysis
(fish protein, cereal flours, unprocessed of carbohydrates and proteins, excretion
soy, or meat protein) are not as easily of waste products, nutrient transport,
digested. Some milk replacers are being lubrication of joints, electrolyte balance,
developed that contain vegetable protein body temperature control, and
with improved digestibility. development of rumen function. Dairy
A milk replacer should contain a water from colostrum, milk, or milk
minimum of 20 percent crude protein and replacer, and all calves should have
20 percent fat on a dry matter basis. Acid access to clean, fresh water. The water
detergent fiber should be a maximum of should be free of particulate matter and
1 percent. The milk replacer should mix low in salt and bacterial content. It
easily in water and stay in solution after should be free of pesticide residues and
mixing. Water used with milk replacers
should be fresh and clean. Employees
should take care to use the appropriate
volume and temperature of water to
replacers.
calves initially receive most of their
9
other toxic substances. Water troughs severed immediately after birth, it can be
and pails should be cleaned thoroughly, cut 2 to 3 inches from the calf's body.
and water should be changed when it The belly area (including the cord)
becomes dirty. Changing the water should be dipped in a 2 to 7 percent
frequently during hot summer months tincture of iodine or other approved
provides the calf with cool, fresh disinfectant. The tincture of iodine will
drinking water and promotes water intake dry the cord and prevent pathogens from
and the intake of calf starter and hay entering the calf's body through the cord.
when fed. Consumption of starter is
necessary for rumen development and Sanitation
weaning of the calf.
The amount of water consumed clean environment regardless of the type
depends on the calf's age, the amount and of housing or bedding used. Hospital
type of feed consumed, ambient pens for sick cows should not be used as
temperature, amount of exercise, and maternity pens. All sick animals should
water cleanliness and temperature. Calves be isolated from the maternity and calf
up to 6 months of age drink 2 to 5 gallons areas. Pathogen exposure from
per day. accumulations of feces, urine, and
HEALTH CARE AND respiratory diseases. Even calves that
MANAGEMENT have been fed ample colostrum may
Disease affecting the pre-weaned environment.
calf may compromise her ability to
mature and produce milk. A calf Utensils used in feeding should
treatment protocol should be established, be cleaned and sanitized after use.
and calf personnel trained to recognize This will reduce the growth of pathogens
disease early and to promptly initiate and stimulate feed intake.
treatment. Well managed calf operations
can keep death loss prior to weaning Preventive Health Care Programs
below 5%. Death losses greater than 5%
indicate management should be Most health problems can be
improved. Failure in any of the minimized with proper management,
following areas can contribute to including adequate nutrition, clean and
increased calf illness and death: dry housing, low-stress handling, prompt
colostrum management, facility, design, treatment, and vaccination. The
sanitation, disease recognition and vaccination program depends on the
treatment, preventive health care, and disease problems prevalent within a
quality nutritional programs. given area and herd. Common diseases
Umbilical Cord digestive and respiratory tracts. In most
If the umbilical cord is not
The calf should be born in a dry,
spoiled feed can cause digestive and
become ill if housed in an unsanitary
of calves are associated with the
cases, vaccines are an essential
10
part of a total health maintenance is recommended for animals older than
program that should be developed with 10 weeks.
the assistance of a veterinarian.
It is recommended that calves be method, a fly repellant should be
vaccinated at least once prior to weaning sprayed on the dehorned area during fly
for Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis season. Newly dehorned calves should
(IBR), Bovine Respiratory Syncytial be isolated (e.g. individual housing)
Virus (BRSV), and Bovine Viral from other calves to avoid licking, and
Diarrhea (BVD). Vaccines must be used be kept out of the rain until the dehorned
according to the manufacturer's area is scabbed over and dry.
specifications.
Extra Teat Removal
Extra teats (more than four) can as coccidiosis, can cause serious health
interfere with milking and may leak, problems. It is recommended that a
which increases the possibility of regular parasite control program be
mastitis. If desired, extra teat removal developed with a veterinarian's
should be performed as soon as possible assistance. A clean environment is the
after birth to ensure a quick recovery. best tool for combating parasite
Precaution should be taken to avoid infections. Coccidiostats may be
unnecessary pain or distress during the included in calf starter to prevent
procedure and recovery. coccidiosis. As with vaccinations,
Dehorning used according to the manufacturer's
Animals are dehorned primarily supervision of a veterinarian. All
to avoid injury to personnel or other guidelines for use and withdrawal
animals, reduce feeder space times should be carefully followed.
requirements, and increase handling ease.
It is recommended that dehorning be Identification
performed when calves are 2 to 10 weeks
old. Older calves are more difficult to Animal identification is critical
restrain and handle, and risk of blood for making important management
loss, infection, and fly infestation decisions, such as feeding, selection,
increases. medicating, breeding, and culling; for
A hot dehorning iron is the for registering animals with purebred
simplest and fastest way to kill the horn- cattle organizations. Dairy cattle
producing cells. Caustic pastes and improvement depends on identifying and
scoops are alternative methods, but these breeding animals with superior
generally cause the animal more phenotypic and genotypic traits. This
prolonged discomfort. A local anesthetic requires accurate records on each
Regardless of the dehorning
Parasites
Some parasitic infections, such
products to control parasites should be
instructions and, if necessary, under
official production testing systems; and
11
animal. Some breed associations require The most popular type of animal
that each animal be tattooed before identification is the plastic ear tag which
leaving its pen or hutch. is easily applied by trained personnel.
Animal identification may be ear tag the veterinarian attaches
either temporary or permanent. following brucellosis vaccination. More
Temporary identification methods recently, electronic identification
include ear tags, neckchains, neck straps, systems have been developed that use a
ankle straps, and marking crayons or combination of "readers" or "decoders."
paints. Permanent identification methods Electronic identification systems may
include ear tattoos, hide brands (hot iron involve neck collars or subcutaneous
brands, freeze brands, and implants which interface with milking
liquid/chemical brands) computer chips parlor computers and are gaining
implanted subcutaneously, and popularity.
photographs.
An additional identification is the metal
12
13
MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS
SECTION 2. HEIFER CARE FROM WEANING TO CALVING
INTRODUCTION a body condition score between 3.25 and
Weaning involves the transition emaciated and 5 is obese. (All body
from a milk replacer or milk-based diet weight and rate of gain goals are for
to a forage and/or concentrate diet. Holsteins and should be adjusted for
Calves should be offered a starter ration other breeds.)
in addition to milk or milk replacer,
when they are approximately 1 week Heifers are usually bred
old. Calves should be consuming 1 to artificially in corrals with locking
1 pounds of starter ration per day at stanchions, or in a restraining chute.
weaning time, usually when they are 6 to Various estrous synchronization
12 weeks old. The calf starter pro-motes methods may be used to improve heat
rumen development and provides (estrus) detection.
nutrients to support growth and health.
Generally, calves should be fed high forage rations between breeding
weaned gradually. Often, it is preferable and calving (approximately 15 to 24
to wait a few days after weaning before months of age). Housing should provide
moving the newly weaned calf from the shelter from the elements and enough
calf rearing facility to a group pen of manger space for all heifers to eat
similarly aged calves. simultaneously. A pre-calving body
Birth and weaning are the two body condition score of 3.25 to 3.75 is
most stressful periods in a calf's life. desirable for Holstein heifers.
Management errors can often lead to
increased health problems and/or FACILITIES
reduced growth. Successful weaning
programs minimize stress from Housing Newly Weaned Calves
crowding, competition with older calves,
and weather. Calves should be weaned into
The period between weaning and calves per group. Newly weaned calves
breeding is not a time of intensive should not be mingled with older calves
management activity. Calves should be that are already established in the
housed to minimize weather stress and corrals. Pen size is recommended to be
allowed free choice to water. Rations a minimum of 200 square feet per
should be balanced and fed so heifers
reach a breeding weight of 750 to 800
pounds by 13 to 15 months of age, with
3.5 on a 5-point scale where 1 is
Replacement heifers should be
weight of 1,350 to 1,450 pounds, with a
small groups of animals, usually 5 to 12
14
calf in open corrals, with at least 18 Calves may not be familiar with eating
inches of feed bunk space per animal. from ground level bunks since they are
Clean and fresh water should be often fed starter rations from raised
provided free choice. As little as 35 buckets. They are also not accustomed
square feet per calf are provided in some to operating self-locking stanchions. A
functional intensive housing designs. feed trough may need to be placed inside
There should be enough calf pens to the pen until all calves become familiar
hold about one month's production of eating at ground level.
weaned calves so each calf spends about
a month in a small group. Self-feeding grain tanks are not
An alternative system is to wean Soiled and wet grain may accumulate in
calves into "superhutches," which are the trough which can promote mold
portable pens providing a feeder, water growth. If self-feeders are used, the feed
trough, and shelter for 5 to 12 calves. in the troughs must be kept fresh to
Superhutches should provide 25 to 30 maintain adequate feed intake.
square feet per calf. They can be moved
in a field or pasture as needed to provide Continuous access to clean, fresh
calves with a clean surface. water is essential for optimum health,
All calf pens should be well- Each pen should have a water trough
drained. While wet corrals cannot be that is small enough to allow water to
avoided in rainy weather, they should remain fresh, but large enough so all
drain water so mud is minimal. calves have access to water when they
Accumulated manure should be removed require it. A trough that is at least 6 feet
frequently. long and 4 to 5 inches deep is ideal for
Pens for newly weaned calves trough should be located for easy calf
should have 20 square feet of shade per access in a shady area and should have a
animal. Shades should be oriented north drain plug for easy cleaning. It should
to south and be high enough to allow sun be located so that overflow and drained
to dry the area under them. Shades are water will not create a muddy or
often built on mounds to allow calves a slippery area. This is usually
dry place to rest in rainy weather. In the accomplished by placing it on or near
winter, dry bedding should be provided the concrete apron behind the
under dry shades. In some climates, stanchions. Water troughs should be
permanent or temporary windbreaks cleaned regularly to remove fecal
may be desirable in winter (e.g., a pile contamination, feed, algae, and other
of straw bales on the windward side of foreign matter.
the pen).
Newly weaned calves often have
difficulty reaching and consuming feed
that is placed in front of stanchions.
recommended for newly weaned calves.
feed consumption, and growth rates.
groups of up to 15 calves. The water
15
Fences and gates should be Once calves learn to eat through
secure. Loose rods, cables, and wires stanchions, stanchion line feeding can be
should be repaired promptly to avoid used. Self-feeding tanks may also be
injury to calves and handlers. Gates used, provided they are monitored
should be arranged so calves can be frequently and cleaned as needed. Pen
sorted and easily moved from pen to area and manger length requirements are
pen. outlined in Table 1.
Housing Heifers from the Second Month Pens should be graded to prevent
After Weaning to Breeding mud accumulation. Shade is
Group size may be increased as climates. Water troughs should be
calves become older. If heifers are small enough to allow water to remain
weaned at 60 days of age, heifers from fresh but large enough to allow all
90 to 150 days may be housed in groups animals free access to water.
of 30. Groups of 60 to 100 may be
suitable from 150 days to breeding. FEEDING AND NUTRITION
After 150 days, heifers may be placed on
pasture or housed in groups of up to 200. Rations between weaning and
Heifers should be sorted so that groups first calving should meet the National
are uniform, with individual calves Research Council's Nutrient
having no more than an approximate 10 Requirement for Dairy Cattle (NRC,
percent weight variation from the mean 1989). Growth rates exceeding those in
of the group. the NRC are attainable, although, if they
recommended, especially in hot
cause fattening, they are not desirable.
Table 1. Space Requirements for Growing Heifers in Semi-Arid Climates
Age (months) Stanchions/10 ft. Shade ft /head Corral ft /head
2 2
1.5 to 5 7 20 200
6 to 16 6 30 300
17 to 26 5 30 400
Source: Wiersma, F., W.T. Welchert and D.V. Armstrong. 1991. "Planning Ahead."
The Dairyman 72:28.
16
Newly Weaned Calf Nutrition Requirements for growth after
Milk feeding is usually quality forages and higher fiber by-
discontinued 4 to 5 days before the calf product feed stuffs. Some grain supple-
is placed in a group pen, but only if the mentation may be necessary to attain
calf is eating at least 1 to 1 pounds of growth rates of 1.5 to 1.8 pounds per
calf starter daily. Some dairy producers day or more. Since feed intake varies
reduce milk feeding to once a day during with ingredient quality and weather,
the second month to encourage calf growth rate and body condition of
starter consumption. The presence of heifers should be monitored and ration
fresh clean water increases dry feed adjustments made as necessary. Salt or
intake. trace mineralized salt should be
Newly weaned calves should be not included in the ration.
fed free-choice the same starter grain
mix introduced before weaning. Rate of Breeding to Calving Nutrition
gain should be 1.5 to 1.8 pounds per
day, with a maximum of 2.3 to prevent Pregnant heifers are usually fed
fattening. Calves may be fed at least 5 high forage diets until a few weeks prior
pounds of starter grain per day and have to calving. The goal is for Holstein
free-choice access to hay. Calf starter heifers to calve at 24 months of age with
grain mix should contain 16 to 18 a precalving body weight of 1,350 to
percent crude protein. Cottonseed 1,450 pounds, body condition of 3.25 to
products should be limited in the ration, 3.75 on a scale of 1 to 5, and wither
since cottonseed contains gossypol, height of at least 52 inches. Salt may be
which is toxic to calves. Alfalfa hay for withheld from close-up, periparturient
newly weaned calves should be soft heifers in herds where udder edema is a
stemmed, leafy, green, and palatable, problem.
with a crude protein of at least 20
percent and a total digestible nutrient HEALTH CARE AND
(TDN) content of at least 54 percent on MANAGEMENT
a 90 percent dry matter basis.
Feeding Programs from 30 Days Post are largely determined by the adequacy
Weaning to Breeding of the facilities and management. When
Calves are usually fed hay and be provided, heifer calves should be
starter grain mix for about one month raised off the dairy in specialized
after weaning. Then calves may be fed a facilities. This is acceptable as long as
grower mixture (approximately 14 transportation practices are safe and
percent crude protein concentrate) with
forages. After 120 days of age, calves
may be fed a total mixed ration (TMR),
although some dairy producers
successfully feed a TMR much earlier.
180 days of age can be met with high
available in block or loose form if it is
Health and well-being of heifers
adequate facilities management cannot
17
humane. milking cows. They may be placed
Many calf disease problems have detection with the aid of tail chalk or
their origin in housing, management, heatmount detectors. Heifers on pasture
feeding deficiencies, and weather stress. or in pens without stanchions may be
Severe weather can predispose calves to heat detected by observation and then
sickness even with the best heifer raising bred in a restraining chute. Heat
programs. detection may be facilitated by
Age of Weaning heifers. This is accomplished with
Calves may be weaned from milk prostaglandin injections.
or milk replacer as early as 30 days of
age and removed from hutches to group After artificial insemination,
pens as early as 40 days. However, milk heifers are often placed in groups with
usually is discontinued at 45 to 55 days breeding age bulls to allow natural
and calves removed from hutches at 55 service of those animals that did not
to 65 days. While some producers leave conceive with artificial insemination.
calves in hutches and feed milk or milk Heifers not conceiving should be
replacer for up to 90 days, this can be palpated rectally to determine
counter-productive as the heavier calves reproductive tract status abnormalities.
require additional feed and water to Low birth weight or calving ease sires
allow for optimal growth. Larger calves should be used to minimize calving
also produce more feces and urine, thus difficulties.
requiring supplemental bedding and
waste removal to keep the environment Identification and Records
clean and dry.
Since the birth rate of heifer with plastic ear tags shortly after birth.
calves is not constant, weaning age can They may be given numbers in a
vary. For example, if a large number of separate series from that used in the
heifers are born and all hutches are full, milking herd or receive a number that
some calves may require early weaning. will follow them until they leave the
If weaning pens are full, weaning may herd. They are often retagged at the
be delayed. This is acceptable if feeding time of first calving with their
programs are adjusted and housing permanent cow identification number.
facilities are kept clean and dry.
Breeding
Heifers may be bred artificially
using the same techniques used for
daily in stanchions for estrus (heat)
synchronizing the estrous cycle of
progesterone implants and/or
Heifers usually are identified
18
It is useful to write the calf's ear and a permanent metal brucellosis
birth date on the tag to allow easy vaccination identification or USDA
evaluation of growth rate relative to series number tag is placed in the right
herdmates. Heifers also receive a metal ear.
brucellosis identification tag at the time
of vaccination by a veterinarian. This Parasite and Fly Control
provides a unique number that is often
used for testing and regulatory purposes. Flies breed readily in a moist,
Extensive records are not usually bedding and accumulated manure create
kept on heifers but are encouraged. an ideal environment for fly breeding.
Births and deaths should be recorded. Flies can be a significant stress on young
Most dairies with computer records calves. Control should be based on
initiate animal records at birth. Records destruction of fly larva habitat by
of treatment of sick animals should be moving calf hutches frequently and
kept to avoid residues if an animal is removing accumulated bedding and
slaughtered for food purposes. Breeding manure.
dates, sire identification, and pregnancy
diagnosis results are usually recorded in Fly larvae and pupae also live in
computer records. Additional records corral manure, especially in relatively
that may be helpful are body condition undisturbed areas such as weedy fence
scores, average daily weight gain, lines, around water troughs, and behind
mastitis, or other health problems. stanchions. Some species of flies breed
Vaccination Programs debris. Keeping a farm neat and clean
Vaccinations recommended for and behind stanchions can help reduce
heifer calves include Infectious Bovine fly numbers. Insecticide dust bags in
Rhinotracheitis (IBR), Bovine corrals help keep adult flies off calves.
Respiratory Syncytial Virus (BRSV), Spraying corrals and haystacks with
and Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD) at 4 to approved insecticides can temporarily
6 months of age and again before reduce the number of adult flies.
breeding. They should be vaccinated Chemical control of flies should not be
with Leptospirosis bacterin at those the sole method for fly control. All
times and again at pregnancy diagnosis. labels should be reviewed before
Clostridial vaccination may be beneficial chemicals are used because there are
in certain regions. Pregnant heifers may various milk and meat withdrawal
be vaccinated with J-5 E. coli bacterin periods.
before and at calving to help prevent
coliform mastitis during lactation.
Heifer calves should be
vaccinated for brucellosis between 4 and
8 months of age by a veterinarian. At
this time they are tattooed in the right
warm environment. Wet, organic
in piles of straw, hay, and other organic
and removing manure from under fences
19
Heifers kept on pasture should be supervision of a veterinarian.
dewormed on a schedule that is designed
for local climatic conditions. Purchased Oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline, or
heifers of unknown origin should be chlortetracycline/sulfamethazine feed
dewormed at least once prior to calving. additives may be used to help prevent
Heifers housed only in drylots do not respiratory disease. These products are
require deworming. useful when calves are subjected to
Feed Additives during stressful management procedures
Infection with coccidian parasites dehorning, and to help contain out-
can cause no noticeable signs of illness breaks of respiratory disease. Observe
to severe symptoms of profuse diarrhea. all withdrawal times to avoid residues
A coccidiostat (DecoquinateJ, in meat of slaughtered calves.
LasalocidJ, or MonensinJ) should be
fed as a supplement from weaning to Treatment Facilities
180 days of age and may be fed prior to
weaning. Ionophores (MonensinJ or A hospital pen is recommended
LasalocidJ) also act as coccidiostats for the dairy to isolate and treat sick
and may be fed to increase feed calves. Locking stanchions make
efficiency and weight gain. These observation and treatment easier. All
products should only be used according calves should be observed daily and sick
to manufacturer's directions or under or injured calves treated promptly.
adverse weather and stress, before and
such as vaccination, weaning, or
20
21
MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS
SECTION 3. CARE OF COWS AND CALVES DURING
THE PERIPARTURIENT PERIOD
INTRODUCTION stress to both the cow and calf. Pens
Proper care of the periparturient Well-grooved concrete floors are
(around calving) cow and calf depends preferable so the pen area can be
on facility design, management, training thoroughly washed while allowing for
of personnel, health care programs, good traction and secure footing. Clean
nutritional programs, and economics. bedding should be provided in sufficient
Health and comfort of the cows and amounts for cow comfort. The calving
calves should be the main consideration. facility should have a roof to provide
Calving is a high risk event in terms of shade in the summer and protection from
cow health and is associated with most rain in the winter and spring.
of the health problems requiring
treatment. Preparation and care during The calving facility should be
this period will minimize sickness and located where animals can be easily and
death of the heifer, cow, and calf. frequently observed by the herd
Facilities should be designed to be safe, manager, milkers, and other dairy
effective, and easily cleaned. personnel. Calving assistance should be
FACILITIES to have a vacuum line and stopcock
The main objectives of a calving facilitate milking the fresh cow to obtain
facility are to minimize disease and colostrum. Access lanes to and from the
stress to both the cow and calf. facility are important for ease of cow
Convenience and employee working movement and to segregate fresh cows
conditions are secondary considerations from the rest of the milking herd.
for these facilities. Properly managed
sod pastures can be ideal calving areas A supply or utility room should
during the summer, but they are often be near the calving area to provide for
muddy during the winter. Additional safe and convenient storage of calving
time is required for frequent observation equipment and refrigeration of health
of cows calving on pastures. care products and colostrum. A sink and
Maternity and calving pens are
an alternative to pasture calving. In
large herds where calving is
concentrated in a small area, sanitation is
extremely important. Sanitary
conditions will minimize disease and
should be designed for ease of cleaning.
provided when necessary. It is desirable
located in each pen or nearby to
running hot and cold water for
22
cleaning equipment and utensils are also The facility should be designed so that
recommended in a well-planned calving one person can move the cow to the
facility. locking stanchions area, restrain her and
Close-up Cow (close to calving) Pens stanchion should be designed to prevent
Cows should be moved about of the stanchion should be close to the
two weeks prior to their expected ground). The calving stanchion should
calving to a "close-up" pen where they have long gates which can be swung out
can be frequently observed. Cow of the way once the cow is restrained.
density in the close-up pen should be
about one-half of the density in lactating FEEDING AND NUTRITION
cow pens for hygienic purposes and to
allow cows in labor some space to move Cows within 10 to 16 days of
away from herdmates. Calving in the calving are normally fed as a separate
close-up pen should be avoided. It is group from other dry cows. A few
desirable to have cows calve in a special pounds of a grain concentrate mix may
maternity area. Cows should be moved be fed to these "close-up" cows in
to the maternity area when parturition is addition to forages. This practice avoids
imminent. a sudden shift from an all-forage ration
Maternity Area concentrates which is typical of that fed
Cows naturally isolate also increases rumen papillae length and
themselves to give birth. The maternity reduces incidence of ketosis. A sudden
area should provide a secluded area for shift in ration ingredients and amounts
parturition. Clean pasture is a desirable following calving can cause
environment for calving but is gastrointestinal disturbances and
impractical on most large, commercial predispose cows to other metabolic
dairies in California. Individual or small problems. For a 1,500 pound close-up
group pens are most suitable and are dry cow, 5 to 8 pounds daily of
widely used in the southwestern United concentrate mix are recommended,
States. There should be one clean depending on the body condition of the
maternity pen for each calving cow. cow and the quality of the forage being
The pens should provide at least 100 fed. Cows with chronic mastitis,
square feet per cow. The maternity area pendulous udders, a history of calving
should be well-ventilated but not drafty. difficulty, and obese cows should
Supplemental lighting should be receive reduced levels of concentrate
available. The area should be clean,
well-bedded, and free of unnecessary
disturbances.
A locking stanchion should be
convenient to the maternity area for
cows requiring assistance at calving.
render obstetrical assistance. The
choking if the cow falls (i.e., the bottom
to a ration with a high proportion of
to cows in early lactation. Feeding grain
23
before calving. Salt may be withheld should be readily available. Hygiene
from rations to reduce udder edema. and lubrication are critical to cow and
Rapid ration changes at calving the vulva) area should be washed
should be avoided. If the postpartum thoroughly and the tail tied to the cow to
cow is to be fed a total mixed ration, it keep it out of the way. The obstetrician
may be beneficial to feed about five should avoid contamination of the
pounds of long-stemmed hay in the reproductive tract as much as possible
ration for at least 10 days after calving by making sure that hands, arms, and
to stimulate feed intake. This will help instruments are clean. If extra
prevent cows from refusing feed after lubrication is required, a water soluble
calving and the associated digestive lubricant which is non-irritating to the
malady of a displaced abomasum. Large reproductive tract is preferred.
dairies may have a fresh cow string
where cows remain for 5 to 10 days Gentle traction applied to the calf
post-calving. These diets are formulated minimizes damage to both the calf and
to promote feed intake and minimize the the cow. No traction should be applied
incidences of milk fever and displaced until the birth canal is open and the calf
abomasum. is in proper presentation for delivery.
HEALTH CARE AND when the cow is contracting and
MANAGEMENT maintains gentle pressure between
Calving Assistance The person assisting should know
About 25 to 30 percent of the assistance when needed. If a Cesarean
heifers require assistance at first calving. section is necessary, it is best to make
Second or later lactation cows require the decision early before the cow, calf,
assistance about half as often. and obstetrician are exhausted. Under
Assistance should not be given as long no circumstances should motorized
as the cow is making satisfactory calving equipment be used to extract a calf.
progress. Heifers should be bred to low
birth weight or calving ease sires to Postpartum Care of the Cow and Calf
decrease the incidence of dystocia
(calving difficulty). Knowing when to After a cow gives birth and
give assistance at calving comes with before she is released from the calving
experience, so managers should train area, she should be examined to
maternity personnel. ascertain whether she has a second calf
Personnel responsible for have twins or require assistance are
assisting calving cows and heifers
should be trained in proper obstetrical
procedures. Hot and cold water and
soap, for washing the cow and ob-
stetrician, and clean calving equipment
calf health. The cow's perineal (around
The trained obstetrician applies traction
contractions, allowing the cow to rest.
his/her limits and call for veterinary
which has not yet been born. Cows that
24
more likely to retain the fetal water tank designed to Afloat@ cattle or
membranes and/or develop a uterine periodically rolling the recumbent cow
infection. These cows should be to her opposite side.
observed more closely than cows that
had normal, unassisted calvings. Cows In even the most hygienic
normally expel the fetal membranes calving areas, there are millions of
within 24 hours at calving. microorganisms which will contaminate
Cows which become paralyzed Most cows and calves are able to
during calving should be kept in a overcome the contamination with no
comfortable, well-bedded area with feed clinical problems. Cows requiring
and water available. An early treatment with antibiotics should be
determination of the cause of paralysis properly identified and treated according
will help determine if the cow should be to a protocol designed by the herd
culled or appropriate care administered veterinarian and dairy manager. The
to return her to health. A cow that is protocol should be designed to combat
recumbent for more than 24 to 48 hours microbial infection and avoid any milk
is not likely to recover. Appropriate and meat residues.
care may include attempts to utilize a
the cow's reproductive tract and the calf.
25
MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS
SECTION 4. LACTATING DAIRY COW CARE
INTRODUCTION may have increased nutritional
The performance, health, and up to 20 to 50 percent.
welfare of the lactating cow are
reflections of the quality of care received Cow productivity can also be
at every stage its life. Performance decreased by temperatures over 75 F
depends on converting feed nutrients (24 C) and is aggravated by high
into milk. Over the last 20 years, milk humidity. The heat-stressed cow eats
production has increased markedly due less, and milk production is reduced.
to improvements in genetics, nutrition, Signs of stress, such as panting or
milking systems, facility design, health standing in water, are not obvious until
programs, care, and management. The prolonged exposure to extreme
welfare and care of the lactating cows temperatures or humidity occurs. Heat
are critical for the success of the dairy stress is compounded when the
and providing the consumer with a safe temperature does not fall below 70 F
and wholesome dairy product. (21 C) at night.
FACILITIES In the southwestern states, most
Proper facility design reduces which provide for air flow. Barns that
stress and provides for comfort, proper are not properly constructed and
nutrition, and health of the lactating ventilated can accumulate heat,
cow. Temperatures under 40 F (4 C) moisture, and gases. All of these factors
o o
may adversely affect lactating cows. can have detrimental effects on the cattle
Cold stress symptoms in dairy cattle are and dairy employees. A gap at the roof
difficult to observe. The cow adapts to peak allows for the natural venting of
the stress of cold weather by increasing warm air, moisture, and gases.
appetite and diverting energy from milk Additional air movement can be
production to producing body heat. A provided by low-speed, high-volume
heavier winter coat also helps the animal fans.
adapt. Rain and fog do not directly
harm the cow. However, mud in corrals Natural and electric lighting
increases the risk of mastitis, and frozen, should be provided. Insufficient light in
crusty mud may injure the teats and the barn makes it difficult for workers to
udder. Cows housed in mud observe and detect problems with the
requirements for body maintenance of
o
o
o
o
enclosed dairy barns have open sides
animals or the barn.
26
Freestalls the row of stalls is effective but can be
Freestalls are individual cow
bedding areas where partitions orient the The choice of bedding material is
cow for comfort and sanitation. The influenced by cow comfort, sanitation,
typical dairy using a freestall barn does waste system, disease risk, cost,
so to facilitate cow comfort and manure availability, and farm maintenance.
handling. Freestalls give the cow a dry Bedding material should be dry, drain
and comfortable place to lie down for well, and not contain or support the
rest and rumination. growth of bacterial pathogens at a level
Freestall barns should have one Bedding material should be soft and
stall for each lactating cow. Some resilient examples are: gravel, kiln-dried
operators may choose to provide more shavings, beach sand, and dried manure.
stalls to accommodate herd growth and The accumulation of feces and urine,
to provide areas for subordinate animals along with the gradual reduction in
to move away from more aggressive bedding material, results in an uneven,
herd mates. wet, microbe-laden depression that
Freestalls should be designed and the potential for the animal to step on
maintained for cows that are about 10% her udder as she attempts to rise.
larger than the herd. Stalls that are too Bedding material must be maintained by
short or narrow make it difficult for the removing wet or soiled material in a
animal to rise. Some configurations timely manner and replacing it with
may entrap the animal, resulting in fresh material. Tractor mounted devices
injury or death. Stalls that are too long for smoothing bedding in freestalls are
or wide allow the animal to move effective in helping to maintain a level
forward so that feces and urine are surface for cows to lie on.
deposited within the stall and not in the
alleyway. It is desirable to use excess Cow mattresses consisting of
bedding and devices which prevent the coverings filled with ground rubber or
forward movement of the animal within other materials have been used with
the stall. success on some dairies. They require
Animals will back into stalls freestall bedding materials. If they are
unless the stalls are protected with so- not designed correctly and comfortable
called "back-out" devices. An arm or for the cows, they may not be used as
other device that contains a steel rod frequently. Cows should spend much of
which moves upward as the cow rises is their non-eating, non-milking time
preferred. The rod or pipe must be
heavy enough to encourage the cow to
back out. Back-out control devices
should be effective without creating a
safety hazard. For example, the use of a
heavy wire cable stretched tightly over
dangerous.
that increases the risk of udder infection.
increases the risk of udder infection and
less maintenance than traditional
27
lying down and ruminating. and other large objects should not be
Loose Housing
Barns, shades, and corrals form can be dirt and dry manure, with weekly
the loose housing unit for the dairy cow. scraping to facilitate drying and reduce
Ideal loose housing provides thermal and insect breeding areas. Straw or sand are
physical comfort and minimizes disease. preferred wet weather bedding materials.
Facility design and size depend on cow Wood shavings and sawdust can harbor
numbers, climate, and waste handling high numbers of mastitis pathogens if
techniques. Overcrowding often not kiln dried. Cotton stalks and gin
aggravates adverse conditions, such as trash are not permitted by the California
excess moisture, accumulation of Department of Food and Agriculture for
manure, or reduced ventilation. This bedding because of herbicide and
can predispose the cow to health pesticide residues.
problems, such as mastitis and
pneumonia, and increase the number of To reduce slippage, surfaces in
insect pests. Overcrowding also affects loose housing should include scarified
cow behavior and may reduce access to concrete areas, 15 to 20 feet wide around
feed, water, or resting areas for some water troughs, feed bunks, and
subordinate animals. entrances. It is advisable to score the
The recommended loafing space Crisscross scoring gives better footing.
for each cow in loose housing is 40 to 50 Finely crushed rock is an alternative
square feet of roofed area, in semi-arid flooring; however, large pebbles which
conditions. The recommended space in can bruise hoof tissue should be avoided.
unpaved earthen exercise corrals for
groups of 100 cows is from 500 to 600
square feet per animal. Corral space Loose housing and corrals that
may be reduced to 100 square feet on are hard-surfaced generally require a 4
paved lots. Guidelines for housing in percent slope for proper drainage. Dirt
cooler climates are 20 to 30 square feet lots may need a 4 percent slope or more,
of roofed area per head for small breeds, depending on soil type and rainfall.
and 30 to 40 square feet per head for Surface pumping to remove storm water
large breeds. These considerations are from a corral area can help reduce mud
equally important for waste removal and problems. However, corral scraping and
cow comfort. excess manure removal before and after
In semi-arid conditions, loose
housing roofs are often 10 to 12 feet
wide, with similar height dimensions,
and oriented north to south to allow the
sun to dry the bedding. Wider-roofed
structures should be oriented to allow for
maximum natural air flow. Haystacks
located where they impede air flow.
Bedding materials in dry weather
surface perpendicular to cow traffic.
the rainy season are necessary.
28
Feed manger configuration, makes them prone to spoilage and will
placement, and width per cow are reduce palatability and quality of the
factors in reducing stress and increasing ration. By-product feeds often vary in
comfort for dairy cows. Length of nutritive content and should be regularly
feeder space per cow affects time assayed for their moisture, nutritive
available to eat and amount of feed the content, and pesticide residues.
bunk can hold. Cows are normally
allowed 2 to 2 feet of manger per Toxins produced by molds are
cow. Feed mangers must be cleaned called mycotoxins. When mycotoxins
regularly. This is particularly important are consumed in small amounts,
with high moisture feeds during hot symptoms may be absent or be
weather, since they can ferment and evidenced by reduced milk production
spoil if not consumed. and appetite. Cows may abort and,
FEEDING AND NUTRITION be maintained by suitable storage
Each cow should be offered a or spoiled feed is related to the extent of
balanced ration that meets the nutrient spoilage and the age and type of animal
requirements outlined by the National to be fed.
Research Council's Nutrient
Requirements for Dairy Cattle (1989). To prevent the ingestion of small
These nutrients include energy, protein, pieces of wire, baling wire should be
fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Many carefully disposed. Magnets on the
digestive disorders can be prevented by chutes of feed wagons will catch iron
not feeding more than 60 to 65 percent debris. Care should be taken to prevent
of the diet as concentrate ingredients. nails and other metal from falling into
Careful management of the body feed mangers. Rumen magnets should
reserves of dairy cows is crucial to be administered to cows. Magnets stay
efficient production because body fat is in the reticulum and collect metal
a necessary and important energy source fragments to prevent them from piercing
for lactation in the first few weeks after the rumen wall.
calving. However, excessive body fat
before calving is associated with Water
increased metabolic diseases, calving
problems, and culling. Body condition Animals need fresh, clean
of cows and heifers should be evaluated drinking water for normal growth and
regularly so feeding and management production. A dairy cow consumes
practices can be appropriately altered. about five gallons of water per gallon of
Commodity by-product feeds can particularly sensitive to water problems
economically be included in a dairy
ration. Several factors need to be
considered before a by-product feedstuff
is fed. Many by-product feedstuffs
contain high moisture levels which
occasionally, die. Feed quality should
conditions. The feeding value of moldy
milk produced daily. Cows are
29
because of the large volume they drink. most prevalent, and does not result in
Excess nitrate, salt, bacteria, abnormalities in the animal. However,
algae, or chemicals can decrease subclinical mastitis may progress to
consumption of water and cause adverse clinical mastitis. Clinical mastitis results
health effects. The sources of these in reduced milk yield and is a common
contaminants may include septic tanks reason the cow is culled prematurely.
and dairy wastes. Elevated nitrate levels
may affect reproduction, number of With clinical mastitis, there are
abortions, growth rate, respiration, and observable signs of dysfunction. These
mortality. Mature animals can tolerate include swelling and/or redness of the
fairly salty water, up to approximately udder, discomfort, and abnormal milk
3000 milligrams per liter total dissolved secretions. In some cases of clinical
salts. Animals in late gestation that mastitis, systemic disease such as
consume excessive salt may experience diarrhea, loss of appetite, dehydration,
severe udder edema at calving. Excess and even death occurs. Some severely
bacteria and algae generally do not cause affected animals may become non-
health problems but may contribute to ambulatory and will require special
decreased water consumption. Water handling as described in Section 7,
troughs should be cleaned regularly. "Care and Handling of Animals Destined
HEALTH CARE AND
MANAGEMENT The emphasis on mastitis control
General proper sanitation and management of
Dairy cow management can animals. Wet, manure-laden areas in the
contribute to many of the common and lactating and dry cow pens and bedding
economically significant diseases. areas, and poor sanitation during the
Common diseases include mastitis, milking process increase the risk of
reproductive tract infection, foot disease, mastitis. Udders should be clean and
and gastrointestinal problems. dry when milked. Teats should be
Prevention of disease requires a multi- sprayed or dipped with disinfectant after
disciplinary approach to management, milking.
including facility design and operation,
nutrition, waste management, animal Foot Care
selection, and veterinary medicine.
Mastitis productive cow. Lameness will interfere
Mastitis is the most common
disease of the dairy cow. It results from
a microbial infection of the udder where
bacteria gain entrance via the teat
openings. Subclinical mastitis is the
gross changes in the milk or severe
for Sale or Slaughter."
should be prevention. The keys are
non-infected and subclinically infected
Healthy feet are important to the
with movement to the milking
30
facility, obtaining feed and water, that udder health and milk quality may
exhibiting estrus, and general health. be improved by minimizing contact with
Foot rot, laminitis, hairy foot warts, etc. contaminated tails. To lessen the
can cause severe discomfort for the dairy physical contact between the cows tail
animal and be a source of economic loss and the milker the trimming of the
to the dairy. The first sign of foot rot is switch or docking of the tail is
lameness that may involve one or more sometimes utilized. The more common
feet. In acute cases, lameness is practice is switch trimming which
followed by swelling of the foot, involves the periodic trimming of the
spreading of the toes, and an abscess long hairs growing at the distal end of
above the hoof. If not corrected, the the tail. Tail docking is performed by
infection will spread deeper and infect placing an Elastrator band (similar to a
the joints, resulting in chronic arthritis. rubber band) on the tail for
Feet should be trimmed at removing the distal portion of the tail
regular intervals to maintain proper foot with a sharp, sanitized instrument. The
conformation and prevent losses due to majority of the tail is usually removed;
lameness. Management practices that however, a portion remains to cover the
help reduce hoof damage and avoid length of the vulva. Tail docking is not
bruising will help reduce the incidence a routine practice on most California
of foot disease. Proper drainage of all dairies with the exception of a small
locations to minimize standing water percentage of dairies using a parallel
also helps. Early detection and milking parlor.
treatment will help minimize the
incidence of foot disorders. Various Dairy management should
types of foot bath solutions may be used seriously address the possible
to decrease the incidence of some foot advantages of tail docking versus the
diseases. loss in the ability of the cows to switch
Switch Trimming and Tail Docking risk of infection, and the loss of the tail
Tails of milking cows may be and caretakers of behaviors such as
carriers of fecal matter, mud, and other irritability and pain. No data have been
contaminants which become a nuisance published to support the claims of
in the milking parlor. It has been improved milker comfort and health
hypothesized that disease may be or better udder hygiene and milk
transmitted from pathogens carried on quality (e.g. lower somatic cell counts)
the tail to the employees and equipment in cows with docked tails. Tail
during routine milking procedures. docking is illegal in some countries due
Although not documented, it is thought to welfare consideration and trade
approximately seven days, then
away biting insects, especially flies, the
as a communication signal to herd mates
policies.
Machine Milking Machines with a partial vacuum
31
are used to remove milk from the udder. the animal and the personnel. Cows are
Vacuum levels between 12 to 14 inches gregarious and do not like to be isolated.
of Mercury are normal. Cows should They are also creatures of habit and do
have clean, dry udders before the not easily adapt to new situations. From
milking machine is attached. Pulsators, an early age, cattle should be handled
regulators, air hoses, and liners require quietly. Pain should not be used as a
regular maintenance to function motivator.
properly.
HANDLING AND BEHAVIOR be effective in the short term but can
Lactating cows are moved and explosive, and unpredictable. Hydraulic
handled several times daily. The systems used for operating stalls and
manner in which cattle are handled gates within the milking parlor should be
affects the safety and welfare of both fitted with over-pressure relief valves to
Alarming sounds and force may
result in cow behavior that is erratic,
assure that the forces generated do not
injure the cattle.
32
33
MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS
SECTION 5. DRY COW CARE
INTRODUCTION Freestalls are becoming more
A "dry" cow is a cow that is not individual stalls which are open in the
producing milk (lactating). Daily back so cows can freely enter and exit.
milking is usually ceased abruptly after a If freestalls are used, there should be one
dairy cow has been lactating for 10 to 12 stall per cow. If overcrowding is
months. The dry period (non-lactating) unavoidable at times, cow numbers
ideally begins 40 to 60 days prior to the should not exceed available freestalls by
next calving. more than ten percent. Freestalls should
The dry period allows for pens should allow 100 to 200 square feet
involution and regeneration of milk per cow. These recommendations are
secretory tissue in the udder. This important for both waste removal and
process takes 3 to 4 weeks. Cows which cow comfort.
are given a dry period of less than 30
days will produce less milk in the Corrals should be free from
subsequent lactation. A minimum dry standing and running water and graded
period of 55 to 60 days after the first to an approximate slope of 4 percent for
lactation, and 50 to 55 days after the drainage. Surfaces may be concrete or
second lactation is recommended. Older earthen. Corrals should be cleaned and
cows require a minimum dry period of scraped regularly. Clean, fresh drinking
40 to 50 days. A dry period of more water must be accessible at all times.
than 70 days can contribute to obesity at An overflow drain and a 10-foot
calving. Obese cows are more likely to concrete apron around the water supply
have calving difficulties and metabolic is desirable. Shade should be provided
disorders. in outside corrals. Trees and other
FACILITIES shade. Feeding locations should be
Dry cows are usually housed in exercise.
groups. Corral space, loafing area size,
and protection from weather depends on FEEDING AND NUTRITION
cow numbers, climate, and waste
management considerations. In The feeding program during the
unpaved, earthen corrals under semi-arid
conditions, approximately 500 to 600
square feet of loafing area and 40 to 50
square feet of shade per cow are
recommended.
common in California. These are
allow 25 square feet per cow. Exercise
natural objects can provide adequate
designed to encourage adequate
34
early part of the dry period is aimed at grouped separately and fed low quality
stopping milk production. Eliminating forages with protein supplemented
grain concentrates, high-quality legume separately. All dry cows should be fed
forage, and corn silage from the ration diets with crude protein levels of at least
reduces milk production. These 15% of dry matter intake.
feedstuffs can be replaced with lower-
energy, high fiber forages such as grass The total intake of calcium,
or oat hays. Rations should meet phosphorus, and potassium during the
National Research Council's Nutrient dry period is critical. These three
Requirements for Dairy Cows (1989). minerals must be fed in amounts very
Nutrient and energy requirements gut absorption mechanisms active.
for dry dairy cows are lower than for Excess quantities of any of these
lactating cows. The feeding program minerals will predispose the cow to milk
during the dry period will vary fever (parturient paresis or periparturient
depending upon the cow's calving date, hypocalcemia), downer cow syndrome,
but should be designed to adjust body and other related problems. Milk fever
condition, provide for growth of the will predispose the cow to other serious
fetus, and prepare for lactation. The health problems such as dystocia,
energy requirements of the dry cow are prolapsed uterus, retained placenta,
lower than the lactating cow. Forages, uterine infection, and mastitis.
such as hay, can be used as the primary
feedstuffs in dry cow rations and are The recommended feeding
usually the least expensive source of program for dry cows during the last 10
required nutrients. These fibrous feeds to 16 days before calving is described in
help maintain the strength of ruminal Section 3, "Care of Cows During the
muscles and general rumen health. Periparturient Period."
Cows entering the dry period in HEALTH CARE AND
proper body condition (body condition MANAGEMENT
score of about 3.5) should be fed only
roughages such as hay, pasture, Cows recently dried off should
greenchop, and silage until about three be carefully monitored until their udders
weeks before calving. Mineral no longer produce milk. Cows
supplementation may be necessary with developing hard, swollen quarters should
some roughage sources. These dry cows be milked out. This will help remove
should gain 1 to 1.5 pounds per day to the bacteria and toxins responsible for
allow for the growth of the fetus. Thin the inflammation. Approximately half of
(condition score below 2.50) dry cows all new mastitis
should be grouped separately and fed a
higher energy ration to allow them to
regain optimal body condition. Obese
cows (condition score of 4.00 or above)
will have more calving and health
problems. These cows should be
close to animal requirements to keep the
35
new mastitis infections occur in the early udder of the non-lactating cow which
dry period. Cows are also particularly increases the cure rate and reduces the
susceptible to new infections when milk risk of milk contamination from drug
is present in the udder. Therefore, it is residues compared to lactational therapy.
important to keep dry cows in clean A sterile, individual syringe should
corrals or pastures especially close to always be used to avoid introducing
calving. infectious organisms into the udder.
Dry-cow therapy is an important manufacturer's label instructions.
component of a mastitis control program Observe withdrawal times to avoid
because it reduces the number of residues in meat and milk.
persistent udder infections and new dry Immediately after administering dry
period infections. Dry-cow therapy treatments, the cow should be removed
consists of infusing at the end of a from the milking string. Cows should
lactation each quarter of the udder with a be observed for any complications for 7
registered, Food and Drug to 10 days after treatment .
Administration approved, long-lasting
antibiotic. It is most beneficial if all Other health treatments may be
four quarters of all cows undergo administered at this time, depending
treatment at the end of each lactation. If upon local disease problems and specific
the herd level of contagious mastitis is herd problems. Any necessary
low, the producer and the veterinarian vaccinations should be scheduled well in
may consider treating only cows that advance of calving to allow the
have a record of mastitis infection or production of desired immunoglobulins
high somatic cell counts. in the colostrum. Cows with diagnosed
Dry-cow therapy has several during the dry period. Directions should
advantages over treatment of mastitis be carefully followed on all vaccines and
during lactation. During the dry period, medicines, as certain modified live virus
higher drug dosages can be used safely vaccines and some drugs can cause
since the antibiotics remain in the abortion.
Always read and follow the
parasite infections can also be treated
36
37
MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS
SECTION 6. CARE OF THE DAIRY BULL
INTRODUCTION Bulls are large, powerful animals
Bulls of various ages are Most dairy producers sell bulls for
common on dairies. Management slaughter when they become aggressive
practices including feeding and or too large. Consequently, most clean-
nutrition, health, and housing up bulls are two years old or younger.
requirements from birth to puberty are Breeding bulls can be housed in open
similar to those for raising heifers (see corrals or freestall barns with lactating
Section 1). Bulls may be housed with cows. In some areas, pasture breeding is
growing heifers of similar age prior to practiced and, thus, bulls remain on
reaching puberty. After puberty, bulls pasture. Corral fences and gates used
should be raised in separate pens from for the milking herd are usually adequate
the heifers. for bulls. Likewise, shade, free stalls,
Many dairies use bulls to breed requirements which are adequate for
cows that did not conceive with artificial lactating cows are usually satisfactory
insemination (AI), were not detected in for bulls.
heat and bred by AI, or aborted early in
gestation. These bulls are referred to as Some bulls are housed on the
'clean-up bulls,' and they are housed dairy waiting for progeny performance
with cows in group corrals. Clean-up information before acceptance into an
bulls are often purchased from registered AI program. Other bulls are sold
breeders to provide superior genetics for specifically for natural service purposes.
the herd. Some bulls used for natural Bulls waiting for acceptance by an AI
service also may have had semen program are often housed in individual
collected and distributed to other dairies pens that provide adequate space for the
for AI. The progeny from these matings bull to move freely (rise, stand, walk,
allow evaluation of the bull based on the and lie down) and provide protection
performance of his progeny. Bulls with from mud and rain.
superior genetic potential will then leave
the dairy and enter a commercial AI The decision on construction
organization. Bulls that are no longer material for pens must consider the size
needed for breeding are sold for meat. and strength of the bull. Many pens are
FACILITIES
and handlers should always be cautious.
water access, and feed bunk space
38
constructed of pipe, although wood also lactating cow diet allows for
is used. The pipe must be stronger than maintenance and growth as well as the
pipe used for the lactating cows. Four- increase in activity associated with
inch boiler pipe is considered adequate. breeding. Long-term access to a
The best designed facilities have pipes lactating cow diet may cause
attached to metal posts which are set in calcification of soft tissues due to the
concrete for strength. The interior high calcium intake. This is normally
should be safe for the animal and not a significant concern since most
attendants, with no protruding pipes or bulls do not remain on the dairy long
sharp edges. enough to reach maturity. Mature bulls
As a safety factor, the bull NRC (1989) recommendations. All
facility design should allow attendants to bulls should have free access to clean,
feed and water the animal without fresh water.
entering the pen. Bull pens should be
designed to allow rapid escape for the HEALTH CARE AND
attendants if they must enter the pen. MANAGEMENT
Most pens are equipped with water
bowls or troughs. The surface of the pen Nose Rings
may be dirt or concrete. Dirt pens often
provide better footing, but concrete pens Some bulls have rings placed in
are also suitable if adequate bedding is their noses between 9 to 12 months of
provided. Concrete surfaces should not age. A self-piercing, non-rusting metal
be so smooth that footing or traction is ring is inserted through the nasal septum
impaired or so rough that hoof bruising that separates the nostrils about one inch
occurs. The bull pens should be situated from the tip of the nose. The procedure
so bulls can be moved safely using can be conducted by trained dairy
existing walkways or alleys. Some pens personnel or a veterinarian. Once the
include stanchions or head gates for nose ring is inserted, a bull staff can be
restraint, although these are not a used by the attendant to help control the
necessity. animal.
FEEDING AND NUTRITION Preventative Health Program
The feeding and nutrition A preventative health program
programs for growing bulls should meet for bulls should be established in
requirements specified in the Nutrient consultation with the herd veterinarian.
Requirements of Dairy Cattle (NRC, A health program should consider
1989) publication. Most breeding age deworming, particularly for bulls on
bulls, approximately 8 months and older, pasture, routine foot trimming, and
are housed with lactating cows and are vaccination programs. Bulls should be
fed the same diets. Diets fed to lactating
dairy cows (NRC, 1989) will meet or
exceed the energy and nutrient
requirements of the growing bull. The
should be fed diets according to the
39
vaccinated for Infectious Bovine be similar to that provided to other
Rhinotracheitis (IBR), Bovine Viral animals on the dairy. Attendants should
Diarrhea (BVD), Bovine Respiratory observe bulls for any health problems,
Syncytial Virus (BRSV), leptospirosis, and appropriate action should be taken
and vibriosis. It is a good practice to when necessary. Bulls can be
have the herd veterinarian conduct a aggressive, so they must be handled
breeding soundness examination on carefully.
dairies where facilities are adequate to
safely restrain the bulls. This Transportation
examination includes a microscopic
examination of semen quality and a Transporting bulls requires care
physical examination for signs of because of their size and temperament.
testicular and other reproductive Bulls are often transported individually
abnormalities. Bulls should also be due to their aggressive nature. Because
tested for trichomoniasis at this time. of their size and weight, bulls that are
Trichomoniasis and vibriosis are incapable of standing require special
venereal diseases, and cows can be attention. Transportation and the care of
infected by the bull during breeding. non-ambulatory or disabled animals are
Most routine health care should suggestions apply to dairy bulls.
discussed in Section 7, and these
40
41
MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS
SECTION 7. CARE AND HANDLING OF ANIMALS DESTINED
FOR SALE OR SLAUGHTER
INTRODUCTION slaughter, that were recently medicated,
Approximately one third of all withdrawal times specified on the
lactating dairy cattle are culled from the product label or by the veterinarian's
herd each year. Animals may be culled prescription. The use of animal
due to low milk production, infertility, medications by dairy producers in a
disease, temperament, lameness, or manner inconsistent with the
injury. Most culled animals are destined manufacturer's or veterinarian's
for slaughter, but some are purchased at prescription is prohibited by law.
auctions and relocated to other farms. Violative levels of any residue in the
Animals that die on the farm are meat or other tissues of slaughter
transported to a rendering facility. Some animals will result in condemnation of
local ordinances require that carcasses the carcass and penalties for the
destined for rendering be at least 100 livestock owner.
feet from the roadside while awaiting
pick-up. It is advisable to use "blinds," ANIMAL HANDLING
hay bales, or other barriers to keep
carcasses from public view. Dairy cattle are generally docile.
Transportation is inherently can be aggressive. Handling bulls and
stressful. Regardless of whether culled cows in a manner that excites or
animals are sold for meat or dairy provokes them can result in serious harm
purposes, every effort should be taken to to the animal and/or personnel. Cows
minimize stress during handling and with newborn calves may be aggressive
transportation. Efforts to reduce and should be handled with caution.
handling and transport time will reduce
stress. Rough handling and animal Cattle have panoramic vision,
abuse during transportation are not except for small area directly behind
acceptable. Interim holding facilities, them. Therefore, the animal should be
such as sale yards, should provide approached from a direction other than
adequate feed, water, and shelter for the the rear. If there is no alternative, a low,
animals. quiet voice will indicate to the animal
Any animals destined for help prevent startling.
must conform to the legal meat and milk
However, bulls are extremely strong and
that someone is approaching and will

Moving animals to and from excitement and noise. Animals should
holding pens and loading ramps should not be forced to move faster than a walk.
be done calmly with a minimum of Whips, slappers, and other aids should
42
be only used if absolutely necessary, and avoid stress and trauma to the animals.
then only by trained personnel. Devices Animal handling, the duration of
that can cause injury should be avoided. transport, climatic conditions, and the
Abusive handling only tends to make the vehicle design may all be sources of
animal more excited and prone to stress for cattle. Trips should be planned
harming itself or others. Extremely to minimize transport time, and avoid
excited animals can have elevated levels extreme temperatures. Both proper
of stress hormones, such as ventilation in hot weather and the
catecholamines and cortisol, which may avoidance of wind chill during cold
reduce the quality of the meat or weather are essential. In summer, trucks
increase susceptibility to disease. must be kept moving to prevent heat
Properly designed facilities provide for from building up inside the trailer.
ease of movement, safety for personnel, Precautions, such as shade, ventilation,
and minimum stress to the animal. and availability of water should be
Bull calves are often sold and transporting animals on hot days.
removed from the dairy within one day Animals in late gestation should be
of age to be raised elsewhere for veal or transported with extreme care to protect
beef purposes. These calves should be both the cow and fetus. Truck drivers
dry, have iodine or other approved should avoid sudden starts and stops,
disinfectant applied to the navel, and erratic speed, and direction changes to
should have received sufficient prevent animals from colliding and
colostrum before leaving the dairy. falling. Vehicles should be equipped
Humane care in handling and transport with mirrors or inspection ports for load
is critical to these calves since they have observation. Exhaust fumes should not
limited ability for self-care. enter the trailers.
ANIMAL TRANSPORTATION The transport container should be
Owners or their agents have the obstacles that could injure an animal.
responsibility to select and present for Doors, gates, and passageways should be
transportation only healthy and fit designed to allow ease of passage and
animals. Personnel involved in loading, maintained to avoid hazards. Truck floor
transporting, and unloading cattle should space should be allotted so that all
be trained in techniques that animals can stand in a normal position.
considered when handling and
designed for animals and be free of
During long trips, the animals should be
checked for signs of distress within the
first 20 miles and periodically thereafter.
Long trips should be planned to allow
for ample consumption of feed and
water. Lactating cows should be milked
at 12-hour intervals.
NON-AMBULATORY ANIMALS A non-ambulatory animal is one
which is incapable of standing or
43
walking without assistance. These passes over the animal's body. Without
animals are often referred to as "downer these precautions, major trauma may
cows" or "disabled" animals. Some non- result.
ambulatory animals regain mobility with
appropriate care. Others will not If the proper equipment is not
respond to treatment and will require available, the animal should not be
euthanasia or special handling to move moved. Then either the proper
them to a processing facility. Some equipment should be obtained, or the
local ordinances prohibit movement of animal should be euthanized. Diseased
non-ambulatory animals. California or non-ambulatory animals destined for
Penal Code Section 599f prohibits non- a rendering plant, must be euthanized
federally inspected processing plants, prior to pickup. (For more detailed
stockyards, and auctions from buying, information see Livestock Conservation
selling, or receiving non-ambulatory Institute, 1992.)
animals. It requires that non-federally
inspected processing plants, stockyards, SALE YARDS AND SLAUGHTER-
and auctions take immediate action to HOUSE (ABATTOIR) HANDLING
humanely euthanize or remove the non-
ambulatory animal from the premises Sale yards and slaughterhouses
and prohibits the dragging or pushing of are an essential part of the dairy
the animals. business. Many animals in a sale yard
Every dairy will occasionally sold alone or in groups for transport to
have to handle animals that are acutely other dairies. The sale yard serves as a
diseased or injured and unable to walk. gathering place for the marketing of
Handling sick and non-ambulatory animals. These facilities should be
animals must be done with a minimum designed and maintained so they do not
of force and trauma. Non-ambulatory cause injury to animals during loading,
animals should be protected from direct unloading, or handling. There should be
sunlight, rain, and extreme temperatures. no sharp edges or projections, and
Feeding, watering, and milking the walkways should have non-slip surfaces.
animal are necessary. Animals should be penned according to
size, age, and physical characteristics
Handling non-ambulatory (e.g. horns). Over crowding must not
animals requires special equipment to occur. Solid sides on loading ramps,
assure the animal is not harmed while alleyways and in crowd pens will
being moved. Equipment, such as sleds facilitate animal
and pallets, are available to safely lift
and carry non-ambulatory animals to
another location on the farm or to a
truck for transport. If the use of chains
or ropes becomes absolutely necessary
to move an animal on the farm, it should
be for the shortest possible distance, and
padding used where a chain or rope
are destined for slaughter; others are
44
movement. including the animal's senses of sight,
Cattle destined for sale or handling.
slaughter should not be treated any
differently than animals at the dairy. As a general rule, animals should
Proper care of animals destined for sale not be without feed or water for more
or slaughter is vital to insure the than 24 hours including the time spent
animals future productivity or meat traveling and yarding. For immature
quality at the final destination. Abusive animals, the intervals should be shorter.
handling is costly for the producer. Watering intervals should also be shorter
Bruises from abuse or dragging a non- during hot weather. Sick and diseased
ambulatory animal can reduce the animals should be segregated and must
carcass value up to 50 percent. not be placed in dead animal holding
Educating cattle handlers in proper areas. Any terminally ill or injured
animal handling practices is essential. animals should be euthanized without
Knowledge of basic cattle behavior delay.
hearing, and smell will facilitate proper
45
MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS
SECTION 8. EUTHANASIA OF ANIMALS ON THE DAIRY
INTRODUCTION Acceptable chemical euthanasia
Occasionally it is necessary to injection of barbituric acid derivatives
euthanize a dairy animal due to which depress the central nervous
fractures, calving complications, severe system leading to unconsciousness,
illness, or natural disasters. Under these respiratory and/or cardiac arrest. Only
conditions, the objective is to provide a licensed veterinarians have access to
swift and humane death, thus quickly barbiturate products; thus this method
relieving the pain and suffering of the may have limitations in some situations.
animal. Euthanasia is the act of Animals euthanized by barbiturate
inducing humane death in an animal. injection should not be used for human
The procedure should be done in a consumption or fed to other animals,
manner which will minimize any stress such as farm cats and dogs.
and anxiety experienced by the animal
prior to unconsciousness. Stress can be PHYSICAL METHODS
minimized by proper technical
proficiency of the person performing the Gunshot is a physical method
euthanasia. Correctly done, euthanasia that is inexpensive and does not require
will minimize pain and distress in human contact with the animal. There is
animals, assure safety of the personnel, potential for ricochet, so strict firearm
and protect other animals and people. safety must be observed. Also, local
When an animal is euthanized,
the first step is to produce rapid
unconsciousness. This is followed by
respiratory and/or cardiac arrest, and
ultimately the total loss of brain
function. Several common methods of
euthanasia are utilized on the dairy.
Chemical euthanasia using injectable
barbiturate may be offered by
veterinarians, while the physical
methods of gunshot and penetrating
captive bolt gun may be performed by
trained personnel.
CHEMICAL METHODS
methods involve the intravenous
laws and ordinances may prohibit the
discharge of a firearm. A .22 is
sufficient for most cattle; however, large
bulls require at least a .22 magnum or 9
mm round. The use of hollow-point or
soft-nose bullets are recommended to
increase tissue destruction and decrease
ricochet. The muzzle of the firearm
should be held 2 to 10 inches from the
intended point of contact. The bullet
should penetrate the skull at the
intersection of two imaginary lines
46
drawn from the inside corner of the eye should be exsanguinated (rapid blood
to a point on the top of the opposite ear loss) to ensure a swift death. To
(or base of opposite horn). Note, this is produce rapid bleed out, large blood
not centered between the eyes. vessels such as the carotid arteries and/or
Penetrating captive bolt also kills instrument.
by concussion and physical destruction
of the brain. Adequate restraint is MONITORING VITAL SIGNS
necessary to properly place the gun
firmly against the animals head at the Following euthanasia procedures,
point of impact. The bolt should enter at the animal will collapse and may
the same location as described for experience a short period (less than 20
gunshot euthanasia. It is important to seconds) of intense muscle contraction.
follow the manufacturers Poorly coordinated kicking or paddling
recommendations on the selection of the movements and a period of relaxation
cartridge strength appropriate for the will follow, and the pupils of the eyes
size of the animal. should be fully dilated. It is important
Non-penetrating captive bolt examining the vital signs of life. Death
guns will stun and not kill the animal. is confirmed by the lack of rhythmic
This method must be followed by breathing, heartbeat, and corneal reflex.
exsanguination (or another method) to Corneal reflex can be observed by
assure rapid death while the animal is touching the surface of the eye; no
unconscious. blinking or eye movement should occur.
After the initial discharge of the be required if there is evidence of any
gunshot or captive bolt gun, the animal vital signs.
jugular veins are severed with a sharp
to confirm that the animal is dead y
An additional euthanasia procedure may
47
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50
GLOSSARY
Antibiotic A therapeutic product produced by living organisms, such as molds, which destroys or
inhibits the growth of other microorganisms, especially bacteria.
Artificial Placing frozen semen which has been thawed in the uterus of a female bovine in
Insemination estrus.
Attenuated Process used in vaccine production to modify organisms to induce immunity without
causing disease.
Brucellosis Disease of cattle causing abortion in females and undulant fever in people. Subject to a
federal/state eradication program requiring vaccination of all breeding females by an
accredited veterinarian.
Bull Uncastrated bovine male of any age.
Calf Young bovine animal of either sex under a year of age.
Castration Removal of the testicles.
Close-up Cow A pregnant cow within 10 to 16 days of calving.
Coccidia Microscopic single-celled animal parasites that cause diarrhea and other diseases.
Colostrum Milk produced by a cow prior to and during the first milking after calving which contains
maternal immunoglobulins.
Cow A sexually mature female bovine animal which has produced a calf.
Cull To remove less desirable animals from the breeding herd.
Dam Female parent.
Dehorning Procedure to remove horn or terminate horn growth permanently.
Downer Cow Animal which cannot stand or walk due to sickness or injury.
Dry cow Nonlactating pregnant female bovine that has completed a lactation.
Drying-off End of lactation when milking is stopped and udder is allowed time to regenerate milk-
producing tissue.
Dystocia Difficult birth.
E. coli Bacterium causing mastitis in cows and diarrhea in calves.
Edema Excessive accumulation of watery fluids in cells, tissues or cavities.
51
Estrous Cycle Length of time from one estrus period to the next; averages 21 days in cattle.
Estrus The period of sexual receptivity in the cow; same as heat.
Forage Fibrous feedstuffs harvested from plant sources (e.g., hay, silage); roughage.
Fresh A cow or heifer that has recently given birth or "freshened."
Gestation The time period from conception to calving.
Gossypol A toxic compound contained in cottonseed.
Heat detection Identification of females in heat for artificial insemination.
Heifer A female bovine that has not produced a calf; sometimes a cow in first lactation.
Hutch Small portable shelter for housing a single calf.
Lactation The period between calving and drying off when a cow produces milk.
Mastitis Inflammation of the mammary gland.
Milk fever See parturient paresis.
Morbidity Incidence of disease; morbidity rate is the proportion or percentage of individuals in a group
that become ill during a specified time.
Mortality rate Proportion or percentage of individuals that die from a disease during a specified time,
usually 1 year.
Mycotoxin Poisons in feed caused by molds.
Natural Service Breeding of a cow utilizing a bull rather than artificial insemination.
Necropsy Post-mortem examination performed on animals.
Ovary The female reproductive gland in which the eggs are formed and progesterone and
estrogenic hormones are produced.
Parasite An organism that lives a portion of its life cycle in or on a host animal.
Parturient paresis Partial paralysis that occurs at or near time of giving birth to young and beginning lactation;
commonly called milk fever.
Parturition The process of giving birth, calving.
Pasteurization The process of heating milk to 161 F and holding it at that temperature for 15 seconds to
o
destroy microorganisms that cause disease or spoilage of products.
Pathogen Biologic agent--i.e., bacteria, virus, protozoa, nematode--which produces disease or illness.
Periparturient The time around calving.
52
Periparturient Low serum calcium associated with calving which can result in loss of
hypocalcemia motor function. (See also parturient paresis.)
Postpartum Following birth.
Protozoa Single-celled microscopic animals.
Rumen The large fermentation compartment of the ruminant animal's stomach in which bacteria
and protozoa break down fibrous plant material and other feedstuffs, and synthesize
essential proteins and vitamins.
Rumination Regurgitation and chewing of feed from the rumen; cud chewing.
Shade Structures in corrals designed to provide shelter from sun.
Stanchion Devices that close around the neck of cattle behind the head; used to restrain animals for
heat detection, examination, breeding, treatment, etc.
Stress An unusual or abnormal influence causing a change in an animal's function, structure, or
behavior.
Total Mixed Complete ration consisting of concentrate, roughage, and supplements
Ration (TMR) necessary to meet the daily nutrient and energy nutritional requirements of
the cow or heifer.
Vaccine Suspension of attenuated or killed microbes or toxins administered to induce active
immunity.
Whole milk Milk as collected from the cow.
53
INDEX
Abortion, 35, 49 Ear tags, 11, 17
Abuse, 41, 44 Edema, 16, 22, 29, 49
Acid detergent, 8 Elevated pens, 5, 6
Air movement, 5, 25 Estrous cycle, 17, 50
Alfalfa, 4, 8, 16 Estrus, 13, 17, 30, 49, 50
Algae, 14, 29 Euthanasia, 43, 45-48
Animal handling, 41, 42, 44 Euthanize, 43, 45
Antibiotics, 8, 24 Extra teats, 10
Artificial insemination, 17, 37, 50 Facilities, 1, 5, 13, 16, 17, 19, 21, 25, 29,
Bedding, 6, 9, 14, 17, 18, 21, 26, 27, 29, 38 33, 37-39, 41-43, 47, 48
Behavior, 5, 27, 31, 44, 48, 51 Fattening, 15, 16
Body condition, 13, 16, 18, 22, 28, 34 Feed additives, 19
Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus, 10, 18, Feed intake, 9, 14, 16, 23
39 Feeder space, 10, 28
Bovine Viral Diarrhea, 10, 18 Fences, 14, 18, 37
Breeding, 10, 13, 15-18, 27, 37-39, 49-51 Flies, 18, 30
Brucellosis vaccination, 11, 18 Foot care, 30
Bullets, 45 Freestalls, 26, 33
Bulls, 17, 37-39, 41, 45 Gin trash, 27
By-products, 4 Gossypol, 16, 50
Cables, 14 Grain tanks, 14
Calf housing, 5 Group size, 15
Calf starter, 8, 13, 16, 48 Growth rates, 14-16
Calving, 6, 13, 15-19, 21-24, 28, 29, 33-35, Herd size, 3
45, 49-51 Hide brands, 11
Calving assistance, 21, 23 Hospital pen, 19
Calving facility, 21, 22 Hutches, 6, 17, 18
Captive bolt, 46 Identification, 10, 11, 17, 18, 50
Cash receipts, 3 Immunoglobulins, 6, 7, 35, 49
Cesarean section, 23 Individual pens, 5, 6, 37
Clean-up bulls, 37 Infection, 10, 19, 23, 24, 26, 29, 30, 35
Closed housing, 6 Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, 10, 18,
Close-up cow, 22, 49 38
Close-up pen, 22 Ionophores, 19
Clostridial vaccination, 18 Labor efficiency, 5
Coccidiostat, 19 Leptospirosis, 18, 39
Cold housing, 6 Light, 25
Corneal reflex, 46 Loafing space, 27
Cottonseed, 16, 50 Loose housing, 27
Cow numbers, 3, 27, 33 Machine milking, 31
Dehorning, 10, 19, 49 Magnets, 28
Deworming, 19, 38 Manure, 6, 9, 14, 18, 26, 27, 29
Downer Cow Syndrome, 34 Mastitis, 10, 18, 22, 25, 27, 29, 34, 35,
Dry cow, 22, 29, 33-35, 47-49 48-50
Dry cow therapy, 35 Maternity pen, 22
Dry period, 33-35, 48 Milk feeding, 16
Drylot, 3
Dystocia, 23, 34, 49
54
Milk production, 3, 4, 25, 28, 34, 41 Stress, 5, 6, 9, 13, 17-19, 21, 25, 28,
Milk replacer, 7, 8, 13, 17 41,42, 45, 51
Morbidity, 5, 50 Sulfamethazine, 19
Mud, 14, 15, 25, 27, 30, 37 Superhutches, 14
Neckchains, 11 Switch trimming, 30
Nitrate, 29 Tail docking, 30
Non-ambulatory, 29, 39, 43, 48 Tattoos, 11
Nose rings, 38 Teat removal, 10
Nutrient, 8, 15, 16, 28, 34, 38, 48 Temperature, 4, 6, 8, 9, 25, 50
Obesity, 33 Total mixed ration, 16, 22
Oxytetracycline, 19 Toxins, 28, 34, 51
Parasite, 10, 18, 35, 50 Transportation, 3, 17, 39, 41, 42
Pasture breeding, 37 Trichomoniasis, 39
Pen size, 6, 13 Truck, 42, 43
Periparturient, 16, 21, 34, 51 Twins, 23
Pneumonia, 6, 27 Udder, 7, 16, 22, 25, 26, 29-31, 33, 35,
Postpartum care, 23 49
Prolapsed uterus, 34 Umbilical cord, 9
Prostaglandin, 17 Uterine infections, 34
Records, 10, 17, 18 Utility room, 21
Retained placenta, 34 Vaccination, 9, 11, 18, 19, 38, 49
Sale yards, 41, 43 Ventilation, 5, 6, 27, 42
Salt, 8, 16, 22, 29 Vibriosis, 39
Sanitation, 9, 21, 26, 29 Vision, 41
Semen quality, 39 Waste handling, 27
Shade, 4, 14, 15, 21, 33, 37, 42, 48, 51 Water, 4, 7-9, 13-18, 21, 23, 25, 27-30,
Sire, 18 33, 37, 38, 41, 42, 44, 47, 48
Slaughter, 8, 29, 37, 41, 43, 44, 47, 48 Water troughs, 8, 14, 18, 27, 29
Slope, 27, 3 Weaning, 5, 8-10, 13, 15-17, 19
Space, 5, 10, 13-15, 22, 27, 28, 33, 37,42 Whips, 42
Stanchions, 13-15, 17-19, 38 Wire, 26, 28