United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the political union of
England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. It is not a federation but a unitar state, and its
inhabitants elect members to represent them in a parliament that meets in !ondon. Scotland,
Wales, and Northern Ireland, ho"e#er, retain a degree of autonom in running some of their o"n
affairs.
History
The first union of separate states in the British Isles too$ place in %&'%, "hen Wales "as
(oined to England b the creation of the title of )rince of Wales for the son of Ed"ard I of
England. Wales "as not officiall incorporated "ith England, ho"e#er, until %*&+. In %+'& ,ames
-I of Scotland became $ing of England .as ,ames I/, uniting Scotland and England under one
ruler and creating the so0called Union of the 1ro"ns. 2espite this unification, Scotland retained
its o"n parliament until %3'3, "hen the parliaments of the t"o states "ere formall united.
4lthough this union "as opposed b man Scots, it ultimatel ga#e them entr to the
larger "orld of English politics and business. The name Great Britain "as officiall adopted for
this union5 "hen Ireland "as added to Great Britain b the 4ct of Union of %6'%, the title United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland "as introduced.
4s a result of Irish demands for independence, the Irish 7ree State "as declared in %899.
The si: northern counties of Ireland, "hich had a predominantl )rotestant population, remained
as part of the United Kingdom but "ere officiall named Northern Ireland. The present title for
the union of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland00the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland00dates from %893. Northern Ireland sent representati#es to the
!ondon )arliament but had its o"n legislature and e:ecuti#e to deal "ith domestic matters. In
%839, because of continuing political and religious problems .bet"een the ;oman 1atholics and
the )rotestants/ in Northern Ireland, the !ondon )arliament suspended the Northern Ireland
)arliament. The !ondon )arliament then established its o"n direct control o#er this pro#ince.
In %66* a secretar of state "as appointed to loo$ after Scottish affairs. There are separate
departments in Scotland for home affairs, health, agriculture, fisheries, education, and economic
de#elopment. The Scottish legal sstem is also separate from the English sstem.
In %8+< a Welsh =ffice "as established to o#ersee matters of interest to Wales. The office
is headed b a secretar of state for Wales.
The 1hannel Islands and the Isle of >an do not belong to the United Kingdom. The are
direct dependencies of the 1ro"n, or so#ereign, and ha#e their o"n legislati#e and ta:ation
sstems.
Constitution
The United Kingdom does not ha#e a "ritten constitution li$e that of the United States.
The British constitution is formed partl b statutes, or legislati#e enactments of )arliament5
partl b common la", based on decisions of courts of la"5 and partl b practices and precepts,
"hich are $no"n as con#entions. These con#entions are not part of the la" of the countr but are
ne#ertheless necessar for running the machiner of go#ernment. Because the constitution is not
"ritten, it can be adapted as necessar either b an act of )arliament or b the general acceptance
of a ne" con#ention.
There are three organs of go#ernment in the constitution? the legislature, the e:ecuti#e,
and the (udiciar. The legislature consists of )arliament, "hich is the supreme authorit in the
countr. The e:ecuti#e consists of the 1abinet members and other ministers "ho ma$e and direct
the polic of the countr, along "ith go#ernment departments and local authorities. The (udiciar
determines common la" and also interprets statutes.
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The Crown
The 1ro"n is the supreme po"er in the legislature, the e:ecuti#e, and the (udiciar. The
so#ereign is also the head of the established 1hurch of England and is commander in chief of the
armed forces. In practice, ho"e#er, the present @ueen, EliAabeth II, acts onl on the ad#ice of her
ministers and cannot re(ect or ignore their ad#ice.
These restrictions on the po"ers of the so#ereign are the result of se#eral centuries of
confrontation and interaction bet"een the so#ereign and )arliament. In effect her ma(estBs
go#ernment in the @ueenBs name go#erns the United Kingdom.
The @ueen still has se#eral significant functions. She calls and dissol#es )arliament, and
she opens a ne" session "ith a speech from the throne. This speech is not "ritten b her,
ho"e#er, but b the go#ernment in po"er, and it outlines the go#ernmentBs polic for the
forthcoming session of )arliament.
Similarl, the @ueen confers honors00in the form of peerages, $nighthoods, and
decorations00that are gi#en on the ad#ice of the go#ernment and that often re"ard people for
ser#ices to the political part in po"er. She can a"ard some honors herself, ho"e#er00such as the
=rder of the Garter. She appoints (udges, arm officers, diplomats, and officials of the 1hurch of
England also on ad#ice.
4lthough the @ueen has in fact little authorit of her o"n, she is $ept informed of e#ents
and is sometimes consulted b the go#ernment in po"er. The @ueen has the ad#ice of a )ri#
1ouncil, "hich consists of ministers of the go#ernment and other persons recommended b the
go#ernment in po"er. In the e#ent of an inconclusi#e national election, the @ueen ma be re@uired
to choose a ne" )rime >inister.
In addition to her other functions the @ueen is head of the 1ommon"ealth, "hich consists
of a number of states that formerl belonged to the British Empire. The 1ommon"ealth includes
such countries as 4ustralia, 1anada and Ne" Cealand and a number of smaller states such as
,amaica, the Bahamas, and 7i(i. Go#ernors0general, "ho are not members, represent the @ueen in
these countries of the United Kingdom go#ernment and "ho act independent of it. The United
Kingdom go#ernment cannot interfere in the affairs of a 1ommon"ealth countr, e:cept in the
case of such dependencies as the 7al$land Islands and Gibraltar, "hich ha#e not achie#ed
complete independence from the United Kingdom.
The histor of the monarch plas a large part in the histor of the British Isles. The
present so#ereign is a descendant of Sophia00the electress of Dano#er00"hose son came to the
British throne in %3%< as George I. Sophia "as the nearest )rotestant descendant of ,ames I, her
grandfather. The 4ct of Settlement in %3'% pro#ided for the accession to the throne of Sophia and
her heirs in order to ensure a )rotestant monarch. B this act all so#ereigns must be members of
the 1hurch of England. The act also strictl limited the role of the so#ereign in the go#ernment of
the countr. In %8%3 the roal famil dropped their German titles and too$ the name of the Douse
of Windsor because of the unpopularit of e#erthing German during World War I.
The @ueen and her famil members are largel supported b the state. )arliament
annuall appro#es allo"ances for members of the roal famil. The @ueenBs pri#ate e:penditures
come partl from her o"n funds and partl from an inheritance $no"n as the 2uch of !ancaster.
The prince of Wales recei#es re#enues from another estate00the 2uch of 1orn"all.
Parliament
In theor the @ueen functions as the supreme legislati#e authorit through )arliament. In
practice, ho"e#er, the @ueen and )arliament rarel come together, e:cept at the openings of
)arliament sessions. )arliament consists of t"o houses00the Douse of 1ommons and the Douse of
!ords.
The House of Commons.
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The Douse of 1ommons consists of +*' members00*9& from England, 39 from Scotland,
&6 from Wales, and %3 from Northern Ireland. The United Kingdom is di#ided into a number of
constituencies, each of "hich returns one member to )arliament. 4ll persons o#er the age of %6
are eligible to #ote for a member from their local constituenc. The number and siAe of
constituencies occasionall change "ith #ariations in population. >embers recei#e a salar and
hold their seats for the duration of a )arliament. 4 general election for all members must be held
at least e#er fi#e ears but ma be called at an time "ithin that period. 7or e:ample, a
go#ernment ma face a general election if it is defeated in some ma(or issue b a #ote in
)arliament.
The spea$er of the Douse of 1ommons is elected b the members and acts as the
president of the Douse. =ther elected and appointed officials loo$ after the running of the Douse.
>embers of )arliament are controlled b their part "hips, "ho round up members before a #ote
and organiAe debates in the 1ommons.
>embers of the Douse of 1ommons belong to one of the British political parties. The
part that "ins the ma(orit of parliamentar seats forms a go#ernment "ith the part leader as
prime minister. =f the remaining parties, the one "ith the largest number of seats becomes the
official opposition.
The part in po"er in the earl %88's "as the 1onser#ati#e part, led b ,ohn >a(or,
"ho "as selected in No#ember %88' to replace >argaret Thatcher as prime minister. Thatcher
"as the longest continuousl ser#ing prime minister in the 9'th centur. The 1onser#ati#es held
po"er since %838.
The !abour part "as the largest minorit part in the go#ernment of the late %86's. Its
leader "as Neil Kinnoc$. The !abour part ad#ocates socialism and supports the nationaliAation
of basic industries and ser#ices. In general it opposes the po"er of big business. >an of its
members "ould li$e to abolish the Douse of !ords and the annual a"ards of titles and honors.
The part supports higher rates of unemploment compensation, old0age pensions, and other
forms of "elfare. It "as responsible for the establishment in %8<6 of the United KingdomBs free
medical ser#ice, $no"n as the National Dealth Ser#ice. The part gains much of its support from
the trade unions, but it has been troubled "ith internal di#isions and decreasing numbers of trade0
union members. It lost man #otes in the %863 election because of its contro#ersial defense
polic, "hich called for partial British unilateral disarmament. The main strongholds of !abour
support are in the industrial north of England, in Scotland, and in southern Wales.
The Social 2emocratic part .S2)/ is an offshoot of the !abour part. Its members
regard !abour and its policies as too left0"ing. The S2) allied "ith the !iberal part in order to
attract #oters in the %863 elections but gained fe"er #otes than it had hoped.
There are small nationalist parties in Scotland and Wales00the Scottish National part and
the Welsh Nationalist part, )laid 1mru. In Northern Ireland there are se#eral parties, including
the Ulster Unionist part, the Ulster 2emocratic Unionist part, and the Social 2emocratic and
!abour part. There are also some small far0left parties in Britain00such as the 1ommunist part,
the Socialist Wor$ersB part, and the Wor$ersB ;e#olutionar part00"hich pla no real role in
present0da politics.
The House of Lords.
The Douse of !ords has more than %,%'' members. These include hereditar peers, or
nobles b inheritance or birth5 life peers, or indi#iduals "ith nonhereditar titles conferred b the
1ro"n5 la" lords5 and archbishops and senior bishops of the 1hurch of England. 4ll hereditar
peers ma attend sessions, but onl those Irish peers "ho also hold an English or Scottish peerage
ma attend. )eers recei#e no salar. In practice no more than about &6' peers regularl attend
sessions. In the Douse of !ords the !ord 1hancellor fulfills the same role as does the spea$er in
the 1ommons.
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The functions of Parliament.
The functions of )arliament are to ma$e la"s, to appropriate mone for #arious state
purposes, and to pro#ide a forum for debate. The spea$er controls debates in the Douse of
1ommons.
!egislation is initiated b the introduction of bills in either house. In general the
go#ernment introduces most bills, though members ma introduce their o"n bills. 7inance bills
can onl be introduced in the 1ommons. 4 bill is gi#en three readings in the house in "hich it is
introduced5 if passed, it is sent to the other house, "here it is submitted to the same procedure. If
both houses pass a bill, it becomes la". In theor the so#ereign has a right to #eto a bill, but this
has not occurred since the %6th centur. !i$e"ise the Douse of !ords has little po"er to stop or
dela bills that ha#e been passed b the 1ommons. It is hoped that the members of the !ords00
often senior political figures "hom ha#e been $nighted for their ser#ices00"ill use their
e:perience to suggest amendments to a bill. The !ords cannot interfere "ith a mone bill or "ith
a bill that has been passed b the 1ommons in t"o consecuti#e sessions.
There has been tal$ of abolishing the Douse of !ords because of its limited role and
because its members are not elected and represent, at least in part, an aristocrac that no longer
plas a ma(or role in British life. No action has been ta$en, ho"e#er, e:cept to limit further the
po"er of the !ords.
There are a number of committees appointed b the Douse of 1ommons to conduct
#arious $inds of business. Some of these committees are permanent5 others00the select
committees00are appointed temporaril to e:amine special matters.
The Government
The head of the go#ernment is the )rime >inister. .The title of )rime >inister dates bac$
to the %6th centur./ The )rime >inister is the leader of the ma(orit part in )arliament and has
the po"er to appoint and dismiss ministers. The )rime >inister is the main representati#e of the
go#ernment and recommends the appointment of some senior (udges and of senior clerg of the
1hurch of England. The )rime >inister also dra"s up the annual list of honors, "hich are usuall
a"arded on Ne" EearBs 2a.
The )rime >inister selects a 1abinet of ministers. The 1abinet de#elops the
go#ernmentBs policies, "hich are presented as proposed legislation to )arliament, and e:ercises
control o#er go#ernment departments. >eetings of the 1abinet are held in pri#ate, and strict
secrec is maintained. Some matters are discussed b 1abinet committees, "hich consist of the
ministers in#ol#ed. The 1abinet =ffice handles the records of 1abinet meetings and pro#ides
information to ministers. To maintain stabilit the 1abinet must act as a collecti#e group and
issue unanimous statements and policies. If a minister does not agree "ith 1abinet policies, that
minister must resign.
>inisters head go#ernment departments and are responsible for the "or$ of those
departments. The ministers must be prepared to ans"er @uestions about their departments in the
Douse of 1ommons. >inisters "ho sit in the Douse of !ords ha#e a parliamentar secretar "ho
ans"ers @uestions raised in the 1ommons. This sstem of parliamentar control o#er go#ernment
departments discourages inefficienc and irresponsibilit.
There are man go#ernment departments of #arious siAes and comple:it. >a(or
departments include the Treasur, "hich handles the countrBs finances5 the >inistr of 2efense5
the >inistr of Dealth, "hich operates the National Dealth Ser#ice5 the Dome =ffice, "hich
controls the police and other la"0and0order institutions5 the 7oreign =ffice5 and the )ost =ffice.
There are se#eral Scottish and Northern Irish departments. 4 Welsh 2epartment of the >inistr of
Education deals "ith special aspects of Welsh education. >embers of the ci#il carr out most of
the "or$ of go#ernment departmentBs ser#ice. Because none of the positions held b ci#il ser#ants
is an electi#e or political appointment, a change in go#ernment does not affect a departmentBs
staff.
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Local Government
)rimaril locall elected councils carr out local go#ernment. There are numerous
administrati#e di#isions, each "ith its o"n council. The largest di#ision is the count5 it has a
count council. There are also borough councils, rural district and urban district councils, and
district to"n councils .in Scotland/, and parish councils. These councils are responsible for
pro#iding such ser#ices as garbage disposal, "ater supplies, se"erage, and street cleaning. The
also administer the police and fire ser#ices as "ell as education, certain health ser#ices, and
housing.
In %83< se#en metropolitan district councils "ere established for certain large cities and
their regions, including !ondon, >anchester, and !i#erpool. These councils "ere abolished in
%86', and their "or$ "as passed to borough and district councils and to (oint authorities.
>embers of councils are elected and generall belong to one of the ma(or political parties.
1ouncils in some of the large cities consist predominantl of !abour members. The contro#ersial
actions of some left0"ing councils in !ondon and !i#erpool led to the 1onser#ati#e go#ernmentBs
brea$up of the metropolitan councils in order to remo#e their influence.
Income for the operation of local go#ernment comes partl from the national go#ernment
and partl from propert ta:es, or domestic rates. The introduction of the unpopular communit
charge, or poll ta:, to replace the propert ta:es00in Scotland in %868 and in England and Wales in
%88'00"as largel blamed for the sudden resignation of )rime >inister Thatcher. The go#ernment
"as forced to re#ise its ta: program.
The Judiciary
The (udiciar is independent of the legislature and the e:ecuti#e. No one00 e#en the
so#ereign00can control or influence the courtsB operations or decisions. The (udicial sstem is
administered b the !ord 1hancellor ."ho is a go#ernment minister/ and b the home secretar.
The !ord 1hancellor recommends candidates for #arious (udicial appointments.
The legal sstem of Scotland differs in man "as from that of England and Wales5
ho"e#er, both sstems ha#e ci#il and criminal di#isions, and both use the (ur sstem for tring
persons accused of serious crimes. The legal sstem of Northern Ireland is similar to that of
England and Wales.
In England and Wales the courts most often used for ci#il cases are the count courts.
1ases that in#ol#e large sums of mone, ho"e#er, are heard in one of the di#isions of the Digh
1ourt of ,ustice. There is a 1ourt of 4ppeal, from "hich a further appeal is possible to the Douse
of !ords, the United KingdomBs Supreme 1ourt of 4ppeal for ci#il cases.
1riminal cases in#ol#ing minor offenses ma be tried "ithout a (ur in magistrateBs
courts. =ther cases ma be heard in 1ourts of 4ssiAe. These courts are ser#ed b (udges "ho
tra#el around count to"ns or b so0called 1ourts of Fuarter Sessions, "hich con#ene four times
a ear in a number of counties and boroughs. In !ondon the 1entral 1riminal 1ourt handles cases
for the capital cit and its surrounding districts. 4 1ourt of 1riminal 4ppeal also e:ists.
In Scotland most ci#il cases are heard in sheriff courts, "hich are similar to English
count courts. >inor ci#il matters are often tried b a (ustice of the peace. The supreme ci#il
court is the 1ourt of Session, from "hich appeals ma be made to the Douse of !ords. The sheriff
courts, "ith or "ithout a (ur handle minor criminal cases. >ore serious criminal cases go to the
Digh 1ourt of ,udiciar in Edinburgh.
4ndrei SAente
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