educational section

INDIRECT METHODS OF
STRUCTURAL MODEL ANALYSIS
bY
J. D. DAVIES
University College, Swansea
This article gives in two parts an elementary intro-
duction to the indirect methods widely used in
structural engineering and applicable also in other
fields. The first part introduces the basic theorems,
the second part in the next issue of Strain will deal with
the laws of similitude, with model materials and with
experimental techniques.
1. Synopsis
The paper reviews ffietheory, methods and materials
used for indirect models for structures having linear
force-deformation characteristics. The main purpose
of these models is the determination of influence lines
and influence surfaces for the generalised forces (axial
and shear forces, bending moments and torques) and
generalised displacements (axial and lateral move-
ments, rotations and twists) in prototype structures.
Unlike direct model methods, this method does
not have the actual loading on the structure re-
produced to scale, and this explains the term indirect.
Prototype quantities are obtained from measurements
on the model in terms of the laws of structural simili-
tude. The assumption of linear behaviour considerably
simplifies the similarity requirements. A wide range
of materials may be used for constructing the models,
the experimental techniques are comparatively simple
to perform and expensive equipment is not required.
2. Introduction
Indirect models are used to determine influence lines
and influence surfaces for structures exhibiting linear
elastic behaviour, i.e. structures in which the deforma-
tions are directly proportional to the loads. An
influence line is a graph giving the variation of some
linear response of the structure (force, moment, de-
flection or rotation) at a particular point as a unit
load (force or couple) moves along the structure. If
the unit load can move in two planes-as in shell
type structures-the influence line becomes an in-
fluence surface.
I t is assumed that the principle of superposition
(see below) is valid for model and full-size prototype.
The theory of indirect models is straightforward and
the testing procedures are comparatively simple.
If influence characteristics are required for genera-
lised forces (axial forces, shear forces, moments and
torques) at particular sections, the procedure is to
cut the model at one of these sections, induce a
prescribed displacement, and interpret the results in
accordance with Muller-Breslaus principle. (See
Section 4.)
When influence characteristics are required for
generalised deformations (deflections or rotations) the
model is deformed by a prescribed force and the results
are interpreted by recourse to the reciprocal theorem.
(See Section 3.)
Thus, for the first method the cutting and dis-
placing of the model requires suitable apparatus but
only deformations are measured. For the second
method the procedure is simpler but the magnitude of
the force causing deformations has to be measured
also.
Indirect models are used for static or quasi-static
problems only.
3. Linear Structural Behaviour
A large number of common civil engineering
structures remain stiff under load and the deforma-
tions are such that they do not measureably affect the
actions of the loads. For overall linear structural be-
haviour three conditions have to be fulfilled :
(i) The stress-strain relationships must be linear
(Hookes Law applies).
(ii) There are no cable or stability effects, i.e., the
deformations do not modify the stiffness of the
structure due to second order effects resulting
from axial tension or compression forces.
(iii) The deformations are small (no gross changes in
geometry under load)
These three requirements must be borne in mind in
the selection of suitable model materials, testing techni-
ques and interpretation of results. Occasionally, it may
be expedient to contravene requirement (iii) when it
is more convenient to use large displacements if
precise measuring equipment is not to hand. The
page thirty-six Strain, October, 1968
consequences of non-compliance with strict linear
elastic behaviour will be discussed in later sections.
Principle of superposition
The principle of superposition of forces and dis-
placements due to different loading systems by simple
algebraic summation is valid if the structure exhibits
linear behaviour. This principle, together with the re-
ciprocal theorem, forms the basis of all indirect
model analysis.
With regard to displacement, the required com-
ponent of the displacement at a point is the projection
of the actual deflection of the point on to the line of
action of the force acting at that point, i.e., the de-
flection affecting the work done by the force (Fig. I.)
P
Fig. I . The required component of the deflection is6,
namely the displacement affecting the work done
by P.
Influence coeflcients
The deflection 61 at some point 1 due to a load P2
acting at some point 2 may be expressed in the form
61= a12p2
where a12 is called the influence coefficient (or flexi-
bility coefficient) and represents the change in deflec-
tion at 1 due to a change of unit load at 2.
Fig. 2 shows the load-deflection relationship for a
point 1 on a linear structure subjected to a monotonic
force system in which all the forces increase uniformly
at the same relative intensity.
Using influence coefficients, the deflection at I may
be expressed as
I I i 3
JI
Fig. 2. Monotonic force system.
Because the system is monotonic, the load ratios
Pz/Pl, etc., are constant and all loads may be repre-
sented by a single load parameter, in this case PI.
If the forces applied to the structure do not increase
in a constant ratio one to the other but in some arbit-
rary way, the load-deflection relationship at a point
will not be a straight line and some possible paths are
shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Possible load-deflection paths for a non-mono-
tonic force system.
However, irrespective of the loading path the total
net work done by the system of forces will be
1
8- P 6
2
(3)
When all the forces in the system have reached their
final values, the value of 61 will be the same irrespective
of the loading history, and the work done by P1is
represented by the area of the hatched portion of
Fig. 3, always assuming linear behaviour throughout.
The reciprocal theorem
1 and2.
Fig. 4a may represent a linear structure loaded at
Strain, October, 1968 page thirty-seveii
51
b C
Fig. 4. The reciprocal theorem: a12 = a21
61 = all PI + a12PZ
62 = a21 Pl + a22PZ
The total work done is
and is independent of the loading path.
Apply P1 first and then apply Pz. The load-deflection
curves for 1 and 2 are shown in Figs. 4b and c. The
total work done for this sequence of loading is
,z- P6 =- all P: + a12P1 p2 +
Equating (4) and ( 5 ) wefind
which is one form of the reciprocal theorem.
1 1 1 ( 5)
2 2
a22Pi
a12 = a21 (6)
I
-T
Fig. 5. Bettis law: The work done by P1in moving
through the displacement 61caused by M2equals
the work done by M2 in moving through the
displacement 02caused by PI. Hence
Hence PI 61= PlalzMz = M2e2 = M2a21P1.
~-
Consider the simple structure shown in Fig. 5. We
first apply a load P1to point 1 and this will cause a
rotation e2=aZ1P1 at point 2. Remove P1and apply
a couple M2 at point 2. This will cause a displacement
61 =a&2 at point 1. Hence
a12=61/M2 and a21=&/P1
Since a12=a21, it follows that
Pi 61=M2& (64
Let us next consider two separate groups of
generalised loads: let PI represent the first group and
M,, the second group. As before, we apply the system
of loads PI and then the system MII. Let QII be the
displacements caused by PI along the lines of action
of MI, and let 6, be the displacements caused by MI,
along the lines of action of PI. The appropriate dis-
placements are those affecting the work done by each
component of the load groups-deflections for loads
and rotations for couples. If
PI=P1 +PI/ +P1 + . . . , MI, =M2+M2/ +M2// + . .
s, = + 61/ + s2// + . . . , e,, = e2 + e2/ + ep + . . .
then combining the work done by each force compo-
nent weobtain in accordance with (6a)
(PI 61 +PI/ 611+PI/ 61// + . .)
or
=(W&+M2/e2/ +M2/82// + . .)
ZP161=ZM202 (6b)
This is known as Bettis Law and is simply a more
general form of the reciprocal theorem using the work
done by the two force systems. Thus if we expand
equation (6a) weget
P161 =PI x a12x M2=M2 x a21x P1=M2&, etc.
or in general,
Z P1 61 = Z P2 62for forces and deflections 1
Z M1 81 = Z M2 e2for couplesand rotations (7)
Equations (7) represent the basis of influence line
theory. The displacement is considered positive if it
corresponds to the sense of the force.
Z P1 61 = Z M2 02 for mixed quantities 1
4. Influence Line f or Forces
Fig. 6a shows a model of a two-hinged arch.
Suppose it is required to find the influence line for the
horizontal thrust at the hinges. The restraint cor-
responding to the reactive force H is removed by
controlled cutting of the arch at point 1 ; it may be
imagined that the left-hand hinge is supported on
rollers permitting horizontal movements only (it is
page thirty-eighi Strain, October, 1968
important to note that indiscriminate cutting is not
permitted; only the restraint impeding motion of the
force under consideration along its line of action is
to be removed). The resulting structure is called a
primary structure (Fig. 6b) and is derived from the
original structure by removal of one restraint. All
subsequent operations are performed on the primary
structure.
/ p
a
b
/
c
d
Fig. 6. Mueller-Breslaus principle: Diagram c (shaded
area) gives the influence line for the horizontal
thrust H at the hinge 1.
The deflection 6 is considered positive if the
point 2 moves in a sense opposite to that of the
applied load.
a Original structure.
b Primary structure.
c Deformation of the primary structure due to
displacement A at 1 . The ordinates of the
hatchedarea represent the influence line for H.
d Deformation of the primary structure due to
a load P at 2 causing a deflection A at 1.
H=( 6/ A) . P
Strain, October, 1968
Two separate loading groups are now applied to
the primary structure and attention will be focussed
on the displacements at 1 and along an arbitrarily
chosen direction at an arbitrarily chosen point 2.
The primary structure is deformed by introducing
a small displacement A at 1 along the line of action
of the reactive force H and the structure takes up the
shape indicated by the broken line. (Fig. 6c). The
deflection at 2 is
6 = a21H
A = all H
and that at 1 is
giving
Remove the displacing force at 1 and let the primary
structure deform under a load P (Fig. 6d) applied at 2
causing a movement of equal magnitudein at 1. Then
equating the expressions for A weifind
so that with equation (8) and with a12= a21from (6)
A = a12P
all H = a12 P
H - a12 - a21 - 6
p - al l - -n
giving
(9)
6
n
H= - P
Since point 2 was arbitrarily chosen, it will be seen
that 6/A represent the shape and scale of the in-
fluence line for H due to a unit load P=l placed any-
where on the structure. Thus the hatched area in
Fig. 3c represents directly the influence line required.
This is the basis of Mueller-Breslaus principle
which may be stated as follows:-
For any linear elastic structure, if the restraint
corresponding to an internal or external force or
moment is removed and a corresponding trans-
lational or rotational displacement is introduced, the
deflected shape of the structure serves as an influence
line for the generalised force considered.
If the structure is statically determinate, it does not
have to be elastic for this principle to be valid.
Only the prescribed displacement A and the de-
formed shape of the structure are required; the
forces do not have to be measured. If the primary
structure is deformed by a prescribed displacement
acting in the assumed positive sense of the force under
page thirty-nine
consideration, the ordinates of the influence line will
be positive if they are movements opposite to the
sense of the applied loads.
If A and P are equal to unity, 6 represents the
magnitude as well as the shape of the influence line.
When Figs. 6 (c) and (d) are combined by the
principle of superposition, we return to the original
structure with a load P at 2. If the applied load is a
couple, then
(10)
where 0 is the rotation of the primary structure at the
point of application of M due to the displacement A.
Instead of measuring directly the component 6 of
the deflection along an arbitrary line of action it is
sometimes more: convenient to measure the components
with respect to rectangular co-ordinate axes.
8
n
H = - M
Nature of the cuts and displacements
The type of cut depends on the particular quantity
to be determined: for axial forces the cut must permit
relative movements along the longitudinal ax i s of a
member, for shear forces relative movements perpen-
dicular to the longitudinal axis, for bending moments
relative rotations about the point (a hinge), i.e., the
cut removes one restraint corresponding to the
quantity for which the influence line is required. The
induced displacement at the cut section must be such
that it only affects the work done by the quantity
under consideration. For example, when a hinge is
8 C
W
iiiuenck lines for internal reactive forces
a Original structure
b Influence line for the axial force at 1:
F = ( 6 / A) P
Influence line for the shear force at 1:
S=( 6/ A) P
d Influence line for the bending moment at 1 :
M = (6/ a)P
inserted and the primary structure deformed to find
the influence line for bending moment, there must be
no relative axial or shear displacements affecting the
net work done by the axial and shear forces acting on
the section. There may be actual movements provided
the work done by the equal and opposite forces is
algebraically zero.
The three possible types of displacements used in
planar frameworks are shown in Fig. 7. These are
used to find the influence lines for the internal reactive
forces. For external reactive forces the displacements
depend on the nature of the support. Fig. 8 shows the
displacements appropriate to a clamped edge. If the
supports provide elastic restraint they can contribute
to the total work done when a displacement is intro-
duced, and some examples are indicated in Fig. 9.
5. Influence Lines f or Deformations
In this method it is not necessary to introduce a cut
to form a primary structure: the deformations are
Strain, October, 1968
M a
H
b c d
Fig. 8. Types of displacement required to obtain the
influence lines for external reactive forces at a
clamped support.
a Member with clamped support and with ex-
ternal reactive forces exerted by the support
on the member
b Displacement leading to influence line for H
c Displacement leading t o influence line for V
d Displacement leading to influence line for M
.
Fig. 10. Influence lines for the deformations
a Original structure
d Deformation of the original structure due to
a unit load applied at an arbitrary position 2
c Influence line for the vertical dejection at 1
d Influence line for a clockwise rotation at 1
measured on the original (model) structure under a
known load acting at the point where the in&ence
characteristics are required.
Consider the simple structure shown in Fig. 10a. It
is required to find the influence lines for the vertical
deflections and the planar rotation at the point 1 as a
unit load crosses the span. Apply a unit load P at an
arbitrary position 2: the deformed shape is shown in
r &i d prop
1
C
H
d' +&'I
Fig. 9. Dixerent displacements for rigid and elastic
supports
2 I
a
"Strain", October, 1968
page forty-one
Fig. lob. Remove P and apply a unit vertical load V
at 1 in the assumed positive direction of the deflection
at 1 (Fig. 1Oc).
From the reciprocal theorem
a12 = a21
and the deformed shape (Fig. 1Oc) of the original
structure is the influence line for the vertical deflection
at 1 and represents the magnitude of the deflection
directly if V = 1. If V #1 then the ordinate at the
arbitrary position 2 is
and it will be necessary to know V before a12 can be
determined to give
similarly in Fig. 10d:
gives the influence line for the planar rotation at 1.
If the model is deformed in the assumed positive
direction of the deformation required, the ordinate of
the influence line will be positive if it has the same sense
as the applied load. I t will be observed that this is the
reverse of the sign convention used in the influence
lines for forces.
To be continued
6 = al2V
a12 = 6lV (1 1)
a12= 6/M (12)
COURSES IN STRAIN MEASURE-
MENT AND ALLIED TOPICS
The following courses are being held at the South
Birmingham Technical College in association with the
Midlands Branch of the B.S.S.M.
Short Courses
1969
18th Feb.-l8th March Basic Strain Measurement
( 5 Tuesdays)
21st-25th April ,, , 9 ,
30th Apr.4th May Three-Dimensional Photo-
Courses of 10 Monday evening lectures
7th Oct.-9th Dec. Fatigue
13th Jan.-l7th March Measurement Techniques
elasticity.
and their application to
Control
Full details and application forms for any of the
above courses can be obtained on request from E. J .
Hearn, Senior Lecturer Mech.Eng. Dept., South
Birmingham Technical College, Bristol Road South,
Birmingham 3 1.
Strain, October, 1968 page forty-two
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