Bacteria were first seen by a Dutch lens maker, Antony Von
Leeuwenhoek (1683) who named them animalcules. Louis Pasteur (182295) made a detailed study of bacteria and proposed germ theory of disease. Ehrenberg (1829) was the first to use the term bacterium. Lister (1827 12) introduced antiseptic surgery. 3.1 Bacteria Robert Koch first of all cultured bacteria.They are cosmopoliton. The features which contribute to their universal distribution are Extremely simple structure. Small size and consequent large surfacetovolume ratio. Resistance of vegetative cells to adverse environmental factors. Formation of highly resistant endospores. Diversity in their modes of nutrition. The bacteria are unicellular organisms lacking true nucleus and typical plastids. The plant characteristics of bacteria are Presence of a definite and rigid cell wall. The tendency of some to grow as filaments. The ability of autotrophic bacteria to synthesize organic food. Size and form : They are 3 to 5 microns (1 = 1/1000 millimetre or about 1/25,000 inch) in length. A few species of bacteria are approximately 15 in diameter. [Smallest Dialister pneumosintes; Largest Epulopiscium fishelsonii (0.3 mm. long)] Shape : Bacteria possess the following forms Cocci : They are oval or spherical in shape. They are called micrococcus when occur singly as in Micrococcus, diplococcus when found in pairs as in Diplococcus pneumoniae, tetracoccus in fours, streptococcus when found in chains as in Streptococcus lactis, staphylococcus when occurring in grapelike clusters as in Staphylococcus aureus and sarcinae, when found in cubical packets of 8 or 64 as in Sarcina. Bacilli : They are rodshaped bacteria with or without flagella. When they are found in pairs is said to be diplobacillus, when they are found in chain streptobacillus. e.g.,Baccilus anthracis. Vibrios : These are small and comma like e.g., Vibrio cholerae. Spirillum : They are coiledlike a cork -screw, eg., Spirillum. Flagellation : One or more flagella, 5 4 size, arise from basal granule, no 9 + 2 pattern following cell types Atrichous : When the flagellum is absent it is called atrichous. Eg. Pasturella. Monotrichous : Only one flagellum is found at one end. Eg. Vibrio. Lophotrichous : A tuft of flagella is present at both the opposite ends. Eg. Spirillum serpense. Cephalotrichous : A tuft of flagella is present only at one end. e.g., Pseudomonas fluorescens. Peritrichous : A number of flagella are present all over the body. eg. E. coli Archaebacteria : Also called living fossils, most primitive group of bacteria, methanogenic (CH 4
producing), halophilic (salt lover) and thermoacidophilic (in hot sulphur spring). Gram positive and gram negative bacteria : A scientist named Gram, stained the bacteria with crystal violet and iodine solution. On washing them with acetone or alcohol, Gram positive bacteria retained deep violet or purple but Gram negative were decolourised. Gram negative bacteria are stained by safranin or carbol fushcine. Differences between gram +ve and gram ve bacteria Gram positive bacteria Gram negative bacteria (A) Cell wall is 100200 thick, homogeneous
(B) Mesosome present (C) Cell wall contains only traces of lipids. Teichoic acids present (D) Mostly non-pathogenic (E) More amount of peptidoglycon (60-80%) (A) Cell wall is comparatively thin, i.e., 70120 , Multilayered (B) Mesosomes are absent (C) Contains upto 20% lipids, contain LPS (Lipopoly saccharides), Teichoic acid absent (D) Mostly pathogenic (E) Less amount (10-20%)
Structure Cell wall : All bacterial cells are covered by a strong rigid cell wall. The cell wall is formed of peptidoglycans or mucopeptide or murein. In it NAG & NAM are joined by shortpeptide chains. NAG & NAM are sugar derivatives. Capsule : A slimy capsule is present outside the cell wall, composed of polysaccharides and amino acids. Plasma membrane : Contains oxidative or respiratory chain enzymes, sterols absent. Mesosomes in Gram positive bacteria the plasma membrane is invaginated into whorls of convoluted membranes called mesosomes. These contain oxidative enzymes of electrons transport system. Mesosomes help in respiration and is site for DNA replication & cell wall formation (called mitochondria of bacteria). Cytoplasm : There is no mitochondrion, chloroplast and endoplasmic reticulum is present in the bacterial cell. The bacterial cytoplasm contains granules of glycogen and polyhydroxy butyric acid volutin granules etc. Certain photosynthetic bacteria have bacterio-chlorophyll associated with chromatophores. Cytoplasm contains 70S ribosomes. Nuclear material : The nuclear material is known as nucleoid or genophore which comprises of just one circular molecule of DNA. Flagella : These are fine, threadlike, protoplasmic appendages help the bacteria to swim and is divided into three parts (1) A basal granule, (2) A hook, and (3) A main filament. The basal granule lies inner to the cell membrane, where it can rotate made up of flagellin protein. Structure of bacterial flagellum : The flagellum is composed entirely of flagellin, a protein, composed of globular subunits arranged in helices of various kinds. The diameter of each subunit is about 4050 . These subunits are arranged around a hollow axis. A flagellum is usually 4-5 long and 120 185 in diameter. Pili or fimbriae : Some gram-negative bacteria possess fine hairlike outgrowths from the surface made of pilin protein and are called pili or fimbriae. These are meant for attachment. During conjugation one or two special pili (sex pili) from the male cell, form bridges to the female cell. DNA is transferred from male bacterium to female bacterium along the groove of pili. Episomes : Some extranuclear DNA (plasmid) material remain integrated or free state e.g. f- factor (fertility factor) R-factor (resistance factor). Asexual reproduction Binary fission : Common method of asexual reproduction. In binary fission the bacterium cell divides to form two identical sister cells. During this process, the single circular chromosome duplicates itself. Under ideal conditions, bacterial cell divides every 2030 minutes. By endospore formation : When environmental conditions become adverse, Gram +ve rod shaped bacteria belonging to two genera Bacillus and Clostridium produce resting spores called endospores with an impermeable coat around the chromosome and small part of the protoplam. It is metabolically inert and can survive unsuitable conditions of temperature pH and drought. By conidia : These are found in filamentous bacteria like Actinomycetes. The conidia are spore like structures. Sexual reproduction Transformation : In this process one kind of bacterium is transformed into another kind. It takes place by transferring DNA from one bacterium to another bacterium. It was first reported by Griffith (1928). Avery, Mc-leod and Mc Carti perform a detailed study of transformation in Diplococcus pneumoniae. Transduction : In this process DNA of a bacterial cell is transferred into another bacterial cell through bacteriophage. Transduction was first reported by Zinder and Lederberg in 1952 in E-coli. Conjugation : In this process genetic material from one strain of bacterium which is known as male is transferred into another strain of bacterium which is known as female. The progenies of the recipient express some of the characteristics of the donor. Lederburg and Tatum discovered conjugation in bacteria. The bacterium which shows genetic recombination after conjugation is called Merozygote Bacterial life styles : Aerobic e.g., Azotobactor, Mycobacteria and nonpathogenic Micrococci. Anaerobic e.g., Clostridium and nonspore forming rodshaped bacteria. On the basis of mode of nutrition, bacteria show three types of life styles : (1) Photoautotrophic Bacteria : Mostly anaerobic, use sunlight, not split water, split hydrogen sulphide, thiosulphate, hydrogen or some other organic compound and oxygen is not evolved as a byproduct, possess a pigment bacteriochlorophyll. This is known as anoxygenic photosynthesis. Eg. Green sulphur and purple sulphur bacteria. They can perform photosynthesis in far-red light e.g. chromatium, rhodospirillum. (2) Chemoautotrophic bacteria : These bacteria oxidise a number of inorganic compounds to obtain energy for the assimilation of carbon dioxide. Some examples of chemosynthetic bacteria are given below (a) Sulphur bacteria : They oxidise hydrogen e.g. Thiobacillum thioparus. (b) Iron bacteria : They oxidise ferrous compounds to ferric forms as Thiobacillus ferrioxidans (c) Hydrogen bacteria : They oxidise hydrogen to water. (d) Nitrifying bacteria : They oxidise ammonia to nitrites and then into nitrates. e.g., Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter. (3) Heterotrophic bacteria : They may be freeliving, saprophytic, symbiotic or parasitic. They require at least one organic compound as source of carbon for their growth. They may be aerobic, anaerobic or facultative aerobic or anaerobic. e.g, Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhosa, Treponema pallidum, Rhizobium, Clostridium titani (causing tetanus or lock jaw), Clostridium botulinum (causing food poisoning), Lactic acid bacteria, Lactobacillus, ferment lactose sugar of milk to lactic acid. Bacterial diseases Name of bacteria Name of disease caused by bacteria 1. Diplococcus pneumoniae 2. Clostridium tetani 3. Clostridium botulinum 4. Mycobacterium tuberculosis 5. Neisseria meningitides 6. Hemophilous pertusis (Bordetella pertusis) 7. Vibrio comma 8. Pasteurella pestis (Yersinia pestis) 9. Treponema pallidum 10. Agrobacterium tumefaciens 11. Xanthomonas citri Pneumonia Tetanus or lockjaw Food poisoning Tuberculosis Meningitis Whooping cough Asiatic cholera Plague Synphilis Crown gall Canker or Citrus
S. A. Waksmann discovered Streptomycin (Antibiotic for tuberculosis) and got noble prize. Spirochaetes : Spiral organisms, parasites in animals and cause diseases. The venereal disease syphilis is caused by the Spirochaete, Treponema pallidum. They are free inhabitants and chemoheterotrophic. Economic importance of bacteria : (1) Useful activities : (a) Decay of organic wastes : Many saprotrophic bacteria act as natural scavengers by continuously removing the harmful organic wastes. (b) Sewage disposal : The common bacteria involved in sewage disposal are E.Coli, Streptococci, Clostridium, etc. (c) Role in 2 N cycle : Conversions of atmospheric elemental nitrogen to usable forms i.e. nitrates and ammonia. (d) Role in 2 N fixation : e.g., Azotobacter (aerobic), clostridium (anaerobic). (e) Role in industry : Lactic acid formation e.g., Lactobacillus bulgaris, curd e.g. Lactobacillus bulgaris and Strepticocus thermophillus. Cheese, Butter, Vinegar. Retting of fibres, Curing of tobacco, Tanning of leather, etc. can be performed by bacteria. (f) Medicinal use : In obtaining the vaccines, vitamines, enzymes and antibiotics. (2) Harmful activities (a) Food poisoning : Botulism is caused by Clostridium botulinum. (b) Water pollution : Cholera, typhoid, jaundice, etc. spread through contaminated water. 3.2 Mycoplasma Discovered by Nocard and Roux (1898), first isolated from bovine sheep suffering from pleuropneumonia, and often designated as pleuropneumonialike organisms (PPLO). These are the simplest known aerobic prokaryotes without a cell wall, considered to be intermediate between bacteria and viruses, can grow out side the host cell. Structure : Their size varies from 0.1 0.15 m. They lack the cell wall and readily change their shape; This nature is called pleomorphism. Mycoplama cells are covered with three layered plasma memberane. Unit membrane is made up of lipo protein. The genetic material is present in the form of a nucleoid (ds circular DNA). Cholesterol is most compulsary for growth of mycoplasma. Mycoplasmas are Gramnegative. They are also called jokers of plant kingdom or joker of microbiology due to pleomorphic nature. They form fried egg shaped colonies. Physiology and reproduction : Mycoplasmas are usually nonmotile. There are sensitive to tetracycline. They are resistent to penicillin. Some of them are saprotrophs, but most of them are parasitic. Mycoplasma reproduces by elementary cell bodies also called baby particle. It is a kind of vegetative reproduction. Economic importance : Mycoplasma cause serious diseases in human beings, animals and plants. Mycoplamsa hominis causes pleuropneumonia, inflammation of genitals and endocarditis, M. hominis cause infertility in man. Mycoplasma mycoides causes pneumonia in cattle, bunchy top of papaya, witches broom of legumes, yellow dwarf of tobacco, little leaf of brinjal, maize stunt, aster yellows.