Structure

External nares nasal cavity internal nares

Nasal septum divides nose into two sides
Nasal conchae covered by mucous membrane
Functions
Warm, humidify, filter/trap dust and microbes
Detect olfactory stimuli
Modify vocal sounds

Known as the throat
Structure
Funnel-shaped tube from internal nares to larynx
3 parts
Three regions
Upper: nasopharynx; posterior to nose
Adenoids and openings of auditory (Eustachian) tubes
Middle: oropharynx; posterior to mouth
Palatine and lingual tonsils are here
Lower: laryngeal pharynx
Connects with both esophagus and larynx: food and air
Voice box
Made largely of cartilage
Thyroid cartilage: V-shaped
Adam's apple: projects more anteriorly in males
Vocal cords strung here
Epiglottis: leaf-shaped piece; covers airway
During swallowing, larynx moves up so epiglottis
covers opening into trachea
Cricoid cartilage: inferior most portion

Mucous membrane of larynx forms two pairs
of folds
Upper = false vocal cords
Lower = true vocal cords
Contain elastic ligaments
When muscles pull elastic ligaments tight, vocal cords
vibrate sounds in upper airways
Pitch adjusted by tension of true vocal cords
Lower pitch of male voice
Vocal cords longer and thicker; vibrate more
slowly

Windpipe
Location
Anterior to esophagus and thoracic vertebrae
Extends from end of larynx to primary bronchi
Structure
Lined with pseudostratified ciliated mucous
membrane: traps and moves dust upward
C-shaped rings of cartilage support trachea, keep
lumen open during exhalation


Structure of bronchial tree
Bronchi contain cartilage rings
Primary bronchi enter the lungs medially
In lungs, branching secondary bronchi
One for each lobe of lung: 3 in right, 2 in left
Tertiary bronchi terminal bronchioles
These smaller airways
Have less cartilage, more smooth muscle. In
asthma, these airways can close.
Can be bronchodilated by sympathetic nerves,
epinephrine, or related medications.
Two lungs: left and right
Right lung has 3 lobes
Left lung has 2 lobes and cardiac notch
Lungs surrounded by pleural membrane
Parietal pleura attached to diaphragm and
lining thoracic wall
Visceral pleura attached to lungs
Pleural cavity with little fluid between pleurae
Broad bottom of lungs = base; pointy top = apex
Divided into lobules fed by tertiary bronchi
Further divisions terminal bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles
Lined with non-ciliated epithelium
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs
Surrounded by alveoli

Cup-shaped out pouchings of alveolar sacs
Alveoli: composed of three types of cells
Lined with thin alveolar cells (simple squamous);
sites of gas exchange
Scattered surfactant-secreting cells. Surfactant:
Lowers surface tension (keeps alveoli from collapsing)
Humidifies (keeps alveoli from drying out)
Alveolar macrophages: cleaners
Respiratory membrane: alveoli + capillary
Gases diffuse across these thin epithelial layers:
air blood

Air flows: atmosphere lungs due to
difference in pressure related to lung volume
Lung volume changes due to respiratory muscles
Inhalation: diaphragm + external intercostals
Diaphragm contracts (moves downward) lung
volume
Exhalation is normally passive process due to
muscle relaxation
Diaphragm relaxes and rises lung volume
External intercostals relax lung volume
Active exhalation: exhale forcefully
Example: playing wind instrument
Uses additional muscles: internal intercostals,
abdominal muscles

Spirometry process of measuring volumes
of air that move into and out of the
respiratory system

Spirometer


Four pulmonary volumes:
Tidal volume (TV): volume of air inspired or expired
with each breath (NV = 500 mL)

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) : amount of air that
can be inspired forcefully after inspiration of the
resting tidal volume (NV = about 3000 mL)

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) : amount of air that
can be expired forcefully after expiration of the
resting tidal volume (NV = about 1100 mL)

Four pulmonary volumes:
Residual volume (RV) : volume of air still
remaining in the respiratory passages and lungs
after a maximum expiration (NV = about 1200 mL)

Pulmonary capacity - sum of two or more
pulmonary volumes
Functional residual capacity : ERV + RV
Inspiratory capacity : TV + IRV
Vital capacity : IRV + TV + ERV
Total lung capacity : IRV + ERV + RV + TV
: VC + RV
Minute ventilation : total amount of air moved
into and out of the respiratory system each
minute
MV = RR x TV