Problem 2.

1
Use the MATLAB program of Example 2.3.3 to study the effects of changing engine parameters
on its torque generation performance.
a) Find the effect of a 10% reduction of piston and connecting rod masses on the engine torque.
b) Find the effect of reducing the connecting rod length by 10%.
c) Find the effect of reducing the connecting rod inertia by 10%.



Solution:
The solution is straightforward. Inside the program listing, just change the numerical
values and run the program.
a) Reducing the piston mass by 10% gives m
P
=387 g. The average engine torque will
not change and remain at 37.81 Nm. The same result is obtained for the connecting
rod mass with m
C
=396 g. Also it can be observed that for even larger changes, the
average engine torque does not change.
The maximum engine torque, however, increases 1.5% from 493.2 to 500.2 Nm
when reducing the piston mass by 10%. It increases by 0.6% when reducing the
connecting rod mass by 10%.
b) Reducing the connecting rod length by 10% gives l=126 mm. The average engine
torque will increase to 38.35 Nm, namely by 1.5%. The increase of maximum torque
for this case is more than 2%.
c) Reducing the connecting rod inertia by 10% gives I
C
=0.00135 kgm
2
. The average
engine torque will remain unchanged for this change. The maximum torque in this
case is 492.2 Nm, i.e. 0.2% decrease.
It is, therefore, concluded that the connecting rod length is the only influential factor
on the average engine torque.
It should also be noted that the average engine speed was assumed to remain at the
same value of 3000 rpm. In other words, the effect of engine speed itself was not
studied.
Problem 2.2
Use the data of Problem 2.1 to study the effects of changing the engine parameters on the engine
bearing loads.

Solution:
The engine bearing loads include the main bearing and the crank pin bearing loads.
The latter was already included in the program. To include the former, the following
statements should be included at the end of the program listings:
% Main bearing force
mB=lA*mC/l;
FICW=mB*R*omeg^2; % The inertia force of the counterweight is considered to balance that of mB
for i=1: 361
thetai=theta(i)*pi/180;
FBx=Bx(i)+FICW*cos(thetai);
FBy=By(i)+FICW*sin(thetai);
FB(i)=sqrt(FBx^2+FBy^2);
end
figure
plot(theta, FB/1000)
xlabel('Crank angle (deg)')
ylabel(Main bearing force (kN))
The overall crank-pin bearing force also is:
B=sqrt(Bx.^2+By.^2);
Now the variation of bearing forces can be studied. To this end it is useful to disable
all plot statements other than for the bearing forces.
a) Reducing the piston mass by 10% changes the average and maximum of the main
bearing force F
B
from 4.510 and 14.971 kN to 4.410 and 15.207 kN (1.5% reduction
and 1.6% increase respectively). The average and maximum of the crank-pin bearing
force B changes from 4.224 and 14.524 kN to 4.155 and 14.760 kN (2% reduction
and 1.6% increase respectively). A 10% reduction in the connecting rod mass
reduces the averages of main bearing and crank-pin forces by 3.3% and 2.5%, while
increasing the maximum of the same forces by 1% and 1.3% respectively.
b) Reducing the connecting rod length by 10% changes the averages of the main
bearing and the crank-pin bearing forces to 4.538 and 4.276 kN (i.e. 0.6% and 1.2%),
and at the same time reduces the maximum of the forces to 14.897 and 14.497 kN
(i.e. 0.5% and 0.2% each).
c) Reducing the connecting rod inertia by 10% results in the average and maximum
of the main bearing force of 4.496 and 14.969 kN (i.e. -0.3% and -0.01%). The
average and maximum of the crank-pin bearing force become 4.210 and 14.521 kN
respectively (i.e. -0.3% and 0.02%).
Therefore, the important parameters are the connecting rod mass and then the piston
mass. The connecting rod inertia has little effect on the bearing loads.
Problem 2.3
Derive expressions for the gudgeon-pin and crank-pin bearing forces A and B of the simplified
model according to the directions of Figure 2.32.
Results: | tan
y x
A A = ,
P A P P y
a m m F A ) ( + = ,
x x
A B = and
y y
A B = .


Solution:
According to the FBD shown in Figure S2.3 (a), one simply writes:
W x
F A =
P A P P y
a m m F A ) ( + =
Recalling that in the simplified model the forces at A and B are in the direction of the
link AB, then:
| tan
y x
A A =
and from Figure S2.3 (b),
x x
A B = and
y y
A B =
The resultant forces are
| cos
) (
2 2 P A P P
y x
a m m F
A A
+ +
= + = = B A
The results show that only information on the geometry, the pressure force (F
P
) and
the piston acceleration (a
P
) are needed to obtain the bearing forces.

Figure S2.3 Free body diagrams for the simplified mode

Problem 2.4
For the engine of Example 2.3.3 compare the gudgeon-pin and crank-pin resultant forces of the
exact and simplified engine models at 3000 rpm.
Hint: To find the gudgeon-pin forces of the exact model use Equations 2.80, 81, 84 and 85.
A
x
A
y
F
P
F
W
F
IP
|
A
B
A
y
A
x
B
x
B
y
(a)
(b)
A

Solution:
The crank-pin forces were calculated in Example 2.3.3 for the exact model. Those of
the simplified model are B
x
and B
y
of Problem 2.3. The gudgeon-pin forces of the
exact model from Equations 2.80, 2.81 and 2.85 are:
x Ix x
B F A = ,
P IP y
F F A =
where B
x
is given in Equation 2.84. The gudgeon-pin forces of the simplified model
are A
x
and A
y
of Problem 2.3. The following simple MATLAB program can be used
to evaluate the bearing forces.
for i=1: 361
beta=asin(Rl*sin(theta(i)*pi/180));
Bx(i)=(-FIP(i)-Fp(i)+lB*FIy(i)/l)*tan(beta)-lA*FIx(i)/l-TIG(i)/l/cos(beta);
Ay_s(i)=-FPt(i);
Ax_s(i)=-Ay_s(i)*tan(beta);
end

By=Fp+FIP-FIy;
Ay_e=-FIP-Fp;
Ax_e=-Bx-FIx;
Bx_s=-Ax_s;
By_s=-Ay_s;
A_s=sqrt(Ax_s.^2+Ay_s.^2);
A_e=sqrt(Ax_e.^2+Ay_e.^2);
B_s=sqrt(Bx_s.^2+By_s.^2);
B_e=sqrt(Bx.^2+By.^2);

The results are shown in Figures S2.4a and S2.4b.

Figure S2.4a

Figure S2.4b
Problem 2.5
Show that for the exact engine model the average of term T
e
-F
W
h during one complete cycle
vanishes.
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
Crank angle (deg)
C
r
a
n
k
-
p
i
n

b
e
a
r
i
n
g

f
o
r
c
e
s

(
N
)


Exact
Simplified
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
Crank angle (deg)
G
u
d
g
e
o
n
-
p
i
n

b
e
a
r
i
n
g

f
o
r
c
e
s

(
N
)


Exact
Simplified


Figure S2.5 The variation of T
e
-F
W
h term with crank angle
Problem 2.6
Construct the firing map for a three cylinder in-line engine with cranks at 0-120-240 degrees.
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
Crank angle (deg)
T
o
r
q
u
e

t
e
r
m

(
N
m
)
Solution:
The term T
e
-F
W
h for the simplified model is always zero (Equation 2.103). For the
exact model, however, from Equation 2.90 it is:
IC IG A Iy A Ix W e
T T l F l h F h F T = | | sin ) cos (
A closed form solution that deals with the integration of the above equation over the
complete cycle, is quite complicated. Within the MATLAB program, however, the
torque term can be determined easily as shown in Figure S2.5 for one complete
cycle. It is clear that the average of the function is zero.


Figure S2.6 Firing order chart for Problem 2.6
Problem 2.7
Construct the firing map for a 4 cylinder 60 V engine with cranks at 0-0-60-60 degrees.
1
2
3
1
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

s
t
a
t
e

o
f

s
t
r
o
k
e
s

Exhaust
C
r
a
n
k

l
a
y
o
u
t

Stroke order
Firing order
0
120
240
180 180 180
Exhaust Intake
2
1
2
3
3
Compression
Exhaust Intake Compression
Compression
Intake
240
180
120
60
240
Solution:
The solution is very similar to that of in-line six cylinder engine of Figure 2.55. The
difference is due to exchange of orders of the cylinders 2 and 3. The result for the 1-
2-3 firing order is depicted in Figure S2.6. A 1-3-2 firing order is also possible by
changing the stroke orders of cylinders 2 and 3.


1
3 2
4
60
1
2
3
4
Solution:
The solution is simple when the cylinder configuration of the engine is known.
Figure S2.7a shows how the cylinders are arranged. According to this configuration,
cylinders 1 and 4 are both at TDC while the two others are at BDC. Thus this engine
works exactly as a 4-cylinder in-line engine works. One possibility is to consider the
cylinder 2 at compression when the cylinder 1 is at ignition. This results in 1-2-4-3
firing order as depicted in Figure S2.7b. A 1-3-4-2 firing order is also possible by
changing the stroke orders of cylinders 2 and 3.
Figure S2.7a

Figure S2.7b Firing order chart for Problem 2.7
Problem 2.8
Construct the firing map for a 6 cylinder in-line engine with cranks at 0-240-120-0-240-120
degrees.
1
2
3
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

s
t
a
t
e

o
f

s
t
r
o
k
e
s

Exhaust
C
r
a
n
k

l
a
y
o
u
t

Stroke order
Firing order
0
60
180 180 180
1, 2
3, 4
Compression
Exhaust Intake Compression
Intake
180
Exhaust Intake Compression
1 2 4 3
4
Exhaust Intake Compression

Solution:
Comparing this layout with that of Figure 2.55 reveals that only the conditions of
cylinders 4 and 6 are changed. Therefore, the construction of the firing map is quite
similar to that of Figure 2.55. The result is shown in Figure S2.8.


1
2
3
4
1 4 3 2
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

s
t
a
t
e

o
f

s
t
r
o
k
e
s

Exhaust
Exhaust
Exhaust
Exhaust
Intake
Intake
Intake
Intake
Compression
Compression
Compression
Compression
C
r
a
n
k

l
a
y
o
u
t

Stroke order
Firing order
0
180
180
0
180 180 180 180
Solution:
a) From the discussions of Section 2.4.1 for the firing order of an in-line 4 cylinder
engine with crank layout of 0-180-180-0, it may be recalled that two firing orders of
1-3-4-2 and 1-2-4-3 are possible. For the firing order of 1-4-3-2, therefore, the crank
layout must be different. The obvious difference between 1-4-3-2 and 1-3-4-2 firing
orders is the exchange of cylinders 3 and 4. For this reason the 0-180-180-0
configuration can be changed to 0-180-0-180. The firing map for this layout is
shown in Figure S2.9.
b) According to Equation 2.115, the crank angles u
i
are u
1
, u
2
=u
1
-t, u
3
=u
1
-2t and
u
4
=u
1
-3t. The state angle
Si
A shows the state of a cylinder relative to that of cylinder
1 that is at ignition. According to the firing diagram of Figure S2.9, cylinders 2 to 4
are at exhaust, intake and compression respectively. Thus the state angles are
0
1
= A
S
, t = A
2 S
, t 2
3
= A
S
and t 3
4
= A
S
for cylinders 1-4.
Figure S2.9 Firing map for Problem 2.9
Problem 2.10
Compare the torque outputs of an inline four cylinder, four stroke engine at two firing orders of
1-3-4-2 and 1-2-4-3 using the information of Example 2.4.3.

Problem 2.11
Use the information of Example 2.4.3 to plot the variation of the torque of the three cylinder
engine of Problem 2.6 and calculate the flywheel inertia.
Solution:
The solution for 1-3-4-2 firing order was performed in Example 2.4.3 with
MATLAB program listing of Figure 2.60. In order to solve for the 1-2-4-3 firing
order, only the state angles must be changed. These are 0
1
= A
S
, t 3
2
= A
S
, t = A
3 S
and t 2
4
= A
S
for cylinders 1-4. The only change in the program is:
DF=[0 3*pi pi 2*pi]; % State angle of cylinders
The result for the torque output of engine as would be expected, will be exactly
similar to Figure 2.61 belonging to 1-3-4-2 firing order.



0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
First cylinder crank angle (deg)
T
o
t
a
l

e
n
g
i
n
e

t
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)

(
N
m
)

A
1
=-6
A
2
=130
A
3
=-120
A
4
=2
A
5
=-12
A
6
=130
Solution:
The solution is quite similar to Problem 2.10 as the same MATLAB program can be
used. The changes in the program are 1) number of cylinders and 2) state angle
inputs. The state angles for this engine must be obtained according to Figure S2.6.
The state of cylinder 2 is 60 degrees before the compression state, or 120 degrees
after the intake state. This means
3
8
3
2
2
3
3
2
t
t t
t
t = + = = A
S
. The state of
cylinder 3 similarly is
3
4
3
2
2
3
t
t t = = A
S
. Therefore in the MATALB program:
DF=[0 8*pi/3 4*pi/3]; % State angle of cylinders
The result for this engine is shown in Figure S2.11.
In order to calculate the flywheel inertia, the areas under the engine torque curve
must be measured. This is a difficult process and only approximate values are
obtained here as shown in Table S2.11. It is concluded that u
min
and u
Max
(see
Section 2.3.4) occur before and after each large positive area. Therefore the area A
*

equals (see Equation 2.114) 124 - (- 6) =130 (Joule) and for a fluctuation index of
0.02, the flywheel inertia can be calculated from Equation 2.113:
2
2
07 . 0
) 30 / 3000 ( 02 . 0
130
kgm I
e
=

=
t

Figure S2.11 Torque variation of the 3-cylider engine of Problem 3.11
Table S2.11 Areas under the engine torque curve of Problem 2.11
Item 1 2 3 4 5 6
A
i
(Joule) -6 130 -120 2 -12 130
EA (Joule) -6 124 4 6 -6 124
min EA A
min
A
min

Max EA

A
Max
A
Max


Problem 2.12
Compare the variation of the torque of the 4 cylinder V engine of Problem 2.7 with an in-line
layout. Use the information of Example 2.3.3.

Problem 2.13
Plot the variations of engine power losses with altitude and temperature changes for Example
2.8.2 in SI units.
Solution:
According to the solution of Problem 2.7, the firing map of the V engine is exactly
similar to that of the in-line engine (see Figure S2.7). Therefore, the torque
variations of the both engines are similar. Also, based on the result of Problem 2.10,
the torque variations are the same as that for a 1-3-4-2 firing order given in Figure
2.61.


Figure S2.13a Engine power loss with altitude
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Power loss (%)
A
l
t
i
t
u
d
e

(
m
)
Solution:
The first part can be obtained from available program listing by simply removing
*3.2808 term from the plot statement. The result is shown in Figure S2.13a.
The second part of solution can be obtained by using the following simple program:
T=T0: 0.2: 323.16; % Up to 50 deg C
cft=sqrt(T0)./T.^0.5;
p_loss=100*(1-cft);

figure
plot(T-273.16, p_loss)
grid
xlabel('Temperature (C)')
ylabel('Power loss (%)')

The result is depicted in Figure S2.13b.

Figure S2.13b Engine power loss with temperature increase
Problem 2.14
The variation of gas pressure of a single cylinder 4 stroke engine during 2 complete revolutions
in speed of 2000 rpm is simplified to the form shown in Figure p.2.14. Other engine parameters
are given in Table p.2.14.


Figure p.2.14 Cylinder pressure
Table p.2.14 Engine parameters
Parameter value
Cylinder diameter 10 cm
Crank radius 10 cm
Connecting rod cent-cent 25 cm
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Temperature (C)
P
o
w
e
r

l
o
s
s

(
%
)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0 1 2 3 4
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
M
p
a
)

Engine revolution (x)
Con rod CG to crank axis 7 cm
Con rod mass 1.0 kg
Piston mass 1.0 kg
Use the simplified engine model and,
a) Find the equivalent mass m
A
for the connecting rod.
b) Calculate the inertia force F
IP
in terms of crank angle and engine speed.
c) Write an equation for the total vertical force F
By
acting at point A.
d) Plot the variation of F
By
and F
W
versus crank angle.
e) Plot the variation of torque versus crank angle.
f) Find the average engine torque and compare it with the quasi-steady torque resulting from
average pressure during combustion phase.
g) Determine the mean effective pressure for the engine.

Solution:
a) According to Equation 2.96:
kg m
l
l
m
B
A
28 . 0 1
25
7
= = =
b) From Equation 2.102 for F
IP
and Equations 2.42 and 2.50 for the piston
acceleration:
2 2
) 2 cos 4 . 0 (cos 128 . 0 ) 2 cos (cos ) (
e e A P IP
R
l
R
m m F e u u e u u + = + + =
c) According to Equation 2.105:
IP P By
F F F =
where F
P
is the pressure force P.A
P
. Therefore:
2 3
) 2 cos 4 . 0 (cos 128 . 0 ) ( 10 85 . 7 ) (
e IP P By
P F A P F e u u u u + = =


d) At 2000 rpm P(u) is given in Figure P2.14 and F
By
can be determined at each
crank angle u. F
W
according to Equation 2.92 is also dependent on F
By
:
| tan
By W
F F =
in which | is given by Equation 2.48:
( ) u | sin 4 . 0 sin
1
=
The pressure distribution can be divided into 4 zones:

s <
s <
s <
s < +
=
t u t
t
u
t u t
t u
t
t
u
t
u
t
u
4 3 ; ) 3 ( 10 1
3 ; 0
4
; ) 1 ( 10 4
4
0 ; ) 8 1 ( 10 1
6
6
6
P

Solution (continued):
F
By
therefore can be written as:

s < + +
s < +
s < +
s < + +
=
t u t u u u
t u t u u
t u
t
u u u
t
u u u u
4 3 ; ) 2 cos 4 . 0 (cos 5615 2500 23562
3 ; ) 2 cos 4 . 0 (cos 5615
4
; ) 2 cos 4 . 0 (cos 5615 10000 31416
4
0 ; ) 2 cos 4 . 0 (cos 5615 20000 7854
By
F
Similarly the equations for the variations of F
W
can be written. The variations of F
By

and F
Bx
(F
W
) with crank angle are plotted in Figure S2.14a.
e) Based on Equation 2.103, the engine torque simply is h F T
W e
= . However, h has a
complicated relation with u . From Equation 2.109:
( ) | | u u sin 4 . 0 sin cos 25 . 0 cos 1 . 0
1
+ = h
Therefore:
( ) | | { } ( ) | | u u u sin 4 . 0 sin tan sin 4 . 0 sin cos 25 . 0 cos 1 . 0
1 1
+ =
By e
F T
And the variation of torque with the crank angle will be that shown if Figure S2.14b.
f) The average torque is 181 Nm. The average pressure during the combustion phase
is:
8
13
8
13
= = t
t
av
P MPa
The torque resulting from the average torque can be obtained by replacing p
bme
with
P
av
in Equation 2.124:
av
e
av
P
s
V
T
t
=
in which
3 3 3
0024 . 0 10 ) 250 100 ( 10 854 . 7 ) ( m l R A V
P e
= + = + =


Nm P
s
V
T
av
e
av
305 10
8
13
4
0024 . 0
6
= = =
t t


Solution (continued):
F
By
therefore can be written as:

s < + +
s < +
s < +
s < + +
=
t u t u u u
t u t u u
t u
t
u u u
t
u u u u
4 3 ; ) 2 cos 4 . 0 (cos 5615 2500 23562
3 ; ) 2 cos 4 . 0 (cos 5615
4
; ) 2 cos 4 . 0 (cos 5615 10000 31416
4
0 ; ) 2 cos 4 . 0 (cos 5615 20000 7854
By
F
Similarly the equations for the variations of F
W
can be written. The variations of F
By

and F
Bx
(F
W
) with crank angle are plotted in Figure S2.14a.
e) Based on Equation 2.103, the engine torque simply is h F T
W e
= . However, h has a
complicated relation with u . From Equation 2.109:
( ) | | u u sin 4 . 0 sin cos 25 . 0 cos 1 . 0
1
+ = h
Therefore:
( ) | | { } ( ) | | u u u sin 4 . 0 sin tan sin 4 . 0 sin cos 25 . 0 cos 1 . 0
1 1
+ =
By e
F T
And the variation of torque with the crank angle will be that shown if Figure S2.14b.
f) The average torque is 181 Nm. The average pressure during the combustion phase
is:
8
13
8
13
= = t
t
av
P MPa
The torque resulting from the average torque can be obtained by replacing p
bme
with
P
av
in Equation 2.124:
av
e
av
P
s
V
T
t
=
in which
3 3 3
0024 . 0 10 ) 250 100 ( 10 854 . 7 ) ( m l R A V
P e
= + = + =


Nm P
s
V
T
av
e
av
305 10
8
13
4
0024 . 0
6
= = =
t t



Figure S2.14a Piston forces
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
4
Crank angle (deg)
P
i
s
t
o
n

f
o
r
c
e
s

(
N
)


FBy
FBx
Solution (continued):
g) The mean effective pressure according to Equation 2.124 is:
MPa T
V
s
p
av
e
bme
965 . 0 181
0024 . 0
4
= = =
t t


Figure S2.14b Engine Torque
Problem 2.15
The torque-angle relation for a four cylinder engine at an idle speed of 1000 rpm is of the form:
) ( 2 cos
0 0
u u + + =
a
T T T
a) Find the area A
*
of torque fluctuations relative to the average engine torque.
b) Show that the value of necessary flywheel inertia can be written as
a
kT I = .
c) For a value of 2% permissible speed fluctuations, evaluate k.
Results: (a) T
a
, (c) 0.0046
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
-700
0
700
1400
2100
Crank angle (deg)
E
n
g
i
n
e

t
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)


Figure S2.15 Engine torque shape
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
T
0

E
n
g
i
n
e

t
o
r
q
u
e


First cylinder crank angle (t)
t/2
t/2
A
*

u
m

u
M

Solution:
a) The engine torque curve is depicted in Figure S2.15. Each of the equal areas in the
figure relative to the average torque T
0
is the area A
*
that is:
} }
+ = =
M
m
M
m
d T d T T A
a
u
u
u
u
u u u u ) ( 2 cos ) (
0 0
*

u
m
and u
M
are the points at which T=T
0
, that is:
0 ) ( 2 cos
0
= +u u
with solutions: ... ,
4
3 ,
4
0
t t
u u = +
Considering
0
4
3 u
t
u =
m
and
0
4
5 u
t
u =
M
, the result of integrating for A
*
is:
a a
T d T A = + =
}

0
0
4
5
4
3
0
*
) ( 2 cos
u
t
u
t
u u u
b) According to Equation 2.113 the flywheel inertia is:
a
av F av F
e
T
i i
A
I
2 2
*
1
e e
= =
which is in the form of
a
kT I = .
c) k simply is:
0046 . 0
)
30
1000 ( 02 . 0
1 1
2
2
=

= =
t
e
av F
i
k

Figure S2.15 Engine torque shape
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
T
0

E
n
g
i
n
e

t
o
r
q
u
e


First cylinder crank angle (t)
t/2
t/2
A
*

u
m

u
M